Revolutions and rebellions in Afghanistan: anthropological perspectives
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CONTENTS Foreword to Revolutions and Rebellions in Afghanistan: Anthropological Perspectives, 2022 Edition / M. Nazif Shahrani and Robert L. Canfield ix Preface / Robert L. Canfield xv Acknowledgments xvii Note on Transliteration xix Notes on Contributors xxi PART I: INTRODUCTION 1. Introduction: Marxist “Revolution” and Islamic Resistance in Afghanistan / M. NazifShahrani 3 2. The Marxist Regimes and the Soviet Presence in Afghanistan: An Ages-Old Culture Responds to Late Twentieth-Century Aggression / Louis Dupree 58 PART II: NURISTAN AND EASTERN AFGHANISTAN 4. Responses to Central Authority in Nuristan: The Case of the Väygal Valley Kalasha / David J. Katz 94 5. The Rebellion in Darra-i Nur / R. Lincoln Keiser 119 PART III: QATAGHAN AND BADAKHSHAN 6. Causes and Context of Responses to the Saur Revolution in Badakhshan / M. Nazif Shahrani 139 7. Weak Links on a Rusty Chain: Structural Weaknesses in Afghanistan’s Provincial Government Administration / Thomas J. Barfield 170 8. Effects of the Saur Revolution in the Nahrin Area of Northern Afghanistan / Hugh Beattie 184
Contents PART iv: BAMYAN AND TÜRKISTAN 9. Islamic Coalitions in Bamyan: A Problem in Translating Afghan Political Culture / Robert L. Canfield 211 10. Ethnicity and Class: Dimensions of Intergroup Conflict in North-Central Afghanistan / Richard Tapper 230 PART V: WESTERN AND SOUTHERN AFGHANISTAN 11. Sheikhanzai Nomads and the Afghan State: A Study of Indigenous Authority and Foreign Rule / Bahram Tavakolian 249 12. How Afghans Define Themselves in Relation to Islam / Jon IF. Anderson 266 PART vi: THE SAUR REVOLUTION AND THE AFGHAN WOMAN 13. Causes and Consequences of the Abolition of Brideprice in Afghanistan / Nancy Lindisfarne-Tapper 291 14. Revolutionary Rhetoric and Afghan Women / Nancy Hatch Dupree 306 Glossary 341 Bibliography 353 Index 375
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Bibliography Irons, William. 1974. “Nomadism as a Political Adaptation: The Case of the Yomut Turkmen.” American Ethnologist 1, 4: 635-58. Jamiat-i Islami Afghanistan (JIA). 1981. Inqilabi Islami Afghanistan 5, 10 (8 Sep tember). Tehran: JIA Central Office. . N.D.a. Fishurada-i ahdaf wa Marami Jamiat-i Islami Afghanistan (Summary of aims and goals of JIA). Peshawar: JIA. In Persian. N.D.b. Munasibat-i Afghanistan wa Rusiya wa Jinayati Rus dar Afghanistan (Relations between Afghanistan and Russia and the Russian atrocities in Afghanistan). Peshawar: JIA. In Persian. -_ N.D.c. De Marxism pu Bara Kushy Dersh Poshtany (Thirty ques tions about Marxism). Peshawar: JIA. In Pashto. _ N.D.d. Chi Naw' Mubariza (What kind of a campaign). Peshawar: JIA. In Persian and Pashto. N.D.e. Az Haqiqat ta Iftira (From truth to slander). Peshawar: JIA. In Persian. N.D.f. A Brief Biography of Professor Burhanuddin Rabbani, the Revolutionary Leader of Jamiat-i Islami Afghanistan. Peshawar: Political Com mittee of JIA. • 1359-60 A.H. “Remembrance of Prof. Ghulam Muhammad Niyazi, Founder of the Islamic Movement in Afghanistan.” Mithaqi Khun 1-5. Jarring, G. 1939. “On the Distribution of Turk Tribes in Afghanistan.” Lunds Universitets Arsshrift N. V., Avd. I, BD35, no. 4. Jettmar, Karl. 1961. “Ethnological Research in Dardistan 1958.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 105, 1: 79-97. _ _ _, ed., in collaboration with Lennart Edelberg. 1974. Cultures of the Hindukush: Selected Papers from the Hindu-Kush Cultural Conference Held at Moesgàrd 1970. Beiträge zur
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Bibliography Kamrany, Nake M. 1969. Peaceful Competition in Afghanistan: American and Soviet Models for Economic Aid. Washington, D.C.: Communication Service Corporation. Karmal, Babrak. 1982. In Kabul New Times, 25 February. Kasatkin, Dmitri. 1980. “Protecting the Gains of the April Revolution.” Asia and Africa Today 3: 15-18. Kazemi, Farhad, and Abrahamian, Ervand. 1978. “The Nonrevolutionary Peasant ry of Modern Iran.” Iranian Studies 9: 259-304. Keddie, Nikki, ed. 1962. Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institu tions since 1500. Berkeley: University of California Press. Keiser, R. Lincoln. 1971. “Social Structure and Social Control in Two Afghan Mountain Societies.” Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Rochester. . 1981. “The Relevancy of Structural Principles in the Study of Polit ical Organization: A Case Against Optimization Theory.” Anthropos 76. Kemali, M.H. 1976. “Matrimonial Problems of Islamic Law in Contemporary Afghanistan.” Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of London. Khalfin, Naftula. 1981. “The Struggle of the Peoples of Afghanistan for Inde pendence and against the British Colonialists.” In Editors of Social Sciences Today, pp. 99-129. Khalid, D. 1980. “Afghanistan’s Struggle for National Liberation.” Internation ales Asienforum 11,3-4: 197-228. Khalili, Khalilullah. 1980. ‘Ayari az Khurasan: Amir Habibullah, Khadim-i Din-i Rasul Allah. Peshawar: Jamiat-i Islami Afghanistan. Khalilzad, Zalmay. 1980. The Return of the Great Game. Santa Monica, Ca.: California Seminar on International Security and Foreign Policy
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Bibliography Kushkaki, В. 1923. Rahnuma-i Qataghan Wa Badakhshan (Guide to Qataghan and Badakhshan). Kabul: Ministry of Defense. In Persian. Lambton, A. 1969. The Persian Land Reform 1962-1966. Oxford: Oxford Uni versity Press. Levy, Bernard Henry. 1982. From Le Matin, 14 September 1981. In Bain, ed., pp. 92-99. Lewis, John W. 1974. Peasant Rebellions and Communist Revolutions in Asia. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Lockwood, William G., ed. Forthcoming. Ethnicity and Economic Development: East and West. Mair, L. 1971. Marriage. New York: Pica. Male, Beverly. 1982. Revolutionary Afghanistan. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Manzar, A.M. 1980. Red Clouds over Afghanistan. Islamabad: Institute for Policy Studies. Mayer, A. C. 1967. “Pir and Murshid: An Aspect of Religious Leadership in West Pakistan.” Middle Eastern Studies 3, 2: 160-69. McCagg, William O., Jr., and Silver, Brian, eds. 1979. Soviet Asian Ethnic Fron tiers. New York: Pergamon Press. McClelland, David C. 1970. “The Two Faces of Power. ” fournal of International Affairs 23, 1: 29-47. Medvedev, Roy. 1980. “The Afghan Crisis.” New Left Review 121: 91-96. MERIP. Middle East Research and Information Project. MIC. See Afghanistan, Ministry of Information and Culture. Middle Eastern Economic Digest (London). Various issues. Miliband, R., and Saville, J., eds. 1965. The Socialist Register. London: Merlin. Military Reports on Afghanistan (Pt. 1—History). 1941. Simla: General Staff of India. Miller, Norman, and Aya, Roderick, eds. 1971. National Liberation: Revolution in the Third World. New York: Free Press. Miner,
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Bibliography Moore, Barrington, Jr. 1966. Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy : Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World. Boston: Beacon Press. Mukherjee, Sadhan. 1981. What Is Happening in Afghanistan. New Delhi: Com munist Party of India. Publication no. 9, July (C353). Muradov, Ghulam. 1981. “The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan: Second Stage of the April Revolution.” In Editors of Social Sciences Today ,pp. 17899. Naby, Eden. 1980. “The Ethnic Factor in Soviet-Afghan Relations.” Asian Survey 20, 3: 237-56. National Islamic Front of Afghanistan. N.D. (ca. 1980). Manifesto. Peshawar. Nayar, Kuldip. 1981. Report on Afghanistan. New Delhi: Allied Publishing. Newell, Nancy P., and Newell, Richard S. 1981. The Struggle for Afghanistan. Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press. Newell, Richard S. 1972. The Politics of Afghanistan. Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell Uni versity Press. . 1979. “Revolution and Revolt in Afghanistan.” World Today (November): 432-42. 1980. “Islam and the Struggle for Afghan National Liberation.” In Pullapilly, ed. New World Review. Various issues. Olesen, Asta. 1982. “Marriage Norms and Practices in a Rural Community in Northern Afghanistan.” Folk 24: 111-41. Ovesen, Jan. 1981. “The Continuity of Pashai Society.” Folk 23. 1982. “The Construction of Ethnic Identities: The Nuristani and the Pashai, Eastern Afghanistan.” Paper presented at the Symposium on Identity—Personal and Socio-Cultural, Uppsala, August 1982. Pakistan Times (Rawalpindi/Lahore). Various issues. Paul, Jim. 1980. “The Khalq Failed to Comprehend the Contradictions of the
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Bibliography Poulton, R. et al. 1973. “Services for Children within Regional Development.” Report submitted to government of Afghanistan and UNICEF by Compagnie d’Etude Industrielle et d’Amenagement du Territoire (CIN AM), Kabul Pullapilly, Cyriak K., ed. 1980. Islam in the Contemporary World. Notre Dame, Ind.: Cross Roads Books. Rabbani, Burhanuddin. 1976 (1366 A.H.). Faji ‘a-i 26 Saratan wa Sima-i Za'amati Daoud Khan (The atrocious event of 26 Saratan [17 July 1973] and the appearance of Daoud’s leadership). Originally published by Independence Movement of Iran Outside the Country and recently by Jamiat-i Islami Af ghanistan. In Persian. . N.D.a. Daoud Khan dar Guzashta-i Nangin, Haziri Jinayatbar Wa Mustaqbali Hawulnak (Daoud Khan’s shameful past, criminal present, and dreadful future). Peshawar: Jamiat-i Islami. In Persian. . N.D.b. Islam wa Kamunizm (Islam and communism). Peshawar: Jamiat-i Islami. In Persian. Rahman, Fath-ur, and Qureshi, A. 1981. Afghans Meet Soviet Challenge. Pesha war: Institute of Regional Studies, no. 1. Rahman, Fazlur. 1966. Islam. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Rasul, Sayyid. 1980 (1359 A.H.). Isti‘mar-i Balshawik wa Asiya-i Markazi (Bol shevik colonialism and Central Asia). Peshawar: Jamiat-i Islami Afghanistan. Ratibzad, Anahita. 1980. Interview in Soviet Woman, no. 5 (February): 2-3. Ratnam, Perala. 1981. Afghanistan’s Uncertain Future. New Delhi: Tulsi Pub lishing. Reshtia, Seyed Qassem. 1984. “The National United Front.” Afghanistan Forum Newsletter 12, 1: 2. Summary of paper presented at International Conference on Afghan
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Bibliography Valenta, Jiri. 1980. “The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: The Difficulty in Knowing Where to Stop.” Orbis 24, 2: 201-18. van den Berghe, Pierre L. 1975. "Ethnicity and Class in Highland Peru.” In Despres, ed. Verduin, Leonard. 1964. The Reformers and Their Step Children. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker. 1976. The Anatomy of a Hybrid: A Study of Church /State Rela tionships. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans. Victor, Jean-Christophe. 1983. La Cite des murmures. Paris: Editions Jean-Claude Lattes. Vogel, Heinrich, ed. 1980. Die Sowjetische Intervention in Afghanistan. BadenBaden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft. Volkov, Y., Gevorkyan, К., Mikhailenko, M., Polonsky, A., and Svetozarov, A., comps. 1980. The Truth about Afghanistan: Documents, Facts and Eye witness Reports. Moscow: Novosti Press. von Nieuwenhuijze, C.A.O., ed. 1977. Commoners, Climbers and Notables. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Wallerstein, I. 1974. The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century. New York: Academic Press. Watt, W. Montgomery. 1968. Islamic Political Thought: The Basic Concepts. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Weinbaum, M. 1980. “Legal Elites in Afghan Society.” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 12: 39-57. Whitten, N. E., and Wolfe, A. W. 1973. “Network Analysis.” In Honigmann, ed. Wiegandt, Winfried F. 1980. Afghanistan: Nicht aus Heiterem Himmel. Zurich: Orell Fussli Verlag. Wilber, D. 1962. Afghanistan: Its People, Its Society, Its Culture. New Haven: Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) Press. Wilbur, D.N. 1955. “The
Structure and Position of Islam in Afghanistan.” Af ghanistan 10: 7-14. Wolf, Eric. 1969. Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century. New York: Harper Torch Books. Woodsmall, Helen. 1960. Women and the New East. Washington, D.C.: Middle East Institute. Yapp, Malcolm E. 1962. “Disturbances in Afghanistan, 1839-42.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 25: 499-523. . 1963. “Disturbances in Western Afghanistan, 1839-41.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 26: 288-313. 371
Bibliography . 1964. “The Revolutions of 1841-2 in Afghanistan.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 27: 333-81. el-Zein, A.H.M. 1974. The Sacred Meadows: A Structural Analysis of Religious Symbolism in an East African Town. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press. Zekrya, Mir-Ahmad B. 1976. “Planning and Development in Afghanistan: A Case of Maximum Foreign Aid and Minimum Growth.” Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University. ADDENDUM: MUJAHIDIN PUBLICATIONS Al Jamiat. Weekly newspaper published in Peshawar by Jamiat-i Islami Afghani stan (JIA). In Urdu. Al Mawqif. Journal published in Peshawar by Hizb-i Islami. In Arabic. Al Sobh. Weekly newspaper published in Wiesbaden, Germany, by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian and Pashto. Al Sobh. Journal published in Wiesbaden, Germany, by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian and Pashto. Bisharat. Weekly newspaper published in Baghlan province by JIA. De Islam Zhagh. Daily newspaper published in Quetta, Baluchistan, by JIA be ginning 30 November 1980. Primarily in Pashto for southwestern Afghanistan. De Shahid Ziyray. Monthly journal published in Peshawar by JIA since 1981. In Persian and Pashto. Inqilab-i Islami Afghanistan. Weekly newspaper published in Tehran by JIA since 1979. In Persian. Itihadi Islami. Newspaper published in Peshawar by Professor Sayyaf, who headed a coalition which dissolved a few months after its formation in 1980. In Per sian and Pashto. Jabha-i Milli Nijat Afghanistan. Newspaper published in Peshawar by a group of the same name led by Sibghatullah Mujadidi. Khahar-i Musulman. Journal published
in Peshawar by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian and Pashto. Khahar-i Shahid. Newspaper published in Kabul by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian and Pashto. Mirror of Jehad. Bimonthly journal published in Peshawar by JIA since January 1982. In English. Mithaqi Khun. Monthly journal published in Peshawar by JIA since 1980. In Persian and Pashto. 372
Bibliography Mujahid. Weekly and daily newspaper published in Peshawar by JIA since 1978. In Persian and Pashto. Pay ami Mujahid. Newspaper published in Panjsher by JIA. In Persian. Rah-i Haq. Weekly newspaper published in Tehran by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian. Sada-i Nuristan. Newspaper published by Nuristani mujahidin. In Persian and Pashto. Sangar and Nida-i Jihad. Weekly newspapers published in Parwan province by JIA. In Persian and Pashto. Saut al-Jihad. Monthly/bimonthly journal published in Peshawar by JIA since 1981. In Arabic. Shafaq and Sima-i Shahid. Journals published by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian and Pashto. Shahadat. Daily and weekly newspaper published in Peshawar by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian and Pashto. Wahdat. Journal published in Wiesbaden, Germany, by Hizb-i Islami. In Turkish. NOTE-. Since early 1982, in accordance with the charter of the Islamic Unity of Afghan Mujahidin (IUAM), a coalition of seven Islamic revolutionary groups formed during the summer of 1981, all publications of its mem ber organizations in Peshawar have been discontinued. In 1981 the IUAM launched a new series of publications expressing the collective views of the coalition. Thus far the following have come to the editors’ attention: Afghan Mujahid. Journal and weekly newspaper published in London. In English. Al-Nafirul ‘am. Monthly/bimonthly journal published in Peshawar. In Arabic. Hijrat. Journal published in Peshawar. In Urdu. The Jihad Rays. Monthly/bimonthly journal published in Peshawar since 1982. In English. Qiyami Haq. Bimonthly journal published in Peshawar. In Persian and
Pashto. Shahid Paygham. Bimonthly journal published in Peshawar. In Pashto and some Persian. Wahdati Islami. Daily newspaper published in Peshawar. In Persian and Pashto. The alliance of the three traditionalist resistance groups also has its own publications. Thus far the editors are aware of the following: Itihadi Islami. Newspaper published in Peshawar. In Persian and Pashto. 373
INDEX Absarinas, 186,197 Abu Bakr, 150 Adi, Ghazi, 313 Afandi, 33n Afghan. See Pashtun Afghan Demographic Studies, 145n, 146 Afghanistan National Fatherland Front, 49 Afghan Millat, 43, 45 Afshar, Nadir, 313 Afzal, Shirin, 326 Aga Khan, 150, 216, 220, 221n Agency for International Development (AID), 155 Agha, 51 Aghajan, 259, 260, 261 Agriculture: in Badakhshan, 145-47; in Darra-i Nur, 127-30; forms of land tenure, 13n; Khalq-Parcham reform policies for, 15-22, 192-95; relation ship to political structures, 127-30; in Türkistan, 237; in Vaygal Valley, 95-96. See also Decree No. 8; Land holdings and ownership; Land re forms; Nomads; Subsistence Ahmad, Sayyid. See Meer Wauez Ahmadzai (Pashtun tribe), 236, 270 AID. See Agency for International De velopment Akala, 100 Akhundzadah, 276, 278, 279, 282 Alam Khan, Mir, 139n Alaqadar, 86, 123, 162, 253 Alaqadari, 77, 92, 108 Al-Azhar University, 47, 157, 158 Ali, 220n Ali, Gen. Muhammad, 147n ‘Alim. See ‘Ulama Alizai (Pashtun tribe), 236 Amana Fidawi School, 317-18 Amanullah, Amir: abdication of, 204; and jihad, 32-33, 34-41; land ap propriations of, 22n, 173; modern ization reforms of, 32-33, 34, 59n, 63, 165, 176-78, 185, 190, 193, 196-97, 294, 307;PDPA similarities to, 183, 185,199,200, 201n, 205-8; relations with Ghilzai, 270-71; and role of Islam in government, 32-33, 34, 213, 266, 269, 308; taxation policies of, 177 American University of Beirut, 155 Amin, Hafizullah: attempts to establish solidarity, 326; and coup against Daoud, 62, 119; death of, 327; and Khalq-Parcham power struggles, 44, 60, 62, 316-17, 325;
opposition to Muslim factions, 64; Pashtun chauvinism of, 122, 156; relation ship with Mansur Hashimi, 155-56; scapegoat for revolutionary failures, 11-12, 24, 328 Amin, Muhammad, 87 Amir, 91, 158. See also Amanullah, Amir; Habibullah, Amir; Mir', Rah man, ‘Abdur Amu Darya (Oxus River), 95,143,148, 151, 161, 167, 171 Amulets, 151, 261 Anahita. See Ratibzad, Dr. Anahita Andar (Pashtun tribe), 269 Andarab, 124, 198 Andkhoy, 233 Anwar, Muhammad, 86-93 passim, 122n April Revolution. See Saur Revolu tion Aqcha, 233, 236, 242 Aqsaqal. See Rish safed Arab (ethnic group), 171-74, 181, 233, 235, 237-40, 242, 303-4 Arabi (sheep), 234 Arabs (of Arabia), 274 Arbab, 23, 34,148-49,173-75,195-98, 203. See also Bay; Malik 375
Index Ariza nawis, 199 Balkhi, Rabia, 313 Army: and conquest of Kafiristan Baluch, 6, 236, 237, 243, 246 (Nuristan), 98; Khalq-Parcham com Baluchistan, 273 bat in Badakhshan, 160-63; Khalq- Bamyan, 13n, 211-29, 232, 337n Parcham combat in Darra-i Nur, Baqi, ‘Abdul, 91 120-22; Khalq-Parcham combat in Barakat, 151 Nahrin, 204-5; Khalq-Parcham com Barakzai (Pashtun tribe), 236 bat in Nuristan, 89-91, 335; Khalq- Barikot, 90 Parcham conscription policies, 125; Baruti (non-Pashtun tribe), 236 literacy training for, 331; military Baryalay, Mahmud, 64 skills in Darra-iNur, 133;Musahiban “Basic Lines . of the DRA," 12,312, modernization of, 34-35, 176-77, 330 178-79; prospects for advancement Basir, ‘Abdul, 162 in 1960s, 37; responses to Khalq, Basmachi, 26n, 143, 204, 226n 170, 182,333 Bay, 173-75, 244 Asadabad. See Chagha Saray Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali, 157n Ashkhasi namdar, 34 Bilchiragh, 232 Ashkhasi sarshinas, 34 Bismillah, 267 Ashrar, 160 Bolshevik, 143 Ataturk, 176 Bragimatal, 77, 106 Atsakzai (Pashtun tribe), 236 Bribery. See Corruption and bribery Avghan. See Pashtun Brideprice. See Mahr Awakened Youth, 35-36 Bukhara, 143, 232 Awghan, See Pashtun Bureaucracy, 34-36, 59, 148, 153-54, Aymaq. See Chahar Aymaq 160. See also Government; Govern Azan, 147 ment officials; Teachers Aziza, Dr., 326 Burqa Valley, 185 Buzkashi, 198, 201, 243, 337 Babrak. See Karmal, Babrak Baburi (non-Pashtun tribe), 236 Central Asia, 50, 65, 70-71, 143, 204, 226n, 327. See also Basmachi-, Türk Bacha-i Saqaw, 8, 164, 19 6, 204, 242, 308 istan Badakhshan, 13n, 22, 53, 68, 139-69, Central Committee
(PDPA), 315 251, 304 Chagha Saray, 87, 88, 98, 103 Badakhshan, 158 Chahar Aymaq, 186, 233, 234, 238-43 Badakhshi, Tahir, 154, 156-57, 160, passim, 253, 261, 303 165 Chandak. See Tsunuk Badghis, 68, 250, 253 Chapu, 89 Badi, 244, 300 Charikar, 202 Badzgil, 90 China. See People’s Republic of China Baghlan, 9, 157, 185-86, 189, 190, Chindawul, 222 199-200, 204 Chiqin, 148 Baharak (Badakhshan), 145, 153, 157, Chitral (Pakistan), 89, 143 160, 166 Christianity, 22 7n, 294 Bajaur, 87 Class, 230-46; and “class interests,” Bakhtyari (non-Pashtun tribe), 236 11, 165, 180-81; and inequality, 38, Balkh, 68, 242 40; and marriage reforms, 305;and 376
Index peasants, 21; and Saur Revolution, 169n, 204, 321 Clergy. See Mawlawi; Mullah; ‘Ulama Commandant, 102, 123, 202n. See also Police Communications and transportation: in Badakhshan, 141-43; in Darra-iNur, 121, 127-28; in development plans of 1950s, 36-37; effects on revolu tion of, 88-89, 121, 162; lack of, 10; in northwest Afghanistan, 256; in Nuristan, 88-89, 100, 103, 108; in southern Afghanistan, 272 Communists. See Marxists Conscription (military): in Badakhshan, 149; and bribery, 200; in Darra-i Nur, 124, 125; exemptions from, 9, 36, 177, 271; in Imam Sahib, 174, 175; in Nahrin, 197; among Sheikhanzai, 252, 257, 262; in Vaygal Valley, 100, 105 Corruption and bribery: under Ama nullah, 32; among arbabs, 175, 203; in Badakhshan, 149-50, 153; in Darra-i Nur, 123-24, 125, 127, 132; in Imam Sahib, 173, 174; and jihad, 28; Khalq-Parcham policies against, 22-23, 195-200 passim, 203, 313; mujahidin policies against, 55, 115; under Musahibans, 35, 36, 38; in Nuristan, 79; among religious func tionaries, 280; during Republic of Afghanistan, 59, 63; among Sheikhanzai, 260, 262; in Vaygal Valley, 102-8 passim Cotton, 17 In Coup d’état of 1973. See Daoud, Mu hammad; Republic of Afghanistan Coup d’etat of 1978. See Khalq; Saur Revolution Courts (judicial): cases involving women, 323, 326; community avoidance of, 174, 198-99, 203; corruption in, 153, 174; Khalq sec ularization of, 126, 133; and links with Islam, 31, 34, 126, 152, 271- 72, 275; and litigation procedures, 104; as perceived by Sheikhanzai, 252-53; significance of recourse to, 223-24; Special Court for Family
Affairs, 331. See also Qazi Credit. See Debts, loans, interest rates Cuba, 169 Cures (by religious dignitaries), 151 Czechoslovakia, 70 Da Islami Jahad da Para da Kunar da Qaumuno Ettihad. See Kunar Tribal Alliance for the Islamic Holy War Dala, 79 Daoud, Muhammad: anti-corruption campaigns of, 199-200;coup against (1978), 119; coup by (1973), 41, 58, 78, 80; and emancipation for women, 196, 295, 308-9, 315, 324; and foreign aid, 36;Khalqpropagan da against, 200-201; and leftist op position, 157; and literacy courses, 321n; and Muslim opposition, 41, 110, 159; and nomad opposition, 262-63; ouster of, 43; reform pro grams of, 65 ; relations with Kalasha, 108, 109, 111; and Republic of Afghanistan, 59-62, 100, 124, 175, 245. See also Republic of Afghani stan. Dari, 38, 65, 84, 92, 239, 313, 321 Darra-iNur, 52, 119-35, 224n Darwaz, 145, 153, 157, 167 Dastigir, Ghulam, 91 Dawa, 243 Day of Resurrection, 217 Debts, loans, interest rates, 12-14,147, 179, 187-88, 291, 293-96, 298-99, 301 Decree No. 6, 12, 14, 186-89. See also Debts, loans, interest rates; Mort gages; Peasants Decree No. 7, 14,15,189-91, 201, 291305, 322-26. See also Mahr; Women Decree No. 8, 12, 192-95. See also Land; Land reform 377
Index Democratic Organization of Afghan Economy, 13-25,36-37,142,177,180, Women (DOAW), 314-15, 317, 320, 199, 264, 309. See also Merchants; 329-30, 336-39 passim Taxes Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Education: and attitudes toward state, (DRA): and land redistribution, 18153-59; in Badakhshan, 142, 147, 20; and opposition, 66, 68-69, 249, 152, 153-59; and class structure, 263, 264; organization of, 62; pro 238; development of secular educa paganda of, 63, 313-14,329; reform tion, 34, 38; effects of foreign aid policies of, 12, 65, 264, 312, 316, on, 36-37; among Ghilzai, 272; and 322-26, 330, 338; repressions of, Khalq-Parcham policies, 23, 125, 63. See also Khalq; Taraki, Nur M. 316, 321, 338; and mujahidin pol Des, 95, 105 icies, 334-35; under Musahibans, Difa-i Inqilab, 161. See also Revolution 34-38; in Nuristan, 100, 108, 109; ary Defense Forces religious education, 143, 152, 220n; Dihqan, 238 among Sheikhanzai, 252, 262; for Din, 31, 276, 279, 281 women, 196, 307-8, 310, 313, 318, Diniy khaluk, 276, 279 331 Education, Ministry of, 160, 317, 327, Dirham, 292n, 323 Disputes: arising from DRA land re 330, 334 forms, 189; government involvement Egypt, 69n, 329 in, 103-6,252; informal abjudication Elite: Communist support of, 169n; of, 198-99; mitigated by traditional departure of old elite, 43; and eman local leaders, 51, 83-85, 127-31, cipation for women, 296, 305, 310, 150-53, 173-74, 259-60, 278, 285318; in government, 119, 124-25, 86; in pir networks, 223-24. See also 263; and interethnic conflicts, 53, Courts (judicial); Feuds 244; and jihad against Khalq-
Par DOAW. See Democratic Organization cham, 42, 44-45, 56, 141; Kalasha of Afghan Women ties to, 100; and Khalq-Parcham pol DRA. See Democratic Republic of Af icies, 63-64, 88; old vs. new, 22-23, ghanistan 238; responses to fundamentalists, Dukandar, 238 116; responses to Khalq-Parcham, Durand Line, 101 159-64, 165-66, 183; responses to Durrani (Pashtun tribe), 58, 225n, 235Musahibans, 178-79; support of 45 passim, 249-65, 269-70, 273, Amanullah, 32 298-305 Environment. See Ecology Durrani, Ahmad Shah, 263, 313 Ethnic groups: and class, 230-46; and Durrani, Aisha, 313 cultural responses to outsiders, 68, 71, 78, 262; and education, 38;gov Ecology, 128, 145, 232,237, 252, 256, ernment vs. tribal structures, 171, 262, 265 253, 262-63; and Khalq-Parcham Economic behavior. See Merchants; policies. 111, 181, 204, 207, 291; Nomads; Subsistence and marriage concepts, 295, 299, Economic development, 36, 37, 40, 302-4; in the military, 36; and 296, 308. See also Decree No. 6; modernization, 254; and religious Decree No. 7; Decree No. 8; Foreign authority, 213, 229, 260, 263, 265, aid; Reforms 266-87; and resistance movement, 378
Index Ghazi Khan, 90, 93 Ghazni, 9, 13n, 38, 68, 217 Ghilzai/Ghiljai (Pashtun tribe), 49, 50, 235, 236, 237, 238, 267, 268 Ghor, 13, 231, 232, 250 Ghori, Mastura, 313 Ghulam bacha, 147n Gilgit (Pakistan), 139n Girishk, 13n, 249 Government (Afghan national): and differential privileges, 8-9, 54; and Faculty of Women, Kabul University, 314 emancipation for women, 178, 190, Faizabad, 145,148,153-63 passim, 167 196, 294-95, 307-12, 315, 320-26; Family Code, 190 Khalq-Parcham policies of, 179-83, Faqir, 270, 279, 286 195-206,320-26;underMusahibans, Farah, 13n, 68, 249, 252 34-35, 176-79; provincial adminis Farming. See Economy; Subsistence tration before 1978, 170-76; rela Farsiwan, 6, 241, 243, 253, 261, 262, tionship with rural populations, 7-8, 302-4. See also Dari 68, 123-25, 236, 242; relationship Faryab, 231, 232, 236 with rural populations: Badakhshan, Fayz, 151 141-44,147-49,151-52; relationship Feudal chief. See Khan with rural populations: Nuristan, Feudal social formations, 10, 16, 202, 79, 94, 97-118; relationship with 325. See also Peasants; Tribes; Vil rural populations: Sheikhanzai no lage structures mads, 249-5 3, 25 7, 262-63; and Feuds, 66-68, 84, 87, 96-98, 131-33, resistance movement, 9-10, 121-23, 252, 300. See also Disputes 161, 163-65, 245-46, 264-65; and Fidawi, Amana, 313 role of Islam, 31, 34-35, 151-52, Firuzkuhi, 234, 260 212, 224-25, 268-72, 281, 285. See Fitwas, 33 also Amanullah, Amir, PDPA simi Flag, 200, 206, 207 larities to; Bureaucracy; Government Foreign aid, 36, 37, 39, 153, 177, 272 officials; Kabul “Foreign mullahs.” See Mullaha-i Far-
Government officials: corruption angi among, 38, 50, 79, 102, 105-6,123Freedom fighters. See Mujahidin 25, 262; and foreign aid, 37; and Fundamentalists, 27, 42, 47, 69, 91, Khalq-Parcham policies, 24, 43, 88, 110-16 passim, 296, 334 134, 161, 198-202; as oppressors of local populations, 22; in provincial “Fundamental Principles of the Dem administration, 102-3, 105-7, 123ocratic Republic of Afghanistan,” 25,172-75, 242; religious dignitaries 330,338 in role of, 271-72,281 Gailani, Sayyid Ahmad, 43, 45, 69 Great Britain: and Afghan indepen Gawardesh. See Wushtrot dence, 32; and Afghan women, Ghafur Khan, ‘Abdul, 236 335n; and Anglo-Afghan Wars, 57, Gharibkar, 238 71, 228, 268, 272, 313; as enemy of Khalq, 69n, 201; intrigues in G hayrat, 277 45, 47, 53, 89, 115-16, 120, 140, 162, 164, 264; structures/conflicts of in Badakhshan, 145; structures/ conflicts of in Nuristan, 82,96,100, 106,114. See also Tribes and specif ic tribal and ethnic groups. Europe, 51n, 59, 72, 122,16n. See also West Exploitation, 10, 197 379
Index Afghanistan, 31, 78, 201n; and role of Islam, 270, 274-75, 283-84 Guerrillas. See Resistance “Gujaristan,” 90 Gujars, 84, 86, 87, 89, 90, 186 Gul Muhammad, 89, 90 Gulran, 251, 252 Gurziwan, 232 Habibiyah High School, 156 Habibullah, Amir (1901-19), 190, 221, 252, 294, 306, 307 Habibullah Ghazi. See Bacha-i Saqaw Habiburrahman, Shahid, 40 Hadd, 276 Haji, 259 Hakim,99, 148, 150, 231 Hanafi (Islam), 258, 261, 285 Haqiqat-i Inqilabi Saur. 328 Harakat-i Inqilab-i Islami, 45 Hashimi, Mansur, 154-56, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 167 Hazaragi (Persian dialect), 239 Hazaragi (sheep), 234 Hazarah, 6, 185-86, 206n, 222, 233-43 passim, 261, 268, 284, 303 Hazarajat, 9, 53, 206, 234, 235, 240, 298 Hazrat, 51, 149 Hazrat of Shor Bazar, 33, 155, 220, 269. See also Pir; Ruhani; Sufi Headmen, 50, 51. See also Arbab; Khan; Malik Helmand Valley, 36 Herat, 9, 13n, 68, 206, 250 Herawi, Spina, 313 Hikmatyar, Gulbudin, 46, 91, 92, 157n Hizb-i Islami, 46, 66, 91, 92, 157n, 226n,335 Holy war. See Jihad Holy war fighters. See Mujahidin Honor, 67, 181, 191, 276, 299, 300301, 305, 307, 310, 323, 333-34 Hospitals. See Medical services Hotak, Mir Ways, 313 Hotaki (Pashtun tribe), 236 Hujwiri, 217 Hukumat, 13n, 99, 100 Hungary, 70 Ibrahim Beg, 204 Ibtidaiya, 153, 154 Id-i Qurban, 202, 258 Ikhwan al-Muslimin (Afghan Muslim Brethren). See Muslim Youth Ikhwan al-Muslimin (Egyptian Islamic Brotherhood), 158 Ilbegi, 173 Imam, 220, 22In Imami, 145, 216, 220, 221, 222. See also Shi‘a Imam Sahib Valley, 171-73, 180, 224n India, 235, 272 Indus Kohistan, 274 Indus Valley, 273 Infidel. See Kafir Infrastructure.
See Communications and transportation Inqilab, 58n Intelligentsia. See Elite Interest rates. See Debts, loans, interest rates Interior, Ministry of, 108, 326, 328 Intertribal conflict See Feuds Iqamat, 147 Iran, 69n, 70, 72, 194, 221, 250, 252, 255, 259, 265 Iraq, 221 Irrigation, 128 Ishan, 51, 149, 234. See also Pir Ishaqzai (Pashtun tribe), 235, 236, 244, 250, 252, 255, 298 Ishaqzai, Taju Khan, 252 Ishkashim, 146, 163 Ishkashimi (ethnic group in Badakh shan), 145 Islam: and acceptance of Khalq-Parcham, 167; and conept of jihad, 4, 28-33, 141; conversion of Nuristan to, 98, 99, 109; and fundamentalist activities vs. government, 101 ; under 380
Index “Fundamental Principles of DRA,” 330; and jihad vs. Amanullah, 3441; and marriage and family law, 296-97, 299, 306, 323; Marxist stance against, 111-12, 125-26,144, 181-82, 203, 206-7, 246; and re ligious authority, 258-63, 266-87; role in government of, 51-52, 86, 124, 178, 211-13, 292n; role in resistance movement of, 25-27, 42, 44-49, 54-5 7, 114-16, 140-41, 169, 225-27, 229; and role of JIA, 158, 164, 168; and role of women, 191, 196, 307-8, 329, 334; structures in Badakhshan of, 145, 149-53; as symbol of cultural identity, 249. See also Islamic coalitions; Islamic sects; Shari’a Islamic coalitions: as sociopolitical units, 52, 211, 214-15, 222-24, 22829; structures of, 215-22 Islamic sects, 162, 207, 240, 268. See also Imami; Isma’ili; Shi'a Sunni Islamic Union of Northern Provinces of Afghanistan, 53 Islamic Unity of Afghan Mujahidin, 48, 53,54,55, 56, 168n Isma'ili, 145, 147, 148, 150, 162-63, 167, 216, 219-23 Ismaydan, 236 Israel, 69n Istismar, 197 Itihadi Islami Baray Azadyi Afghani stan, 46 Itihadi Islami Mujahidini Afghanistan. See Islamic Unity of Afghan Muja hidin Jabha, 163 Jabha-i Milli Nijat, 45, 91, Jabha-i Nuristan, 92 Jadran (Pashtun tribe), 71 Jalalabad, 103, 127, 202 Jama’a, 280, 283 Jamhuriat-i Demokratik-i ganistan. See Khalq Jamiat-i Islami Afghanistan (JIA), 32, 46, 98, 115, 158, 161-68 passim Jamiat-i ‘ulama. See ‘Ulama Jamshidi, 253 Jat, 234 Jawanan-i Musulman. See Muslim Youth Jawzjan, 231, 232, 236, 298 Jest. See Wurjest JIA. See Jamiat-i Islami Afghanistan Jihadt against Amanullah, 34-41; in terpretations and misinterpretations of,
27-30, 284; in Marxist terminol ogy, 89, 321; in political culture of Afghanistan, 4, 30-33, 263; and religious dignitaries, 212, 278; in resistance movement, 5, 42-49, 52, 56-57, 141. See also Mujahidin; Re sistance Jilga Valley, 185 Jirgah. See Loya Jirgah Jirib, 17, 186, 192, 193, 195n Juggi, 234, 235 Jurm, 145, 153, 154, 155, 157, 162 Kabir, Muhammad, 87, 90, 92, 93 Kabul: Badakhshani students in, 154; Communist groups in, 163, 318; and differential privileges, 38n; emanci pation for women in, 196, 310, 313, 332, 336; Marxist demonstrations in, 201, 325, 332, 337; Marxist protection of elites in, 51, 169n; political opposition in, 9, 39, 45, 50, 66, 165, 178, 206n, 244; as seat of central government,103,172;and Second Anglo-Afghan War, 57. See also Government Kabul province, 13n Kabul University, 41, 47, 61, 108,154201 58 passim, 179, 314, 318, 322 Kachani, 234, 238 Kachan Valley, 234 Kafir(s), 49, 96, 116-17, 125-26, 144, 203, 257, 267, 278, 284 Khalq-i Af Kafiristan, 78, 96. See also Nuristan 381
Index Kakar, 236 Kalasha (of the Vaygal Valley), 49, 81, 94-118 Kamdesh. See Kombron Kamdesh district, 77, 87 Kamisar, 150 Kamu, 90 Kamyar, Ruhafza, 314 Kandahar, 206n, 214n, 313, 321, 333, 336 Kandahar province, 13n Kandahar riots (1959), 164, 178 Kapisa, 68 Karamat, 216, 217, 218, 219 Karimi, Ghulam Ali, 331 Karim Khan, Prince. See Aga Khan Karmal, Babrak: deposition of, 64, 316-17; under DRA, 62; as head of government, 327, 337n; and negoti ations for Khalq-Parcham coalition, 61; and reform policies, 10, 21, 205n, 330, 335, 336. See also Khalq-Parcham coalition; Parcham Kashghar, 143 Kashmund Qala, 120, 125 Kati, 77, 82, 89 Kayan, 222 Khalifah, 150, 219 Khalili, 302 Khalis, M. Yunus, 46, 47 Khalq: anti-Islamic stance of, 80, 88; evolution of, 39, 60; and factional struggles with Parcham, 44, 64,160, 184, 316-17; increased repressions of, 160, 161; opposition to Musahibans of, 40, 41; organization and membership composition of, 31820; Pashtun dominance of, 112, 156; propaganda campaigns of, 8990, 200-201, 318; reform policies of 186-99, 202, 207-8, 320-26; during Republic of Afghanistan, 41, 61; resistance to, 162, 168; responses to reform policies of, 203-5; and Saur Revolution, 77, 159, 170,184; similarities to Amanullah of, 186, 205-6; and Soviet invasion, 183, 332 Khalq Organization of Afghan Women (KOAW), 317, 318, 320, 321, 325, 326, 330. See also Democratic Orga nization of Afghan Women Khalq Organization of Afghan Youth (KOAY),318 Khalq-Parcham coalition: anti-Islamic stance of, 97-98, 111, 116; and dif ferential privileges, 9, 54; dissolu tion of, 64, 332;
factional struggles within, 44, 316; jihad against, 27, 42, 44, 52; organization and mem bership composition of, 41, 184, 318-20; Pashtun dominance of, 122; reforms of, 10-25, 179-83, 337-38; repressions of, 43-44; resistance to, 4-5, 49, 135, 139-40, 159, 164-67, 169; similarities to Amanullah of, 183; Soviet domination of, 50; support for, 43 Khan(s): and class structure, 238, 244; as feudal landlords, 10, 18, 87, 127, 133, 148, 236, 237; government repression of, 196-97; local opposi tion to, 50-51, 241-44;opposition to Amanullah of, 33, 34; and religious authority, 278, 281; in resistance movement, 5, 42, 122, 164. See also Mir Khan, Gengis, 233 Khanabad, 195 Khash Valley, 162, 163 Khawhan (Badakhshan), 145 Khaybar, Mir Akbar, 62 Khayrat, 258 Khayr Muhammad Khan, Haji, 236 Khel, 273 Khomeini, Ayatolla, 216, 22 In, 225 Khost, 206, 269, 275n Khost Rebellion, 176, 308 Khujah, 150, 234 Khutan, 143 Kinship: and class structures, 230; and group feuds, 67-68; and marriage, 382
Index 302-4; in pir networks, 216-18,221, 223-24; as political factor, 180-82; structures of in Badakhshan, 149; structures of in Darra-i Nur, 129-31; structures of inNuristan, 81-82,100; structures of among Sheikhanzai, 255-57, 261-62. See also Women Kirghiz, 6, 50, 144, 145, 160 Kishim (Badakhshan), 145, 153 Kishtmand, Sultan Ali, 156, 201 KOAW. See Khalq Organization of Af ghan Women KOAY. See Khalq Organization of Af ghan Y outh Kohistan. See Indus Kohistan Kohistanis (Gawars), 89 Kom (Nuristani tribe), 77-86,90, 93 Kombron (Kamdesh), 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 106 Ksto (Nuristani tribe), 77, 82 Ktivi, 82 Kukcha River, 161 Kunarhar province, 103n Kunar Tribal Alliance for the Islamic Holy War, 78, 92, 93 Kunar Valley, 68, 77, 86-93 passim, 96, 103, 116, 120-22, 196 Kuran, 162, 166 Kurani (ethnic group in Badakhshan), 145 Kuranumunjan, 146 Kust, 82 89, 192-95, 238, 291; size and distribution of, 18-20, 22, 127-29, 146, 193, 216, 251, 262, 298. See also Khan(s) Land reforms, 12, 13, 15-25, 161,181, 195n. See also Decree No. 8 Law, 275, 310. See also Shari'a Lawrence, T.E., 201n Leaders (local): government officials as, 105, 118, 123-25, 149, 173-74; and religious authority, 211, 213, 255-60, 272, 273; and resistance movement, 45-46, 78, 86-92, 113, 116, 120-22, 141, 164, 168; tradi tional elite as alternative power structure, 34-35, 39, 43, 50-52, 8286, 122, 127-33, 148, 171, 196-97, 244, 291. See also Arbab; Bay, Fundamentalists; Khan(s); Malik; Mir; Miyan; Mullah(s); Pir; Sheikh Legitimacy of government. See State legitimacy Lenin, V.I., 144, 320 Literacy, 12, 23, 320, 321,
334 Loans. See Debts, loans, interest rates Logar, 9, 46 Loyajirgah, 33, 59, 68, 183 Loy wuluswali, 103 Madrasah, 47, 143, 147, 150, 152, 157 Mahak, Dilara, 317, 326 Mahaz-i Milli Islami, 45, 335 Mahr: consequences of reforms among Laborers, 10, 198, 238, 245, 299, 301, Durrani, 298-305; definition of, 309 14n, 306; history of reforms on, Laghman, 78, 120 190, 293-97, 306-7, 310; in KhalqLakan Khel nomads, 185 Parcham reforms, 12, 14, 179, 181, Lalmi, 16, 146 186, 292, 323 Majlis-i A'yan, 34 Lal-o-Sarjangal, 231 Landay Sin Valley, 77, 80, 88, 89, 90, Majlis-i Shura, 34 106 Majruh, Shamsuddin, 92 Landholdings and ownership: and class Makhdum. Sec Pir structures, 238; feudal nature of, 10, Malak Baba, 122 16-17; and marriage, 299-301; and Malalay, 313, 314, 332 reclamation, 171; and reforms, 15- Malalay Girls’ School (Kabul), 314 18, 20-23, 81, 135, 140, 179, 186- Malang, 270, 279, 284 383
Index Milmastya, 300 Maldar, 238 Ming bashi, 173 Malik, 34, 259. See also Leaders Maliki (non-Pashtun tribe), 236, 237, Mir, 91, 147n, 148, 166. See also 243, 302 Leaders Mir, Muhammad, 48 Mangai (Pashtun tribe), 71 Mirab, 149 Mansoor (Mawlawi), 48 Manugi (Nuristan), 101, 102,103,108, Mir Beg, 120, 123, 125, 126 Mishwani (Pashtun tribe), 84, 87, 89 112, 113 Marat, 130n Miyan, 51, 270, 276, 278, 279, 285. See also Leaders Marmol, 48 Marriage. See Women Mo’azin, 48 Marx, Karl, 144 Modernization. See Reforms Marxist(s) : evolution in Afghanistan of, Moghol (tribe), 236 60-62; opposition to Amanullah of, Mongol, 233 165; rhetoric of in Khalq-Parcham Mortgages, 12, 13, 186, 187, 188, 189 regime, 44,65,111-12,125-26,321; Mosque, 147, 150, 151, 152, 258,281, resistance to, 56, 77, 97-98, 119, 282 134-35, 139,158-62,264; resistance Mountain Tajiks, 145, 147 of Islamic coalitions to, 213-15,229; Muhajirin, 143 support for, 139, 244-45; views on Muhammad (Prophet), 29, 274, 278, Afghan resistance of, 3-5, 10, 226n. 282 See also Khalq-Parcham coalition Muhammadi, Muhammad Nabi, 45, 46 Marxist regime. See Khalq-Parcham co Muhammad Jon, 87 alition Muhammadzai, 58, 111, 119,122,125, Mas’ud, Ahmad Shah, 48 127, 133, 135. See also Musahiban Mawlawi, 51, 152-55 passim, 168, dynasty 201n, 259, 277, 285. See also Mul- Muhmand (Pashtun tribe), 101, 236 lah(s) Muhmand, Muhammad Gul Khan, 242 Maymana, 13n, 232, 233, 235, 236, Mujadidi, Sibghatullah, 45, 91, 201. 304 See also Hazrat of Shor Bazar Maywand, 313 Mujahidin-, commitment to Islam of, Mazar. See Ziyarat 49, 52, 214-15; divergence of
views Mazar-i Sharif, 13n, 197n, 236, 237, among, 47-48; impediments against, 333 53-55, 56-57, 72; interpretations Mecca, 143, 258, 274 and confusion about, 27, 214-15, Media. See Newspapers; Press; Radio 225-27; programsof, 55-56, 334-35; and television; Radio Kabul reliance on local leaders of, 50; and Medical College (Kabul University), 314 resistance movement, 162-64, 168, Medical services, 108,142, 308, 316 332, 333, 334. See also Political Meer Wauez, 212 parties; Resistance Merchants, 37, 106, 143, 177, 187n, Mujtahid, 22 In Mulkdar, 238 238, 262, 272 Merik, 81 Mullah(s): and fundamentalism, 27, 91, Merjon, 87 309-10; as opportunistic or corrupt, Merorm, 88 50, 271, 280-82; opposition to Military conscription. See Conscription Amanullah of, 33, 308; in resistance 384
Index Nazr, 151 Newspapers, 92, 200, 201, 307, 328, 331 Niyazi, Ghulam Muhammad, 158, 159 Nomads, 249-65; and class structures, 231-40 passim; herding activities of, 130-31,145,173-74; and Khalq-Parcham land reforms, 20; in resistance movement, 141; sedentarization of, 15, 185n North-West Frontier Province, 201, 275, 283, 284, 286 Nur, Nur Muhammad, 64 Nuristan, 9, 53, 68, 77-118, 131, 134, 206, 225n. See also Nuristani Nuristani, 6, 7, 8, 15, 335, 337n Nuristani Front, 92 Nurzai (Pashtun tribe), 236 movement, 88, 168, 201n; role in conquest of Nuristan of, 99; as traditional local leaders, 51,151-53, 182, 211-13, 218-21, 256-59, 270, 276-78, 284-86. See also Mawlawi; ‘Ulama Mullaha-i Farangi, 33 Mullah imam, 152 Mum, 82 Mumo (Nuristani tribe), 77, 82, 88 Mumorm (Nuristan), 90 Munjani (ethnic group in Badakhshan), 145 Murid, 151,152, 216, 259, 260, 261 Musahiban dynasty, 33-39, 41-47 pas sim, 51-54, 80, 171-72, 175-83, 285. See also Muhammadzai Mushk-i Alam/Mushk-i Alim, 212, 269 Muslim Brethren. See Ikhwan al-Muslimin; Jawanan-i Musulman Muslim Youth, 39-44, 158, 159, 161, 201 Mutawasitah, 153, 156 Oath-taking, 198 Oruzgan, 13n, 68 Ottoman, 254 Oxus River. See Amu Darya Oygul, 130n Nadir Shah, 8, 33, 170, 173,176,204n 269-70, 273, 308, 314 Nahid, Jamilah, 326n Nahidah, 332 Nahrin, 14, 184-208 Naim Khan, Muhammad, 60, 61, 244 Nanawatay, 300 Nangalam (Nuristan), 112 Nangarhar, 9, 13n, 36, 38, 103n Nangarhar University (Jalalabad), 334 Nangiy pakhtanah. See Pakhtunwali Naqib, 33n Naqshbandi, 151, 259 Narang, 86 Nasser, Gamal Abdul, 158 Nationalism, 12, 31, 36-38, 62, 64,
165, 200 National Liberation Front, 45, 91, 201 National United Front, 46, 48 Nazarzai (Pashtun tribe), 22, 235, 239, 241, 242, 243 Nazo, 313 Padawan, 149 Padshah gardushi, 43 Paghman, 157, 222 Pahlawan, 198 Pakhtanah. See Pakhtunwali Pakhto/Pakhtu. See Pashto Pakhtun. See Pashtun Pakhtunwali, 275, 276, 278, 282, 283. See also Pashtunwali Pakistan: Afghan refugees in, 72, 89, 160, 164, 321; as headquarters for Afghan resistance, 6n, 44, 91, 115; intervention in Afghanistan of, 69n, 329; land reforms in, 194; and Pashtunistan, 54n, 110; relations with Daoud of, 60, 15 7n Paktya, 13n, 38n, 68, 71 Palwashah, Jamilah, 327 Pamir, 145 Panjsher Valley, 41, 48, 157n Panj Ulla, 120, 123 385
Index lations with government of, 172, Parcham: evolution of, 39n, 60; and 205; role in resistance of, 141, 162, factional struggles with Khalq, 64, 163; in Sitami Milli program, 157; 160, 184, 204,316-17; organization support of Khalq-Parcham of, 160. and membership composition of, 156, 318-20; resistance to, 332-33; See also Agriculture and Soviet invasion, 183; support Pec River Valley, 97, 100, 101, 102, for Daoud of, 41, 59, 61 106, 112, 113 Parcham, 315 People’s Democratic Party of Afghan Parliament. See Loya Jirgah; Majlis-i istan (PDPA). See Khalq; KhalqA‘yan; Majlis-i Shura Parcham coalition Parsiwan. See Farsiwan People’s Republic of China, 69,142-44 Parwan, 13n, 68 passim, 15 7n, 160n, 169, 219, 294, Pashai, 7, 34, 120 329, 338 Pashto, 38, 79n, 84, 92, 106,120, 239, Persian. See Dari; Farsiwan 282, 302, 313 Peshawar, 44, 69, 91-93 passim, 139n, Pashtu. See Pashto 157n, 161-62, 201,259 Pashtun(s): as Afghans, 6n, 96n, 239; Pir, 51, 149-52, 213-18, 220-24, 256, differential privileges of, 38, 53, 259-61, 270, 276-82, 284-86. See 177, 246; ethnic identity among, also Aghajan; Mullah(s); Ruhanv, Sheikh; ‘Ulama 240-41; immigration to north of, 185, 235, 236, 238, 250-52; and Pirzadah. See Pir interethnic conflict, 53, 54n, 96, Police, 34, 123, 147n, 172, 175, 269, 333. See also Commandant 114-17, 157, 237, 242-45; intrigues among, 99; prevalence in govern Political behavior: and marriage, 297ment of, 109, 118, 121, 141, 153, 304; and religious authority, 211, 249-65, 266-87; among resistance 172, 295; prevalence in Khalq of, groups, 48, 113-16; and resistance 156,
167; relations with government of, 7, 22, 100-101, 106, 145, 176, movement, 91-93, 120-22, 133, 205; and religious authority, 49, 154; in rural administration, 79, 123-25, 180; and traditional local 252-62, 266-87; Sheikhanzai nomad group of, 249-65; support for re leadership, 51, 79-86, 127-33, 148. See also Disputes; Ethnic groups; sistance groups of, 56, 110; tribal ideology among, 6, 7, 171 Feuds; Islamic coalitions; Leaders; Pashtunistan, 54n, 110 Resistance; Symbols; Tribes Pashtunkot, 236 Political parties, 45, 46, 48, 91, 178, 213, 273, 318-20. See also Afghan Pashtunwali, 6n. See also Pakhtunwali Millat; Harakat-i Inqilab-i Islami; Pathan. See Pashtun Hizb-i Islami; Itihadi Islami Baray Patrilineality. See Tribes Azadyi Afghanistan; Itihadi Islami Pazhingar (Nuristan), 87 PDPA. See Khalq; Khalq-Parcham co Mujahidini Afghanistan; Jamiat-i Islami Afghanistan; Khalq; Mahaz-i alition Peasants: and class structure, 238,245; Milli Islami;Muslim Youth; National and Khalq-Parcham reforms, 11-12, Liberation Front; National United 17-22, 135, 167,186-89,194,291n; Front; Parcham; Sazmani Azadilandholdings of, 16-18, 146; as op bakhsh-i Mardum-i Afghanistan; pressed group, 10-11, 242-44; re Shu‘la-i Jawid; Sitami Milli 386
Index Popalzai (Pashtun tribe), 236 Press, 27, 200 Price controls, 23, 199, 203. See also Economy, Land reforms;Merchants; Mortgages Proletariat. See Laborers Pul-i Khumri, 202, 204 Purdah, 191, 307 Qadir, ‘Abdul, 201, 204 Qala, 128 Qaryadar. See Arbab; Malik Qataghan, 13n, 148, 186, 222 Qawm, 284 Qays, 274, 284 Qazi, 102, 123, 152; corruption of, 132, 150; Gilzai Pashtun view of, 280-83; and government legitimacy, 124; as keepers ofShari‘a, 276,284; mullahs appointed as, 271. See also Courts Qunduz, 148, 157, 170-72 Quran, 71, 267, 270, 274, 280, 282; instruction of, 258, 259, 277; and legal reforms for women, 294, 306, 309; oaths on, 86, 198, 199; and pakhtunwali, 276; political direc tives of, 55; and Shari’a, 278; verses on fighting in, 28 Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 32,46,54,154, 157-59, 161, 164-65 Radio and television (foreign), 65n, 69 Radio Kabul (Radio Afghanistan), 65, 167, 200; broadcast of Parchami plot on, 64; educational programs for women on, 331; Khalq-Parcham reforms on, 12, 312; reports of re sistance in Nahrin on, 205 Rafi, Colonel M., 201 Ragh (in Badakhshan), 145 Rahman, ‘Abdur (Amir): conquest of Badakhshan by, 139n, 148; conquest of Nuristan by, 78, 94, 98, 99, 268; conquest of Türkistan by, 232-33, 235; land appropriations of, 22n; marriage reforms of, 190, 207, 294, 306-7, 324; and Pashtun settlement in north, 235, 250-53; policy of direct rule of, 171, 196-97, 212, 252-53, 270n, 271; and role of Islam in government, 31, 165, 200, 268-69, 271-73, 285; weakening of mullahs by, 212, 271 Rahman, ‘Abdur (Mawlawi), 168 Rahman Qui, Haji, 160 Raids. See Feuds
Ramazan, 88, 258 Rashid, ‘Abdur, 274 Rashid, Qays ‘Abdur, 241 Rasul Khan, Ghulam, 242 Ratib, Ahmad, 314 Ratibzad, Anahita, 64n, 319, 321n, 326n; address to Kabul teachers by, 312-13; biography of, 314-16; chair of International Conference of Women, 337-39; interview with Soviet Woman, 330; on literacy training, 331; party and government appointments of, 316, 317, 327, 336, 337, 339; views on M. Amin of, 327-28 Reforms (policies and programs): of Amanullah, 33, 176, 294, 307-8; of Daoud’s republic, 56, 295, 310-11; of five-year plans, 36-37; of Habibullah, 306-7; implementation of, 17981, 186-202, 246, 320, 332, 339; of Khalq-Parcham, 10-25, 65, 69, 110, 111, 179-81;ofKhalq-Parcham compared with others, 13-14, 17, 179-83, 190, 193-94, 196-97, 199, 200-201, 205-8, 295-96; of Musahibans, 177-78, 308-10; of‘Abdur Rahman, 13-14, 190, 196-97, 207, 306-7 ; reactions to Khalq-Parcham, 11, 203-5, 206-8, 264; for women, 327-39. See also Decree No. 6; Decree No. 7; Decree No. 8; Land reforms; Women. Refugees, 6n, 50, 72,143-44,160,164, 167 387
Index 269-70; and role of Islam, 26-28, Religion. See Islam; Mullah(s); Pir; 42, 126, 215n, 225-26,263-64,283; Sheikh; ‘Ulama by Safi Pakhtuns, 100-101, 112, Religious leaders. See Mullah(s); Pir; 113; in Saripul, 242; by Sheikhanzai, Ruhani; Sheikh; ‘Ulama Relocation. See Sedentarization and 263, 265; by Sitami Milli, 160, 163, 166; by women, 332-36. See also resettlement Jihad; Mujahidin Republic of Afghanistan (1973-78), 41, 295; constitutional developments in, Revolutionary Council (DRA), 291, 59; government and policies of, 59, 315 171; Kalasha relationship with, 100, Revolutionary Defense Forces, 160 101, 104-5, 109; Khalq-Parcham Reza Shah (of Iran), 176 activities during, 61-62; policies Risk safed, 149, 150, 152 toward Muslim Youth of, 41,59-61; Roads. See Communications and trans reforms during, 17,59,193-94,310; portation relations with Khalq-Parcham, 41 Ruhani, 33, 43, 44, 45, 149, 161. See also Akhundzadah; Miyan; Pir; Resettlement. See Sedentarization and resettlement Sheikh; Sufi Resistance (to foreign invasions): Rural populations: agrarian relations against British-India, 71, 283; by among (Marxist view), 16-17; agri Safawids, 269; similarity to Yugoslav cultural production rate of, 16; and Amanullah, 34, 205; and differential partisan movements, 72-73; against Soviets, 25, 71, 264, 332-34, 336; privileges of elite, 40, 173, 263; women’s role in, 335n, 336 education among, 38, 153-59; and Resistance and opposition (to govern feuds, 66; impact of Decree No. 6 ment): against Amanullah, 32-33, on, 13-14; impact of Decree No. 7 on, 15; andKhalq-Parcham
reforms, 205-8 passim, 213, 270-71; assess ment of causes of, 9, 11-12, 15, 21, 24-25, 180-82, 205, 206, 291; and 23-28, 66, 206-8, 326; in Badakh khans in Musahiban government, 34shan, 139, 141, 143, 162, 164-69; 35; land mortgage and indebtedness in Bamyan, 214;inDarra-iNur, ПЭamong, 13; leadership structures 25 passim, 133-35; and ethnicity, among, 35, 39, 148-52, 171-75, 53-54, 162-63, 204,207; by Ghilzai, 182, 282; and mujahidin, 48-49,56, 269-71; ideology and structure of 164-6 6; and Musahiban development current movement, 44-52, 182; by programs, 37, 177-78; percentage in JIA, 167; against Khalq-Parcham, 9, country of, 15; political economy 15, 42-57, 66-68, 164-65, 182-83, in Badakhshan of, 145-48; reactions 204-6, 214, 263, 325-26, 332; by to Khalq-Parcham coup of, 43, 160, Kirghiz, 160, 163; against Musahi206; relations with government of, bans, 271; and Muslim Youth move 102, 104,110-12,118,171-77; and ment, 43-44, 46; in Nahrin, 204, resistance movement, 27, 48-49, 207; among non-Pashtun groups 141, 162-64; support for Khalq(1929-75), 7-8, 162, 163; in NuriParcham of, 160, 163; worsening stan, 77, 88-94, 112-14, 116; pros economic conditions among, 39 pects for current movement, 52-57; Rushanfikran, 32 against ‘Abdur Rahman, 98, 99; Russians. See Soviet Union and religious leaders, 27, 212-14, Rustaq, 204 388
Index Sada-i Nuristan, 92 Safi (Pashtun tribe): alliance with Darra-i Nur peoples, 121, 122; and Kabul Conference (December 1980), 337n; living conditions of, 97; re lations with government of, 101, 106-12; relations with Kalasha of, 101, 109, 113, 118; relations with Mir Beg, 120; revolt among, 100, 164 Saint. See Faqir; Hazrat; Khujah; Malang; Miyan; Pir; Ruhani; Sayyid; Shah; Sufi; Wali Samarqand, 143, 232 Sangcharak, 231, 232, 236 Sarhadar, 150 Saripul, 22, 49, 204, 231-46 passim, 298 Saudi Arabia, 159, 255 Saur Revolution (1978 coup d’état), 3, 58n, 330, 337, 338; and educational reforms, 125; and fall of Musahiban dynasty, 41, 43; and female educa tion, 196; and Kalasha-government relations, 109, 110; and military conscription, 125; and National Or ganization for the Defense of the Revolution, 326; and responses in Badakhshan, 141, 154, 160, 163; changes in Darra-i Nur prior to, 124; disposal of land following, 195; effects on Kalasha, 97, 113; events following, 77, 111, 204; events leading up to, 61-62, 132, 165; Khalq and Parcham organization prior to, 60-61;Khalq-Parcham com petition following, 140; marriage reforms and, 291, 296-97; Marxist view of, 10, 11, 180; organization of youth of Badakhshan prior to, 159; parade for anniversary of, 332; proposed reforms and policies of, 179, 184; reactions in Darra-i Nur, 123,127,133; responses of Nuristan leaders to, 86, 93; reactions and opposition to, 43, 119, 135, 139, 170, 230, 246, 263; role of Islam in resistance to, 26; Sitami Milli prior to, 157; status of women prior to, 306-12; status of women following,
312-15, 317; urban class and, 179 Sayyaf, Abdur Rabbur Rasul, 46 Sayyid: 269, 274, 276, 279, 282; as ethnic group, 234, 237, 238, 240; in Isma’ili communities in Badakhshan, 150; as source of religious authority, 51, 278 Sayyid Ahmad Gailani. See Gailani, Sayyid Ahmad Sayyid Qutb, 158 Sazman (Organization), 161 Sazmani Azadibakhshi Mardumi Af ghanistan (SAMA), 45 Sedentarization, 7, 253, 261, 263: and increase in cultivated lands, 15; of Pashtun, 101, 250-52. See also No mads Shah, 149. See also Saint; Sayyid Shahid (martyr), 335 Shah Mahmood, 212, 314 Shahran-i Khash, 153 Shahri Buzurg (in Badakhshan), 145 Shamsuddin Majruh, 92 Shara'iyat, (journal), 158 Shari’a (Islamic law): association with strife among Ghilzai, 285-86; as legal interpretation of Quran, 278; and marriage and family laws, 296, 323; and mediation of Islam among Ghilzai, 266, 267, 275-77 passim, 284; in relation to Pashtun Ghilzai identity, 280-81, 283, 285; uses of for political control, 31, 165, 271, 292n Sharwal (mayor), 202n Sheikh, 110, 245, 270, 279, 284. See also Saint; Sufi; Mullah Sheikhanzai (Pashtun tribe), 7, 49, 51, 249-65 Sher Agha, 269, 270. See also Hazrat of Shor Bazar Shewa, 120, 121, 123, 127 389
Index 327; and desertion of Muslim Cen Shi‘a(s), Shi‘ite(s): ‘Abdur Rahman’s tral Asian troops in Afghanistan, policies toward, 268; conception of 171; effects on resistance, 27, 47, wali (saint), 217n; Ghilzai’s views of, 77, 163, 167; and political indoc 269, 282, 284; groups in Badakh trination, 339; as savior of Khalqshan, 145, 146; Hazarahs, 223; pir Parcham regime, 183; Zahir Shah’s coalition among Hazarahs, 222-23; pirs compared with Sunni pirs in appeal to people against, 46 Bamyan, 219-20; Sheikhanzai view Soviet Union: aid to Musahiban dynas ty, 36; and Afghan military, 59, 61, of Hazarah as, 261; and Sunni rela 68, 69, 122; Afghan womens resis tions in Saripul, 240. See also Imami; Isma'ili tance against, 333, 336; Amanullah’s ties with, 32n; attitudes toward, Shiburghan, 13n, 233, 235, 236 Shinwar, 89 246; Babrak Karmal as a puppet of, Shinwari (Pashtun tribe), 101, 236, 10; and basmachi movement, 204n, 337n 226n; borders with Badakhshan, Shirin Tagaw, 232 142; characterization of Afghan re sistance by, 12,25,26; consequences Shishpar (tribe), 236 Shor Darya, 232 of economic aid by, 47 ; historians’ Shrine. See Ziyarat view of Amanullah’s failure, 201n; Shughnan, 146, 147, 153, 155, 160, impact of closed borders on people 167, 222 in north by, 9, 142-44, 172, 174; Shughni, 53, 145 influence over Daoud, 41; Islam Shu‘la-i Jawid (Eternal Flame Party), and resistance against, 213n, 21443,45, 157 15, 225n; and Khalq-Parcham coup, Sibghatullah Mujadidi. See Mujadidi, 139; and Khalq-Parcham “nationali Sibghatullah ties policy,” 54: military position Siddiqi,
Professor Mrs. R. S., 325 of, 72, 121; mobilization of Afghans Siraj ul-Benat (Queen), 307 against, 52, 133, 169; promotion of Sistan, 304 Pashtun dominance by, 157; protec Sitami Milli (Against National Oppres tion of Afghan communists, 40; as enemy of Afghanistan and Islam, 49sion Party): armed opposition to Khalq-Parcham in Badakhshan, 160, 50; reported annexation of Wakhan 161; decimation of members in Corridor by, 163, 167; scholar’s Badakhshan, 163,168; formation of views on agrarian relations in Af by Tahir Badakhshi, 156; ideology ghanistan, 16; as sponsors of KhalqParcham parties and government, of, 157; initial support of Khalq25, 111, 119, 160, 202, 203, 206-8, Parcham, 43, 160; relations to na 214, 229, 230, 249, 257; weakness tional policy, 165 Slaves, 96, 110, 148 of resistance against, 93, 264; West Smuggling. See Corruption ern journalists characterization of Soviet invasion, 3, 119, 141, 184, 245: resistance against, 27 as dangerous precedent, 70; as anath Spina Herawi, 313 ema to Afghans, 332; as cause of Spinzar Cotton Company, 171n, 172n jihad, 56, 57; as cause for tribal State: Burhanuddin Rabbani’s model of unity, 71 ; and changes in Democrat Islamic, 55; conflicts about legitima ic Organization of Afghan Women, cy of, 56, 112, 126, 164; competi390
Index tion for control of, 140, 164-65, 166, 168; conditions in Darra-i Nur before incorporation in Afghan, 132; consequences of incorporation of Nuristanis into the Afghan, 94, 117-18; Islam and legitimacy of, 124, 165, 166, 168, 181, 200, 25 7; monarchy as symbolic focus of, 38; Muslim Youth’s conception of, 40; opposition against, 139, 265; role of Islam in development of, 30-36, 165; Sheikhanzai attitude toward Afghan, 257, 263. See also Ama nullah, Amir; Government; Kabul; Khalq-Parcham; Musahiban; Rah man, ‘Abdur Subsidies, to Pashtun tribes, 5, 8, 9, 177, 271 Subsistence (rural economies): as bases of Afghan economy, 180; conditions influencing farming, 17-20; demo graphic increase in Saripul and, 23738; economy and ethnic relations in Western Türkistan, 234, 302-4; economy and significance of social relations, 181, 255-56; egalitarian aspects of Sheikhanzai nomads, 261 ; government bias against nomadic, 251, 254-55, 262; importance of herding in Darra-i Nur, 131; land reform and, 20-22, 192, 194; orga nization of among Kalasha, 95-96; organization of in Darra-i Nur, 12830; percent of population engaged in, 15; problems of among Kalasha, 97; raiding in Darra-i Nur as a factor in, 132; seasonal patterns of activity in, 66-67; significance of marriage and exchange in, 297-302; Soviet characterization of production in, 16-17; structure in Badakhshan, 146-47; structure in Nahrin, 185-86; structure in Western Türkistan, 232. See also Agriculture; Land; Land ownership; Land reform; Merchants; Nomads Sufi(sm): as basis for religious leader ship, 51, 150-51; compared
with other religious figures among Ghilzai, 279-80, 284; as friends of God, 217; leaders as pivotal figures in networks, 216, 219-20; leaders role in opposition to Amanullah, 33; role of leaders among Ghilzai, 270; role of leaders among Sheikhanzai, 259. See also Naqshbandi; Pir; Ruhani; Tariqa; Wali Sulayman Khel, 273 Sultan Ali Kishtmand, 156 Sultan Muhammad Khan, 212 Sultana Umayd, 313 Sunnat (custom, e.g. of the Prophet), 267, 274, 276, 278, 280, 283, 284 Sunni, Sunism: of Central Badakhshan and Jawanan-i Musulman move ment, 158-59; of Central Badakh shan in Kabul schools, 154, 157; conversion of Hazarahs to, 234, 240; and development of concept of wali, 217n; groups in Badakhshan, 145-47 passim; Islamic coalitions in Bamyan, 222; as majority sect in Af ghanistan, 233; as official state sect, 269; opposition to Khalq-Parcham and the Soviets, 168; religious estab lishments in Badakhshan, 150, 152; and Shi’a relations in Badakhshan, 147-48, 167; and Shi'a relations in Saripul region, 240; population in Bamyan, 222; Sufi leaders, 222 Suraya (Queen), 307, 308, 314 Suraya (cousin of Karmal), 326n, 327, 329n Swat (Pakistan), 266, 286 Symbols, symbolic; interpretations of jihad in Afghanistan, 225, 229; of Islam as a basis of unity and identity, 126, 249, 265; of Islam as moti vating force in politics, 123, 134, 266; Darra-i Nur leaders manipula tion of, 133; manipulations and marriage rituals, 299; significance 391
Index of Kirghiz exodus, 160; significance of marriage payments, 297, 301; women as, 310, 339. See also Flag; Islam Daoud purges, 124-25; asprofession for women, 308, 309, 321; as sup porters ofJIA, 158-59; as supporters of Khalq, 155, 191, 196, 200; in Vaygal Valley, 104 Teachers Training College (Jalalabad) 202 Teachers Training High School (Kabul), 154, 155 Tehran, 311, 314 Television. See Radio and television; Radio Kabul Tokhi (Pashtun tribe), 236 Tolqun, Alamat, 326 Trade. See Economy Traders. See Merchants Transportation. See Communications and transportation Tribes: and class structures, 238, 24344; and differential privileges, 35, 38; and intertribal conflicts, 67-69, 131-33; and government cooptation, 34-35, 183, 265; opposition to Amanullah of, 33, 205; and religious authority, 261-63, 266-87; and resistance movement, 24-25, 27, 71, 78, 92-93, 120-21, 141, 208, 264; as so cial groupings in Afghanistan, 5-10, 213; structures in Nuristan of, 8083; as traditional power structures, 171-72, 182-83, 197, 254-55, 257 Tsunuk (Nuristan), 87, 90, 93 Turkey, 70 Turkic peoples, 8,186. See also Kirghiz; Turkmen; Uzbek Türkistan, 50, 98, 143-44, 167, 23235, 242, 250, 298 Turkmen: ethnic identity among, 6, 239-42, 303-4; in Imam Sahib, 172, 181n; raids in northwest of, 251-52; refugee communities of, 50; in Türk istan region, 233, 235, 238 Tahiri (tribe), 236 Tajik: dominance in Badakhshan of, 145-48, 154; ethnic identity among, 6, 239-43, 303; and fraternization with Soviet troops, 70; in govern ment administration, 253; and in terethnic conflicts, 53; in Nahrin, 185-86;
refugee communities of, 50, 167; religious organization among, 150-52; and resistance movement, 162, 167; in Türkistan region, 23334, 238 Takhar, 157, 160 Taliqan, 195 Taraki, Nur M: anti-Islamic stance of, 88, 246; elimination of established elites by, 80, 88; and factional strug gles with Parcham, 44, 60, 64; as founder of PDPA, 315; and Khalq propaganda, 200-201; reform pro gram of, 291-92, 312, 317-21; and Saur Revolution, 62, 119; as succes sor to Daoud, 61 Tarawih, 88 Tariqa/Tariqat, 51, 267, 270, 276-86 passim. See also Pir; Sufi Tarzi, Mahmud Beg, 31, 306, 308, 314, 331 Tashkand, 143, 232 Tashkent. See Tashkand Tashqurghan, 214n Tawakkul, 259-61 Ta'wiz, 261 Taxes: under Amanullah, 176; exemp tions from, 8, 271; under Musahibans, 177; in rural areas, 13, 124, 149, 175, 197; among Sheikhanzai nomads, 252, 262; in Väygal Valley, 105 ‘Ubaidullah, 89 Taymani, 234, 261 'Ulama: as counter-revolutionary force, Teachers: and class structure, 238; and 26; opposition to Amanullah of, 392
Index 176, 205; as refugees from commu nism, 143-44; and resistance move ment, 5, 42, 53, 56, 161-62, 168; role in government of, 31, 165, 176, 212, 267, 271; structures and functions in Badakhshan of, 147, 149, 152-53. See also Mawlawi; Mullah(s); Pir; Ruhani Umar, 150 Umma, 54, 280, 282 Unbeliever. See Kafir United Kingdom. See Great Britain United Nations, 69, 187 United States, 36, 47, 54, 69n, 169n, 329, 338 Urban populations, 37-51 passim, 125, 151-52, 159, 164, 171-74, 178-79, 205-6, 263, 283 ‘Ushr, 150 Usman, 150 Uzbek: and class structures, 244-45; dominance in Badakhshan of, 14548, 154; ethnic identity among, 6, 239-43, 303; and fraternization with Soviet troops, 70; in Imam Sahib, 171-72; and interethnic conflicts, 53; in Nahrin, 185; refugee commu nities of, 50,167; religious organiza tion among, 150-52; and resistance movement, 162, 167; in Türkistan region, 232-33, 237, 238 Vari,82 Väygal Valley, 49, 94-118 Villages: central government control in, 106, 124, 149,171-75, 180-82, 242, 262, 265; economic and political structures in, 128-31,145-53; ethnic identity in, 240-42; feudal exploita tion in, 17; land reforms in, 20; and resistance movement, 112-13, 120, 133, 161, 163-64, 166; and village headmen, 50,197. See also Peasants; Rural populations Waigal Valley. See Väygal Valley Wakhan, 146-47 Wakhan Corridor, 143, 145, 163 Wakhi, 53, 145, 163 Wakil, 156 Wakil, Abdul, 64 Wali, 51, 150, 151, 216, 217 Waqf, 22n Wardak, 48 Wardak (tribe), 236 Wardak, Amin, 48 Warduj Valley, 163 Watan, 31, 273 Watan Parast, 161. See also Revolution ary Defense Forces Water and
Power, Ministry of, 160 West, 6n, 10, 15, 25-30 passim, 42, 4647, 54, 57, 201. See also Europe; United States Wilayat (friendship with God; power of a wali), 217 Wilayat (province), 103 Wish Zalmayan. See Awakened Youth Women, 291-305; 306-40; and adult education classes, 161; as court con sorts or hostages, 100-101, 107; in division of labor, 96; and ethnic identity, 241, 255, 276; and KhalqParcham reforms, 13-15, 186, 19091, 196, 203, 205n, 207, 264; in pir networks, 218; and pre-Khalq emancipation reforms, 13-14, 36, 176, 178, 190,196, 207; role in sea sonal feuds of, 66-67; selling of, 10; and traditional divorce procedure, 198. See also Decree No. 7;Mahr Women’s Hospital (Kabul), 314 Women’s Welfare Association, 315 Wulusi Jirgah, 155, 314 Wuluswal, 88, 102, 108, 231, 253 Wuluswali, 77, 79, 92,102-3,112,145, 185 Wuri, 81 Wurjest, 82, 90 Wushtrot (Nuristan), 90 Xinjiang, 142, 144 393
Index Yaftal, 168 Yak Awlang, 222 Yarkand, 143 Yarm (Jilga) Valley, 185, 186, 190 Yugoslavia, 73, 74, 316 Yürmür, 77 Yusuf, Muhammad, 58 Zahir Shah, Muhammad (1933-73), 41, 46, 58, 108-9, 196, 213, 245, 264, 308 Zakat, 258, 259 Zarghunah, 313 Zaynab, 313 Zibaki, 53, 145, 146 Ziyarat, 151 Zuhak, 328 Zabihullah, 48 394 |
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CONTENTS Foreword to Revolutions and Rebellions in Afghanistan: Anthropological Perspectives, 2022 Edition / M. Nazif Shahrani and Robert L. Canfield ix Preface / Robert L. Canfield xv Acknowledgments xvii Note on Transliteration xix Notes on Contributors xxi PART I: INTRODUCTION 1. Introduction: Marxist “Revolution” and Islamic Resistance in Afghanistan / M. NazifShahrani 3 2. The Marxist Regimes and the Soviet Presence in Afghanistan: An Ages-Old Culture Responds to Late Twentieth-Century Aggression / Louis Dupree 58 PART II: NURISTAN AND EASTERN AFGHANISTAN 4. Responses to Central Authority in Nuristan: The Case of the Väygal Valley Kalasha / David J. Katz 94 5. The Rebellion in Darra-i Nur / R. Lincoln Keiser 119 PART III: QATAGHAN AND BADAKHSHAN 6. Causes and Context of Responses to the Saur Revolution in Badakhshan / M. Nazif Shahrani 139 7. Weak Links on a Rusty Chain: Structural Weaknesses in Afghanistan’s Provincial Government Administration / Thomas J. Barfield 170 8. Effects of the Saur Revolution in the Nahrin Area of Northern Afghanistan / Hugh Beattie 184
Contents PART iv: BAMYAN AND TÜRKISTAN 9. Islamic Coalitions in Bamyan: A Problem in Translating Afghan Political Culture / Robert L. Canfield 211 10. Ethnicity and Class: Dimensions of Intergroup Conflict in North-Central Afghanistan / Richard Tapper 230 PART V: WESTERN AND SOUTHERN AFGHANISTAN 11. Sheikhanzai Nomads and the Afghan State: A Study of Indigenous Authority and Foreign Rule / Bahram Tavakolian 249 12. How Afghans Define Themselves in Relation to Islam / Jon IF. Anderson 266 PART vi: THE SAUR REVOLUTION AND THE AFGHAN WOMAN 13. Causes and Consequences of the Abolition of Brideprice in Afghanistan / Nancy Lindisfarne-Tapper 291 14. Revolutionary Rhetoric and Afghan Women / Nancy Hatch Dupree 306 Glossary 341 Bibliography 353 Index 375
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Structure and Position of Islam in Afghanistan.” Af ghanistan 10: 7-14. Wolf, Eric. 1969. Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century. New York: Harper Torch Books. Woodsmall, Helen. 1960. Women and the New East. Washington, D.C.: Middle East Institute. Yapp, Malcolm E. 1962. “Disturbances in Afghanistan, 1839-42.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 25: 499-523. . 1963. “Disturbances in Western Afghanistan, 1839-41.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 26: 288-313. 371
Bibliography . 1964. “The Revolutions of 1841-2 in Afghanistan.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 27: 333-81. el-Zein, A.H.M. 1974. The Sacred Meadows: A Structural Analysis of Religious Symbolism in an East African Town. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press. Zekrya, Mir-Ahmad B. 1976. “Planning and Development in Afghanistan: A Case of Maximum Foreign Aid and Minimum Growth.” Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University. ADDENDUM: MUJAHIDIN PUBLICATIONS Al Jamiat. Weekly newspaper published in Peshawar by Jamiat-i Islami Afghani stan (JIA). In Urdu. Al Mawqif. Journal published in Peshawar by Hizb-i Islami. In Arabic. Al Sobh. Weekly newspaper published in Wiesbaden, Germany, by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian and Pashto. Al Sobh. Journal published in Wiesbaden, Germany, by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian and Pashto. Bisharat. Weekly newspaper published in Baghlan province by JIA. De Islam Zhagh. Daily newspaper published in Quetta, Baluchistan, by JIA be ginning 30 November 1980. Primarily in Pashto for southwestern Afghanistan. De Shahid Ziyray. Monthly journal published in Peshawar by JIA since 1981. In Persian and Pashto. Inqilab-i Islami Afghanistan. Weekly newspaper published in Tehran by JIA since 1979. In Persian. Itihadi Islami. Newspaper published in Peshawar by Professor Sayyaf, who headed a coalition which dissolved a few months after its formation in 1980. In Per sian and Pashto. Jabha-i Milli Nijat Afghanistan. Newspaper published in Peshawar by a group of the same name led by Sibghatullah Mujadidi. Khahar-i Musulman. Journal published
in Peshawar by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian and Pashto. Khahar-i Shahid. Newspaper published in Kabul by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian and Pashto. Mirror of Jehad. Bimonthly journal published in Peshawar by JIA since January 1982. In English. Mithaqi Khun. Monthly journal published in Peshawar by JIA since 1980. In Persian and Pashto. 372
Bibliography Mujahid. Weekly and daily newspaper published in Peshawar by JIA since 1978. In Persian and Pashto. Pay ami Mujahid. Newspaper published in Panjsher by JIA. In Persian. Rah-i Haq. Weekly newspaper published in Tehran by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian. Sada-i Nuristan. Newspaper published by Nuristani mujahidin. In Persian and Pashto. Sangar and Nida-i Jihad. Weekly newspapers published in Parwan province by JIA. In Persian and Pashto. Saut al-Jihad. Monthly/bimonthly journal published in Peshawar by JIA since 1981. In Arabic. Shafaq and Sima-i Shahid. Journals published by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian and Pashto. Shahadat. Daily and weekly newspaper published in Peshawar by Hizb-i Islami. In Persian and Pashto. Wahdat. Journal published in Wiesbaden, Germany, by Hizb-i Islami. In Turkish. NOTE-. Since early 1982, in accordance with the charter of the Islamic Unity of Afghan Mujahidin (IUAM), a coalition of seven Islamic revolutionary groups formed during the summer of 1981, all publications of its mem ber organizations in Peshawar have been discontinued. In 1981 the IUAM launched a new series of publications expressing the collective views of the coalition. Thus far the following have come to the editors’ attention: Afghan Mujahid. Journal and weekly newspaper published in London. In English. Al-Nafirul ‘am. Monthly/bimonthly journal published in Peshawar. In Arabic. Hijrat. Journal published in Peshawar. In Urdu. The Jihad Rays. Monthly/bimonthly journal published in Peshawar since 1982. In English. Qiyami Haq. Bimonthly journal published in Peshawar. In Persian and
Pashto. Shahid Paygham. Bimonthly journal published in Peshawar. In Pashto and some Persian. Wahdati Islami. Daily newspaper published in Peshawar. In Persian and Pashto. The alliance of the three traditionalist resistance groups also has its own publications. Thus far the editors are aware of the following: Itihadi Islami. Newspaper published in Peshawar. In Persian and Pashto. 373
INDEX Absarinas, 186,197 Abu Bakr, 150 Adi, Ghazi, 313 Afandi, 33n Afghan. See Pashtun Afghan Demographic Studies, 145n, 146 Afghanistan National Fatherland Front, 49 Afghan Millat, 43, 45 Afshar, Nadir, 313 Afzal, Shirin, 326 Aga Khan, 150, 216, 220, 221n Agency for International Development (AID), 155 Agha, 51 Aghajan, 259, 260, 261 Agriculture: in Badakhshan, 145-47; in Darra-i Nur, 127-30; forms of land tenure, 13n; Khalq-Parcham reform policies for, 15-22, 192-95; relation ship to political structures, 127-30; in Türkistan, 237; in Vaygal Valley, 95-96. See also Decree No. 8; Land holdings and ownership; Land re forms; Nomads; Subsistence Ahmad, Sayyid. See Meer Wauez Ahmadzai (Pashtun tribe), 236, 270 AID. See Agency for International De velopment Akala, 100 Akhundzadah, 276, 278, 279, 282 Alam Khan, Mir, 139n Alaqadar, 86, 123, 162, 253 Alaqadari, 77, 92, 108 Al-Azhar University, 47, 157, 158 Ali, 220n Ali, Gen. Muhammad, 147n ‘Alim. See ‘Ulama Alizai (Pashtun tribe), 236 Amana Fidawi School, 317-18 Amanullah, Amir: abdication of, 204; and jihad, 32-33, 34-41; land ap propriations of, 22n, 173; modern ization reforms of, 32-33, 34, 59n, 63, 165, 176-78, 185, 190, 193, 196-97, 294, 307;PDPA similarities to, 183, 185,199,200, 201n, 205-8; relations with Ghilzai, 270-71; and role of Islam in government, 32-33, 34, 213, 266, 269, 308; taxation policies of, 177 American University of Beirut, 155 Amin, Hafizullah: attempts to establish solidarity, 326; and coup against Daoud, 62, 119; death of, 327; and Khalq-Parcham power struggles, 44, 60, 62, 316-17, 325;
opposition to Muslim factions, 64; Pashtun chauvinism of, 122, 156; relation ship with Mansur Hashimi, 155-56; scapegoat for revolutionary failures, 11-12, 24, 328 Amin, Muhammad, 87 Amir, 91, 158. See also Amanullah, Amir; Habibullah, Amir; Mir', Rah man, ‘Abdur Amu Darya (Oxus River), 95,143,148, 151, 161, 167, 171 Amulets, 151, 261 Anahita. See Ratibzad, Dr. Anahita Andar (Pashtun tribe), 269 Andarab, 124, 198 Andkhoy, 233 Anwar, Muhammad, 86-93 passim, 122n April Revolution. See Saur Revolu tion Aqcha, 233, 236, 242 Aqsaqal. See Rish safed Arab (ethnic group), 171-74, 181, 233, 235, 237-40, 242, 303-4 Arabi (sheep), 234 Arabs (of Arabia), 274 Arbab, 23, 34,148-49,173-75,195-98, 203. See also Bay; Malik 375
Index Ariza nawis, 199 Balkhi, Rabia, 313 Army: and conquest of Kafiristan Baluch, 6, 236, 237, 243, 246 (Nuristan), 98; Khalq-Parcham com Baluchistan, 273 bat in Badakhshan, 160-63; Khalq- Bamyan, 13n, 211-29, 232, 337n Parcham combat in Darra-i Nur, Baqi, ‘Abdul, 91 120-22; Khalq-Parcham combat in Barakat, 151 Nahrin, 204-5; Khalq-Parcham com Barakzai (Pashtun tribe), 236 bat in Nuristan, 89-91, 335; Khalq- Barikot, 90 Parcham conscription policies, 125; Baruti (non-Pashtun tribe), 236 literacy training for, 331; military Baryalay, Mahmud, 64 skills in Darra-iNur, 133;Musahiban “Basic Lines . of the DRA," 12,312, modernization of, 34-35, 176-77, 330 178-79; prospects for advancement Basir, ‘Abdul, 162 in 1960s, 37; responses to Khalq, Basmachi, 26n, 143, 204, 226n 170, 182,333 Bay, 173-75, 244 Asadabad. See Chagha Saray Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali, 157n Ashkhasi namdar, 34 Bilchiragh, 232 Ashkhasi sarshinas, 34 Bismillah, 267 Ashrar, 160 Bolshevik, 143 Ataturk, 176 Bragimatal, 77, 106 Atsakzai (Pashtun tribe), 236 Bribery. See Corruption and bribery Avghan. See Pashtun Brideprice. See Mahr Awakened Youth, 35-36 Bukhara, 143, 232 Awghan, See Pashtun Bureaucracy, 34-36, 59, 148, 153-54, Aymaq. See Chahar Aymaq 160. See also Government; Govern Azan, 147 ment officials; Teachers Aziza, Dr., 326 Burqa Valley, 185 Buzkashi, 198, 201, 243, 337 Babrak. See Karmal, Babrak Baburi (non-Pashtun tribe), 236 Central Asia, 50, 65, 70-71, 143, 204, 226n, 327. See also Basmachi-, Türk Bacha-i Saqaw, 8, 164, 19 6, 204, 242, 308 istan Badakhshan, 13n, 22, 53, 68, 139-69, Central Committee
(PDPA), 315 251, 304 Chagha Saray, 87, 88, 98, 103 Badakhshan, 158 Chahar Aymaq, 186, 233, 234, 238-43 Badakhshi, Tahir, 154, 156-57, 160, passim, 253, 261, 303 165 Chandak. See Tsunuk Badghis, 68, 250, 253 Chapu, 89 Badi, 244, 300 Charikar, 202 Badzgil, 90 China. See People’s Republic of China Baghlan, 9, 157, 185-86, 189, 190, Chindawul, 222 199-200, 204 Chiqin, 148 Baharak (Badakhshan), 145, 153, 157, Chitral (Pakistan), 89, 143 160, 166 Christianity, 22 7n, 294 Bajaur, 87 Class, 230-46; and “class interests,” Bakhtyari (non-Pashtun tribe), 236 11, 165, 180-81; and inequality, 38, Balkh, 68, 242 40; and marriage reforms, 305;and 376
Index peasants, 21; and Saur Revolution, 169n, 204, 321 Clergy. See Mawlawi; Mullah; ‘Ulama Commandant, 102, 123, 202n. See also Police Communications and transportation: in Badakhshan, 141-43; in Darra-iNur, 121, 127-28; in development plans of 1950s, 36-37; effects on revolu tion of, 88-89, 121, 162; lack of, 10; in northwest Afghanistan, 256; in Nuristan, 88-89, 100, 103, 108; in southern Afghanistan, 272 Communists. See Marxists Conscription (military): in Badakhshan, 149; and bribery, 200; in Darra-i Nur, 124, 125; exemptions from, 9, 36, 177, 271; in Imam Sahib, 174, 175; in Nahrin, 197; among Sheikhanzai, 252, 257, 262; in Vaygal Valley, 100, 105 Corruption and bribery: under Ama nullah, 32; among arbabs, 175, 203; in Badakhshan, 149-50, 153; in Darra-i Nur, 123-24, 125, 127, 132; in Imam Sahib, 173, 174; and jihad, 28; Khalq-Parcham policies against, 22-23, 195-200 passim, 203, 313; mujahidin policies against, 55, 115; under Musahibans, 35, 36, 38; in Nuristan, 79; among religious func tionaries, 280; during Republic of Afghanistan, 59, 63; among Sheikhanzai, 260, 262; in Vaygal Valley, 102-8 passim Cotton, 17 In Coup d’état of 1973. See Daoud, Mu hammad; Republic of Afghanistan Coup d’etat of 1978. See Khalq; Saur Revolution Courts (judicial): cases involving women, 323, 326; community avoidance of, 174, 198-99, 203; corruption in, 153, 174; Khalq sec ularization of, 126, 133; and links with Islam, 31, 34, 126, 152, 271- 72, 275; and litigation procedures, 104; as perceived by Sheikhanzai, 252-53; significance of recourse to, 223-24; Special Court for Family
Affairs, 331. See also Qazi Credit. See Debts, loans, interest rates Cuba, 169 Cures (by religious dignitaries), 151 Czechoslovakia, 70 Da Islami Jahad da Para da Kunar da Qaumuno Ettihad. See Kunar Tribal Alliance for the Islamic Holy War Dala, 79 Daoud, Muhammad: anti-corruption campaigns of, 199-200;coup against (1978), 119; coup by (1973), 41, 58, 78, 80; and emancipation for women, 196, 295, 308-9, 315, 324; and foreign aid, 36;Khalqpropagan da against, 200-201; and leftist op position, 157; and literacy courses, 321n; and Muslim opposition, 41, 110, 159; and nomad opposition, 262-63; ouster of, 43; reform pro grams of, 65 ; relations with Kalasha, 108, 109, 111; and Republic of Afghanistan, 59-62, 100, 124, 175, 245. See also Republic of Afghani stan. Dari, 38, 65, 84, 92, 239, 313, 321 Darra-iNur, 52, 119-35, 224n Darwaz, 145, 153, 157, 167 Dastigir, Ghulam, 91 Dawa, 243 Day of Resurrection, 217 Debts, loans, interest rates, 12-14,147, 179, 187-88, 291, 293-96, 298-99, 301 Decree No. 6, 12, 14, 186-89. See also Debts, loans, interest rates; Mort gages; Peasants Decree No. 7, 14,15,189-91, 201, 291305, 322-26. See also Mahr; Women Decree No. 8, 12, 192-95. See also Land; Land reform 377
Index Democratic Organization of Afghan Economy, 13-25,36-37,142,177,180, Women (DOAW), 314-15, 317, 320, 199, 264, 309. See also Merchants; 329-30, 336-39 passim Taxes Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Education: and attitudes toward state, (DRA): and land redistribution, 18153-59; in Badakhshan, 142, 147, 20; and opposition, 66, 68-69, 249, 152, 153-59; and class structure, 263, 264; organization of, 62; pro 238; development of secular educa paganda of, 63, 313-14,329; reform tion, 34, 38; effects of foreign aid policies of, 12, 65, 264, 312, 316, on, 36-37; among Ghilzai, 272; and 322-26, 330, 338; repressions of, Khalq-Parcham policies, 23, 125, 63. See also Khalq; Taraki, Nur M. 316, 321, 338; and mujahidin pol Des, 95, 105 icies, 334-35; under Musahibans, Difa-i Inqilab, 161. See also Revolution 34-38; in Nuristan, 100, 108, 109; ary Defense Forces religious education, 143, 152, 220n; Dihqan, 238 among Sheikhanzai, 252, 262; for Din, 31, 276, 279, 281 women, 196, 307-8, 310, 313, 318, Diniy khaluk, 276, 279 331 Education, Ministry of, 160, 317, 327, Dirham, 292n, 323 Disputes: arising from DRA land re 330, 334 forms, 189; government involvement Egypt, 69n, 329 in, 103-6,252; informal abjudication Elite: Communist support of, 169n; of, 198-99; mitigated by traditional departure of old elite, 43; and eman local leaders, 51, 83-85, 127-31, cipation for women, 296, 305, 310, 150-53, 173-74, 259-60, 278, 285318; in government, 119, 124-25, 86; in pir networks, 223-24. See also 263; and interethnic conflicts, 53, Courts (judicial); Feuds 244; and jihad against Khalq-
Par DOAW. See Democratic Organization cham, 42, 44-45, 56, 141; Kalasha of Afghan Women ties to, 100; and Khalq-Parcham pol DRA. See Democratic Republic of Af icies, 63-64, 88; old vs. new, 22-23, ghanistan 238; responses to fundamentalists, Dukandar, 238 116; responses to Khalq-Parcham, Durand Line, 101 159-64, 165-66, 183; responses to Durrani (Pashtun tribe), 58, 225n, 235Musahibans, 178-79; support of 45 passim, 249-65, 269-70, 273, Amanullah, 32 298-305 Environment. See Ecology Durrani, Ahmad Shah, 263, 313 Ethnic groups: and class, 230-46; and Durrani, Aisha, 313 cultural responses to outsiders, 68, 71, 78, 262; and education, 38;gov Ecology, 128, 145, 232,237, 252, 256, ernment vs. tribal structures, 171, 262, 265 253, 262-63; and Khalq-Parcham Economic behavior. See Merchants; policies. 111, 181, 204, 207, 291; Nomads; Subsistence and marriage concepts, 295, 299, Economic development, 36, 37, 40, 302-4; in the military, 36; and 296, 308. See also Decree No. 6; modernization, 254; and religious Decree No. 7; Decree No. 8; Foreign authority, 213, 229, 260, 263, 265, aid; Reforms 266-87; and resistance movement, 378
Index Ghazi Khan, 90, 93 Ghazni, 9, 13n, 38, 68, 217 Ghilzai/Ghiljai (Pashtun tribe), 49, 50, 235, 236, 237, 238, 267, 268 Ghor, 13, 231, 232, 250 Ghori, Mastura, 313 Ghulam bacha, 147n Gilgit (Pakistan), 139n Girishk, 13n, 249 Government (Afghan national): and differential privileges, 8-9, 54; and Faculty of Women, Kabul University, 314 emancipation for women, 178, 190, Faizabad, 145,148,153-63 passim, 167 196, 294-95, 307-12, 315, 320-26; Family Code, 190 Khalq-Parcham policies of, 179-83, Faqir, 270, 279, 286 195-206,320-26;underMusahibans, Farah, 13n, 68, 249, 252 34-35, 176-79; provincial adminis Farming. See Economy; Subsistence tration before 1978, 170-76; rela Farsiwan, 6, 241, 243, 253, 261, 262, tionship with rural populations, 7-8, 302-4. See also Dari 68, 123-25, 236, 242; relationship Faryab, 231, 232, 236 with rural populations: Badakhshan, Fayz, 151 141-44,147-49,151-52; relationship Feudal chief. See Khan with rural populations: Nuristan, Feudal social formations, 10, 16, 202, 79, 94, 97-118; relationship with 325. See also Peasants; Tribes; Vil rural populations: Sheikhanzai no lage structures mads, 249-5 3, 25 7, 262-63; and Feuds, 66-68, 84, 87, 96-98, 131-33, resistance movement, 9-10, 121-23, 252, 300. See also Disputes 161, 163-65, 245-46, 264-65; and Fidawi, Amana, 313 role of Islam, 31, 34-35, 151-52, Firuzkuhi, 234, 260 212, 224-25, 268-72, 281, 285. See Fitwas, 33 also Amanullah, Amir, PDPA simi Flag, 200, 206, 207 larities to; Bureaucracy; Government Foreign aid, 36, 37, 39, 153, 177, 272 officials; Kabul “Foreign mullahs.” See Mullaha-i Far-
Government officials: corruption angi among, 38, 50, 79, 102, 105-6,123Freedom fighters. See Mujahidin 25, 262; and foreign aid, 37; and Fundamentalists, 27, 42, 47, 69, 91, Khalq-Parcham policies, 24, 43, 88, 110-16 passim, 296, 334 134, 161, 198-202; as oppressors of local populations, 22; in provincial “Fundamental Principles of the Dem administration, 102-3, 105-7, 123ocratic Republic of Afghanistan,” 25,172-75, 242; religious dignitaries 330,338 in role of, 271-72,281 Gailani, Sayyid Ahmad, 43, 45, 69 Great Britain: and Afghan indepen Gawardesh. See Wushtrot dence, 32; and Afghan women, Ghafur Khan, ‘Abdul, 236 335n; and Anglo-Afghan Wars, 57, Gharibkar, 238 71, 228, 268, 272, 313; as enemy of Khalq, 69n, 201; intrigues in G hayrat, 277 45, 47, 53, 89, 115-16, 120, 140, 162, 164, 264; structures/conflicts of in Badakhshan, 145; structures/ conflicts of in Nuristan, 82,96,100, 106,114. See also Tribes and specif ic tribal and ethnic groups. Europe, 51n, 59, 72, 122,16n. See also West Exploitation, 10, 197 379
Index Afghanistan, 31, 78, 201n; and role of Islam, 270, 274-75, 283-84 Guerrillas. See Resistance “Gujaristan,” 90 Gujars, 84, 86, 87, 89, 90, 186 Gul Muhammad, 89, 90 Gulran, 251, 252 Gurziwan, 232 Habibiyah High School, 156 Habibullah, Amir (1901-19), 190, 221, 252, 294, 306, 307 Habibullah Ghazi. See Bacha-i Saqaw Habiburrahman, Shahid, 40 Hadd, 276 Haji, 259 Hakim,99, 148, 150, 231 Hanafi (Islam), 258, 261, 285 Haqiqat-i Inqilabi Saur. 328 Harakat-i Inqilab-i Islami, 45 Hashimi, Mansur, 154-56, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 167 Hazaragi (Persian dialect), 239 Hazaragi (sheep), 234 Hazarah, 6, 185-86, 206n, 222, 233-43 passim, 261, 268, 284, 303 Hazarajat, 9, 53, 206, 234, 235, 240, 298 Hazrat, 51, 149 Hazrat of Shor Bazar, 33, 155, 220, 269. See also Pir; Ruhani; Sufi Headmen, 50, 51. See also Arbab; Khan; Malik Helmand Valley, 36 Herat, 9, 13n, 68, 206, 250 Herawi, Spina, 313 Hikmatyar, Gulbudin, 46, 91, 92, 157n Hizb-i Islami, 46, 66, 91, 92, 157n, 226n,335 Holy war. See Jihad Holy war fighters. See Mujahidin Honor, 67, 181, 191, 276, 299, 300301, 305, 307, 310, 323, 333-34 Hospitals. See Medical services Hotak, Mir Ways, 313 Hotaki (Pashtun tribe), 236 Hujwiri, 217 Hukumat, 13n, 99, 100 Hungary, 70 Ibrahim Beg, 204 Ibtidaiya, 153, 154 Id-i Qurban, 202, 258 Ikhwan al-Muslimin (Afghan Muslim Brethren). See Muslim Youth Ikhwan al-Muslimin (Egyptian Islamic Brotherhood), 158 Ilbegi, 173 Imam, 220, 22In Imami, 145, 216, 220, 221, 222. See also Shi‘a Imam Sahib Valley, 171-73, 180, 224n India, 235, 272 Indus Kohistan, 274 Indus Valley, 273 Infidel. See Kafir Infrastructure.
See Communications and transportation Inqilab, 58n Intelligentsia. See Elite Interest rates. See Debts, loans, interest rates Interior, Ministry of, 108, 326, 328 Intertribal conflict See Feuds Iqamat, 147 Iran, 69n, 70, 72, 194, 221, 250, 252, 255, 259, 265 Iraq, 221 Irrigation, 128 Ishan, 51, 149, 234. See also Pir Ishaqzai (Pashtun tribe), 235, 236, 244, 250, 252, 255, 298 Ishaqzai, Taju Khan, 252 Ishkashim, 146, 163 Ishkashimi (ethnic group in Badakh shan), 145 Islam: and acceptance of Khalq-Parcham, 167; and conept of jihad, 4, 28-33, 141; conversion of Nuristan to, 98, 99, 109; and fundamentalist activities vs. government, 101 ; under 380
Index “Fundamental Principles of DRA,” 330; and jihad vs. Amanullah, 3441; and marriage and family law, 296-97, 299, 306, 323; Marxist stance against, 111-12, 125-26,144, 181-82, 203, 206-7, 246; and re ligious authority, 258-63, 266-87; role in government of, 51-52, 86, 124, 178, 211-13, 292n; role in resistance movement of, 25-27, 42, 44-49, 54-5 7, 114-16, 140-41, 169, 225-27, 229; and role of JIA, 158, 164, 168; and role of women, 191, 196, 307-8, 329, 334; structures in Badakhshan of, 145, 149-53; as symbol of cultural identity, 249. See also Islamic coalitions; Islamic sects; Shari’a Islamic coalitions: as sociopolitical units, 52, 211, 214-15, 222-24, 22829; structures of, 215-22 Islamic sects, 162, 207, 240, 268. See also Imami; Isma’ili; Shi'a Sunni Islamic Union of Northern Provinces of Afghanistan, 53 Islamic Unity of Afghan Mujahidin, 48, 53,54,55, 56, 168n Isma'ili, 145, 147, 148, 150, 162-63, 167, 216, 219-23 Ismaydan, 236 Israel, 69n Istismar, 197 Itihadi Islami Baray Azadyi Afghani stan, 46 Itihadi Islami Mujahidini Afghanistan. See Islamic Unity of Afghan Muja hidin Jabha, 163 Jabha-i Milli Nijat, 45, 91, Jabha-i Nuristan, 92 Jadran (Pashtun tribe), 71 Jalalabad, 103, 127, 202 Jama’a, 280, 283 Jamhuriat-i Demokratik-i ganistan. See Khalq Jamiat-i Islami Afghanistan (JIA), 32, 46, 98, 115, 158, 161-68 passim Jamiat-i ‘ulama. See ‘Ulama Jamshidi, 253 Jat, 234 Jawanan-i Musulman. See Muslim Youth Jawzjan, 231, 232, 236, 298 Jest. See Wurjest JIA. See Jamiat-i Islami Afghanistan Jihadt against Amanullah, 34-41; in terpretations and misinterpretations of,
27-30, 284; in Marxist terminol ogy, 89, 321; in political culture of Afghanistan, 4, 30-33, 263; and religious dignitaries, 212, 278; in resistance movement, 5, 42-49, 52, 56-57, 141. See also Mujahidin; Re sistance Jilga Valley, 185 Jirgah. See Loya Jirgah Jirib, 17, 186, 192, 193, 195n Juggi, 234, 235 Jurm, 145, 153, 154, 155, 157, 162 Kabir, Muhammad, 87, 90, 92, 93 Kabul: Badakhshani students in, 154; Communist groups in, 163, 318; and differential privileges, 38n; emanci pation for women in, 196, 310, 313, 332, 336; Marxist demonstrations in, 201, 325, 332, 337; Marxist protection of elites in, 51, 169n; political opposition in, 9, 39, 45, 50, 66, 165, 178, 206n, 244; as seat of central government,103,172;and Second Anglo-Afghan War, 57. See also Government Kabul province, 13n Kabul University, 41, 47, 61, 108,154201 58 passim, 179, 314, 318, 322 Kachani, 234, 238 Kachan Valley, 234 Kafir(s), 49, 96, 116-17, 125-26, 144, 203, 257, 267, 278, 284 Khalq-i Af Kafiristan, 78, 96. See also Nuristan 381
Index Kakar, 236 Kalasha (of the Vaygal Valley), 49, 81, 94-118 Kamdesh. See Kombron Kamdesh district, 77, 87 Kamisar, 150 Kamu, 90 Kamyar, Ruhafza, 314 Kandahar, 206n, 214n, 313, 321, 333, 336 Kandahar province, 13n Kandahar riots (1959), 164, 178 Kapisa, 68 Karamat, 216, 217, 218, 219 Karimi, Ghulam Ali, 331 Karim Khan, Prince. See Aga Khan Karmal, Babrak: deposition of, 64, 316-17; under DRA, 62; as head of government, 327, 337n; and negoti ations for Khalq-Parcham coalition, 61; and reform policies, 10, 21, 205n, 330, 335, 336. See also Khalq-Parcham coalition; Parcham Kashghar, 143 Kashmund Qala, 120, 125 Kati, 77, 82, 89 Kayan, 222 Khalifah, 150, 219 Khalili, 302 Khalis, M. Yunus, 46, 47 Khalq: anti-Islamic stance of, 80, 88; evolution of, 39, 60; and factional struggles with Parcham, 44, 64,160, 184, 316-17; increased repressions of, 160, 161; opposition to Musahibans of, 40, 41; organization and membership composition of, 31820; Pashtun dominance of, 112, 156; propaganda campaigns of, 8990, 200-201, 318; reform policies of 186-99, 202, 207-8, 320-26; during Republic of Afghanistan, 41, 61; resistance to, 162, 168; responses to reform policies of, 203-5; and Saur Revolution, 77, 159, 170,184; similarities to Amanullah of, 186, 205-6; and Soviet invasion, 183, 332 Khalq Organization of Afghan Women (KOAW), 317, 318, 320, 321, 325, 326, 330. See also Democratic Orga nization of Afghan Women Khalq Organization of Afghan Youth (KOAY),318 Khalq-Parcham coalition: anti-Islamic stance of, 97-98, 111, 116; and dif ferential privileges, 9, 54; dissolu tion of, 64, 332;
factional struggles within, 44, 316; jihad against, 27, 42, 44, 52; organization and mem bership composition of, 41, 184, 318-20; Pashtun dominance of, 122; reforms of, 10-25, 179-83, 337-38; repressions of, 43-44; resistance to, 4-5, 49, 135, 139-40, 159, 164-67, 169; similarities to Amanullah of, 183; Soviet domination of, 50; support for, 43 Khan(s): and class structure, 238, 244; as feudal landlords, 10, 18, 87, 127, 133, 148, 236, 237; government repression of, 196-97; local opposi tion to, 50-51, 241-44;opposition to Amanullah of, 33, 34; and religious authority, 278, 281; in resistance movement, 5, 42, 122, 164. See also Mir Khan, Gengis, 233 Khanabad, 195 Khash Valley, 162, 163 Khawhan (Badakhshan), 145 Khaybar, Mir Akbar, 62 Khayrat, 258 Khayr Muhammad Khan, Haji, 236 Khel, 273 Khomeini, Ayatolla, 216, 22 In, 225 Khost, 206, 269, 275n Khost Rebellion, 176, 308 Khujah, 150, 234 Khutan, 143 Kinship: and class structures, 230; and group feuds, 67-68; and marriage, 382
Index 302-4; in pir networks, 216-18,221, 223-24; as political factor, 180-82; structures of in Badakhshan, 149; structures of in Darra-i Nur, 129-31; structures of inNuristan, 81-82,100; structures of among Sheikhanzai, 255-57, 261-62. See also Women Kirghiz, 6, 50, 144, 145, 160 Kishim (Badakhshan), 145, 153 Kishtmand, Sultan Ali, 156, 201 KOAW. See Khalq Organization of Af ghan Women KOAY. See Khalq Organization of Af ghan Y outh Kohistan. See Indus Kohistan Kohistanis (Gawars), 89 Kom (Nuristani tribe), 77-86,90, 93 Kombron (Kamdesh), 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 106 Ksto (Nuristani tribe), 77, 82 Ktivi, 82 Kukcha River, 161 Kunarhar province, 103n Kunar Tribal Alliance for the Islamic Holy War, 78, 92, 93 Kunar Valley, 68, 77, 86-93 passim, 96, 103, 116, 120-22, 196 Kuran, 162, 166 Kurani (ethnic group in Badakhshan), 145 Kuranumunjan, 146 Kust, 82 89, 192-95, 238, 291; size and distribution of, 18-20, 22, 127-29, 146, 193, 216, 251, 262, 298. See also Khan(s) Land reforms, 12, 13, 15-25, 161,181, 195n. See also Decree No. 8 Law, 275, 310. See also Shari'a Lawrence, T.E., 201n Leaders (local): government officials as, 105, 118, 123-25, 149, 173-74; and religious authority, 211, 213, 255-60, 272, 273; and resistance movement, 45-46, 78, 86-92, 113, 116, 120-22, 141, 164, 168; tradi tional elite as alternative power structure, 34-35, 39, 43, 50-52, 8286, 122, 127-33, 148, 171, 196-97, 244, 291. See also Arbab; Bay, Fundamentalists; Khan(s); Malik; Mir; Miyan; Mullah(s); Pir; Sheikh Legitimacy of government. See State legitimacy Lenin, V.I., 144, 320 Literacy, 12, 23, 320, 321,
334 Loans. See Debts, loans, interest rates Logar, 9, 46 Loyajirgah, 33, 59, 68, 183 Loy wuluswali, 103 Madrasah, 47, 143, 147, 150, 152, 157 Mahak, Dilara, 317, 326 Mahaz-i Milli Islami, 45, 335 Mahr: consequences of reforms among Laborers, 10, 198, 238, 245, 299, 301, Durrani, 298-305; definition of, 309 14n, 306; history of reforms on, Laghman, 78, 120 190, 293-97, 306-7, 310; in KhalqLakan Khel nomads, 185 Parcham reforms, 12, 14, 179, 181, Lalmi, 16, 146 186, 292, 323 Majlis-i A'yan, 34 Lal-o-Sarjangal, 231 Landay Sin Valley, 77, 80, 88, 89, 90, Majlis-i Shura, 34 106 Majruh, Shamsuddin, 92 Landholdings and ownership: and class Makhdum. Sec Pir structures, 238; feudal nature of, 10, Malak Baba, 122 16-17; and marriage, 299-301; and Malalay, 313, 314, 332 reclamation, 171; and reforms, 15- Malalay Girls’ School (Kabul), 314 18, 20-23, 81, 135, 140, 179, 186- Malang, 270, 279, 284 383
Index Milmastya, 300 Maldar, 238 Ming bashi, 173 Malik, 34, 259. See also Leaders Maliki (non-Pashtun tribe), 236, 237, Mir, 91, 147n, 148, 166. See also 243, 302 Leaders Mir, Muhammad, 48 Mangai (Pashtun tribe), 71 Mirab, 149 Mansoor (Mawlawi), 48 Manugi (Nuristan), 101, 102,103,108, Mir Beg, 120, 123, 125, 126 Mishwani (Pashtun tribe), 84, 87, 89 112, 113 Marat, 130n Miyan, 51, 270, 276, 278, 279, 285. See also Leaders Marmol, 48 Marriage. See Women Mo’azin, 48 Marx, Karl, 144 Modernization. See Reforms Marxist(s) : evolution in Afghanistan of, Moghol (tribe), 236 60-62; opposition to Amanullah of, Mongol, 233 165; rhetoric of in Khalq-Parcham Mortgages, 12, 13, 186, 187, 188, 189 regime, 44,65,111-12,125-26,321; Mosque, 147, 150, 151, 152, 258,281, resistance to, 56, 77, 97-98, 119, 282 134-35, 139,158-62,264; resistance Mountain Tajiks, 145, 147 of Islamic coalitions to, 213-15,229; Muhajirin, 143 support for, 139, 244-45; views on Muhammad (Prophet), 29, 274, 278, Afghan resistance of, 3-5, 10, 226n. 282 See also Khalq-Parcham coalition Muhammadi, Muhammad Nabi, 45, 46 Marxist regime. See Khalq-Parcham co Muhammad Jon, 87 alition Muhammadzai, 58, 111, 119,122,125, Mas’ud, Ahmad Shah, 48 127, 133, 135. See also Musahiban Mawlawi, 51, 152-55 passim, 168, dynasty 201n, 259, 277, 285. See also Mul- Muhmand (Pashtun tribe), 101, 236 lah(s) Muhmand, Muhammad Gul Khan, 242 Maymana, 13n, 232, 233, 235, 236, Mujadidi, Sibghatullah, 45, 91, 201. 304 See also Hazrat of Shor Bazar Maywand, 313 Mujahidin-, commitment to Islam of, Mazar. See Ziyarat 49, 52, 214-15; divergence of
views Mazar-i Sharif, 13n, 197n, 236, 237, among, 47-48; impediments against, 333 53-55, 56-57, 72; interpretations Mecca, 143, 258, 274 and confusion about, 27, 214-15, Media. See Newspapers; Press; Radio 225-27; programsof, 55-56, 334-35; and television; Radio Kabul reliance on local leaders of, 50; and Medical College (Kabul University), 314 resistance movement, 162-64, 168, Medical services, 108,142, 308, 316 332, 333, 334. See also Political Meer Wauez, 212 parties; Resistance Merchants, 37, 106, 143, 177, 187n, Mujtahid, 22 In Mulkdar, 238 238, 262, 272 Merik, 81 Mullah(s): and fundamentalism, 27, 91, Merjon, 87 309-10; as opportunistic or corrupt, Merorm, 88 50, 271, 280-82; opposition to Military conscription. See Conscription Amanullah of, 33, 308; in resistance 384
Index Nazr, 151 Newspapers, 92, 200, 201, 307, 328, 331 Niyazi, Ghulam Muhammad, 158, 159 Nomads, 249-65; and class structures, 231-40 passim; herding activities of, 130-31,145,173-74; and Khalq-Parcham land reforms, 20; in resistance movement, 141; sedentarization of, 15, 185n North-West Frontier Province, 201, 275, 283, 284, 286 Nur, Nur Muhammad, 64 Nuristan, 9, 53, 68, 77-118, 131, 134, 206, 225n. See also Nuristani Nuristani, 6, 7, 8, 15, 335, 337n Nuristani Front, 92 Nurzai (Pashtun tribe), 236 movement, 88, 168, 201n; role in conquest of Nuristan of, 99; as traditional local leaders, 51,151-53, 182, 211-13, 218-21, 256-59, 270, 276-78, 284-86. See also Mawlawi; ‘Ulama Mullaha-i Farangi, 33 Mullah imam, 152 Mum, 82 Mumo (Nuristani tribe), 77, 82, 88 Mumorm (Nuristan), 90 Munjani (ethnic group in Badakhshan), 145 Murid, 151,152, 216, 259, 260, 261 Musahiban dynasty, 33-39, 41-47 pas sim, 51-54, 80, 171-72, 175-83, 285. See also Muhammadzai Mushk-i Alam/Mushk-i Alim, 212, 269 Muslim Brethren. See Ikhwan al-Muslimin; Jawanan-i Musulman Muslim Youth, 39-44, 158, 159, 161, 201 Mutawasitah, 153, 156 Oath-taking, 198 Oruzgan, 13n, 68 Ottoman, 254 Oxus River. See Amu Darya Oygul, 130n Nadir Shah, 8, 33, 170, 173,176,204n 269-70, 273, 308, 314 Nahid, Jamilah, 326n Nahidah, 332 Nahrin, 14, 184-208 Naim Khan, Muhammad, 60, 61, 244 Nanawatay, 300 Nangalam (Nuristan), 112 Nangarhar, 9, 13n, 36, 38, 103n Nangarhar University (Jalalabad), 334 Nangiy pakhtanah. See Pakhtunwali Naqib, 33n Naqshbandi, 151, 259 Narang, 86 Nasser, Gamal Abdul, 158 Nationalism, 12, 31, 36-38, 62, 64,
165, 200 National Liberation Front, 45, 91, 201 National United Front, 46, 48 Nazarzai (Pashtun tribe), 22, 235, 239, 241, 242, 243 Nazo, 313 Padawan, 149 Padshah gardushi, 43 Paghman, 157, 222 Pahlawan, 198 Pakhtanah. See Pakhtunwali Pakhto/Pakhtu. See Pashto Pakhtun. See Pashtun Pakhtunwali, 275, 276, 278, 282, 283. See also Pashtunwali Pakistan: Afghan refugees in, 72, 89, 160, 164, 321; as headquarters for Afghan resistance, 6n, 44, 91, 115; intervention in Afghanistan of, 69n, 329; land reforms in, 194; and Pashtunistan, 54n, 110; relations with Daoud of, 60, 15 7n Paktya, 13n, 38n, 68, 71 Palwashah, Jamilah, 327 Pamir, 145 Panjsher Valley, 41, 48, 157n Panj Ulla, 120, 123 385
Index lations with government of, 172, Parcham: evolution of, 39n, 60; and 205; role in resistance of, 141, 162, factional struggles with Khalq, 64, 163; in Sitami Milli program, 157; 160, 184, 204,316-17; organization support of Khalq-Parcham of, 160. and membership composition of, 156, 318-20; resistance to, 332-33; See also Agriculture and Soviet invasion, 183; support Pec River Valley, 97, 100, 101, 102, for Daoud of, 41, 59, 61 106, 112, 113 Parcham, 315 People’s Democratic Party of Afghan Parliament. See Loya Jirgah; Majlis-i istan (PDPA). See Khalq; KhalqA‘yan; Majlis-i Shura Parcham coalition Parsiwan. See Farsiwan People’s Republic of China, 69,142-44 Parwan, 13n, 68 passim, 15 7n, 160n, 169, 219, 294, Pashai, 7, 34, 120 329, 338 Pashto, 38, 79n, 84, 92, 106,120, 239, Persian. See Dari; Farsiwan 282, 302, 313 Peshawar, 44, 69, 91-93 passim, 139n, Pashtu. See Pashto 157n, 161-62, 201,259 Pashtun(s): as Afghans, 6n, 96n, 239; Pir, 51, 149-52, 213-18, 220-24, 256, differential privileges of, 38, 53, 259-61, 270, 276-82, 284-86. See 177, 246; ethnic identity among, also Aghajan; Mullah(s); Ruhanv, Sheikh; ‘Ulama 240-41; immigration to north of, 185, 235, 236, 238, 250-52; and Pirzadah. See Pir interethnic conflict, 53, 54n, 96, Police, 34, 123, 147n, 172, 175, 269, 333. See also Commandant 114-17, 157, 237, 242-45; intrigues among, 99; prevalence in govern Political behavior: and marriage, 297ment of, 109, 118, 121, 141, 153, 304; and religious authority, 211, 249-65, 266-87; among resistance 172, 295; prevalence in Khalq of, groups, 48, 113-16; and resistance 156,
167; relations with government of, 7, 22, 100-101, 106, 145, 176, movement, 91-93, 120-22, 133, 205; and religious authority, 49, 154; in rural administration, 79, 123-25, 180; and traditional local 252-62, 266-87; Sheikhanzai nomad group of, 249-65; support for re leadership, 51, 79-86, 127-33, 148. See also Disputes; Ethnic groups; sistance groups of, 56, 110; tribal ideology among, 6, 7, 171 Feuds; Islamic coalitions; Leaders; Pashtunistan, 54n, 110 Resistance; Symbols; Tribes Pashtunkot, 236 Political parties, 45, 46, 48, 91, 178, 213, 273, 318-20. See also Afghan Pashtunwali, 6n. See also Pakhtunwali Millat; Harakat-i Inqilab-i Islami; Pathan. See Pashtun Hizb-i Islami; Itihadi Islami Baray Patrilineality. See Tribes Azadyi Afghanistan; Itihadi Islami Pazhingar (Nuristan), 87 PDPA. See Khalq; Khalq-Parcham co Mujahidini Afghanistan; Jamiat-i Islami Afghanistan; Khalq; Mahaz-i alition Peasants: and class structure, 238,245; Milli Islami;Muslim Youth; National and Khalq-Parcham reforms, 11-12, Liberation Front; National United 17-22, 135, 167,186-89,194,291n; Front; Parcham; Sazmani Azadilandholdings of, 16-18, 146; as op bakhsh-i Mardum-i Afghanistan; pressed group, 10-11, 242-44; re Shu‘la-i Jawid; Sitami Milli 386
Index Popalzai (Pashtun tribe), 236 Press, 27, 200 Price controls, 23, 199, 203. See also Economy, Land reforms;Merchants; Mortgages Proletariat. See Laborers Pul-i Khumri, 202, 204 Purdah, 191, 307 Qadir, ‘Abdul, 201, 204 Qala, 128 Qaryadar. See Arbab; Malik Qataghan, 13n, 148, 186, 222 Qawm, 284 Qays, 274, 284 Qazi, 102, 123, 152; corruption of, 132, 150; Gilzai Pashtun view of, 280-83; and government legitimacy, 124; as keepers ofShari‘a, 276,284; mullahs appointed as, 271. See also Courts Qunduz, 148, 157, 170-72 Quran, 71, 267, 270, 274, 280, 282; instruction of, 258, 259, 277; and legal reforms for women, 294, 306, 309; oaths on, 86, 198, 199; and pakhtunwali, 276; political direc tives of, 55; and Shari’a, 278; verses on fighting in, 28 Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 32,46,54,154, 157-59, 161, 164-65 Radio and television (foreign), 65n, 69 Radio Kabul (Radio Afghanistan), 65, 167, 200; broadcast of Parchami plot on, 64; educational programs for women on, 331; Khalq-Parcham reforms on, 12, 312; reports of re sistance in Nahrin on, 205 Rafi, Colonel M., 201 Ragh (in Badakhshan), 145 Rahman, ‘Abdur (Amir): conquest of Badakhshan by, 139n, 148; conquest of Nuristan by, 78, 94, 98, 99, 268; conquest of Türkistan by, 232-33, 235; land appropriations of, 22n; marriage reforms of, 190, 207, 294, 306-7, 324; and Pashtun settlement in north, 235, 250-53; policy of direct rule of, 171, 196-97, 212, 252-53, 270n, 271; and role of Islam in government, 31, 165, 200, 268-69, 271-73, 285; weakening of mullahs by, 212, 271 Rahman, ‘Abdur (Mawlawi), 168 Rahman Qui, Haji, 160 Raids. See Feuds
Ramazan, 88, 258 Rashid, ‘Abdur, 274 Rashid, Qays ‘Abdur, 241 Rasul Khan, Ghulam, 242 Ratib, Ahmad, 314 Ratibzad, Anahita, 64n, 319, 321n, 326n; address to Kabul teachers by, 312-13; biography of, 314-16; chair of International Conference of Women, 337-39; interview with Soviet Woman, 330; on literacy training, 331; party and government appointments of, 316, 317, 327, 336, 337, 339; views on M. Amin of, 327-28 Reforms (policies and programs): of Amanullah, 33, 176, 294, 307-8; of Daoud’s republic, 56, 295, 310-11; of five-year plans, 36-37; of Habibullah, 306-7; implementation of, 17981, 186-202, 246, 320, 332, 339; of Khalq-Parcham, 10-25, 65, 69, 110, 111, 179-81;ofKhalq-Parcham compared with others, 13-14, 17, 179-83, 190, 193-94, 196-97, 199, 200-201, 205-8, 295-96; of Musahibans, 177-78, 308-10; of‘Abdur Rahman, 13-14, 190, 196-97, 207, 306-7 ; reactions to Khalq-Parcham, 11, 203-5, 206-8, 264; for women, 327-39. See also Decree No. 6; Decree No. 7; Decree No. 8; Land reforms; Women. Refugees, 6n, 50, 72,143-44,160,164, 167 387
Index 269-70; and role of Islam, 26-28, Religion. See Islam; Mullah(s); Pir; 42, 126, 215n, 225-26,263-64,283; Sheikh; ‘Ulama by Safi Pakhtuns, 100-101, 112, Religious leaders. See Mullah(s); Pir; 113; in Saripul, 242; by Sheikhanzai, Ruhani; Sheikh; ‘Ulama Relocation. See Sedentarization and 263, 265; by Sitami Milli, 160, 163, 166; by women, 332-36. See also resettlement Jihad; Mujahidin Republic of Afghanistan (1973-78), 41, 295; constitutional developments in, Revolutionary Council (DRA), 291, 59; government and policies of, 59, 315 171; Kalasha relationship with, 100, Revolutionary Defense Forces, 160 101, 104-5, 109; Khalq-Parcham Reza Shah (of Iran), 176 activities during, 61-62; policies Risk safed, 149, 150, 152 toward Muslim Youth of, 41,59-61; Roads. See Communications and trans reforms during, 17,59,193-94,310; portation relations with Khalq-Parcham, 41 Ruhani, 33, 43, 44, 45, 149, 161. See also Akhundzadah; Miyan; Pir; Resettlement. See Sedentarization and resettlement Sheikh; Sufi Resistance (to foreign invasions): Rural populations: agrarian relations against British-India, 71, 283; by among (Marxist view), 16-17; agri Safawids, 269; similarity to Yugoslav cultural production rate of, 16; and Amanullah, 34, 205; and differential partisan movements, 72-73; against Soviets, 25, 71, 264, 332-34, 336; privileges of elite, 40, 173, 263; women’s role in, 335n, 336 education among, 38, 153-59; and Resistance and opposition (to govern feuds, 66; impact of Decree No. 6 ment): against Amanullah, 32-33, on, 13-14; impact of Decree No. 7 on, 15; andKhalq-Parcham
reforms, 205-8 passim, 213, 270-71; assess ment of causes of, 9, 11-12, 15, 21, 24-25, 180-82, 205, 206, 291; and 23-28, 66, 206-8, 326; in Badakh khans in Musahiban government, 34shan, 139, 141, 143, 162, 164-69; 35; land mortgage and indebtedness in Bamyan, 214;inDarra-iNur, ПЭamong, 13; leadership structures 25 passim, 133-35; and ethnicity, among, 35, 39, 148-52, 171-75, 53-54, 162-63, 204,207; by Ghilzai, 182, 282; and mujahidin, 48-49,56, 269-71; ideology and structure of 164-6 6; and Musahiban development current movement, 44-52, 182; by programs, 37, 177-78; percentage in JIA, 167; against Khalq-Parcham, 9, country of, 15; political economy 15, 42-57, 66-68, 164-65, 182-83, in Badakhshan of, 145-48; reactions 204-6, 214, 263, 325-26, 332; by to Khalq-Parcham coup of, 43, 160, Kirghiz, 160, 163; against Musahi206; relations with government of, bans, 271; and Muslim Youth move 102, 104,110-12,118,171-77; and ment, 43-44, 46; in Nahrin, 204, resistance movement, 27, 48-49, 207; among non-Pashtun groups 141, 162-64; support for Khalq(1929-75), 7-8, 162, 163; in NuriParcham of, 160, 163; worsening stan, 77, 88-94, 112-14, 116; pros economic conditions among, 39 pects for current movement, 52-57; Rushanfikran, 32 against ‘Abdur Rahman, 98, 99; Russians. See Soviet Union and religious leaders, 27, 212-14, Rustaq, 204 388
Index Sada-i Nuristan, 92 Safi (Pashtun tribe): alliance with Darra-i Nur peoples, 121, 122; and Kabul Conference (December 1980), 337n; living conditions of, 97; re lations with government of, 101, 106-12; relations with Kalasha of, 101, 109, 113, 118; relations with Mir Beg, 120; revolt among, 100, 164 Saint. See Faqir; Hazrat; Khujah; Malang; Miyan; Pir; Ruhani; Sayyid; Shah; Sufi; Wali Samarqand, 143, 232 Sangcharak, 231, 232, 236 Sarhadar, 150 Saripul, 22, 49, 204, 231-46 passim, 298 Saudi Arabia, 159, 255 Saur Revolution (1978 coup d’état), 3, 58n, 330, 337, 338; and educational reforms, 125; and fall of Musahiban dynasty, 41, 43; and female educa tion, 196; and Kalasha-government relations, 109, 110; and military conscription, 125; and National Or ganization for the Defense of the Revolution, 326; and responses in Badakhshan, 141, 154, 160, 163; changes in Darra-i Nur prior to, 124; disposal of land following, 195; effects on Kalasha, 97, 113; events following, 77, 111, 204; events leading up to, 61-62, 132, 165; Khalq and Parcham organization prior to, 60-61;Khalq-Parcham com petition following, 140; marriage reforms and, 291, 296-97; Marxist view of, 10, 11, 180; organization of youth of Badakhshan prior to, 159; parade for anniversary of, 332; proposed reforms and policies of, 179, 184; reactions in Darra-i Nur, 123,127,133; responses of Nuristan leaders to, 86, 93; reactions and opposition to, 43, 119, 135, 139, 170, 230, 246, 263; role of Islam in resistance to, 26; Sitami Milli prior to, 157; status of women prior to, 306-12; status of women following,
312-15, 317; urban class and, 179 Sayyaf, Abdur Rabbur Rasul, 46 Sayyid: 269, 274, 276, 279, 282; as ethnic group, 234, 237, 238, 240; in Isma’ili communities in Badakhshan, 150; as source of religious authority, 51, 278 Sayyid Ahmad Gailani. See Gailani, Sayyid Ahmad Sayyid Qutb, 158 Sazman (Organization), 161 Sazmani Azadibakhshi Mardumi Af ghanistan (SAMA), 45 Sedentarization, 7, 253, 261, 263: and increase in cultivated lands, 15; of Pashtun, 101, 250-52. See also No mads Shah, 149. See also Saint; Sayyid Shahid (martyr), 335 Shah Mahmood, 212, 314 Shahran-i Khash, 153 Shahri Buzurg (in Badakhshan), 145 Shamsuddin Majruh, 92 Shara'iyat, (journal), 158 Shari’a (Islamic law): association with strife among Ghilzai, 285-86; as legal interpretation of Quran, 278; and marriage and family laws, 296, 323; and mediation of Islam among Ghilzai, 266, 267, 275-77 passim, 284; in relation to Pashtun Ghilzai identity, 280-81, 283, 285; uses of for political control, 31, 165, 271, 292n Sharwal (mayor), 202n Sheikh, 110, 245, 270, 279, 284. See also Saint; Sufi; Mullah Sheikhanzai (Pashtun tribe), 7, 49, 51, 249-65 Sher Agha, 269, 270. See also Hazrat of Shor Bazar Shewa, 120, 121, 123, 127 389
Index 327; and desertion of Muslim Cen Shi‘a(s), Shi‘ite(s): ‘Abdur Rahman’s tral Asian troops in Afghanistan, policies toward, 268; conception of 171; effects on resistance, 27, 47, wali (saint), 217n; Ghilzai’s views of, 77, 163, 167; and political indoc 269, 282, 284; groups in Badakh trination, 339; as savior of Khalqshan, 145, 146; Hazarahs, 223; pir Parcham regime, 183; Zahir Shah’s coalition among Hazarahs, 222-23; pirs compared with Sunni pirs in appeal to people against, 46 Bamyan, 219-20; Sheikhanzai view Soviet Union: aid to Musahiban dynas ty, 36; and Afghan military, 59, 61, of Hazarah as, 261; and Sunni rela 68, 69, 122; Afghan womens resis tions in Saripul, 240. See also Imami; Isma'ili tance against, 333, 336; Amanullah’s ties with, 32n; attitudes toward, Shiburghan, 13n, 233, 235, 236 Shinwar, 89 246; Babrak Karmal as a puppet of, Shinwari (Pashtun tribe), 101, 236, 10; and basmachi movement, 204n, 337n 226n; borders with Badakhshan, Shirin Tagaw, 232 142; characterization of Afghan re sistance by, 12,25,26; consequences Shishpar (tribe), 236 Shor Darya, 232 of economic aid by, 47 ; historians’ Shrine. See Ziyarat view of Amanullah’s failure, 201n; Shughnan, 146, 147, 153, 155, 160, impact of closed borders on people 167, 222 in north by, 9, 142-44, 172, 174; Shughni, 53, 145 influence over Daoud, 41; Islam Shu‘la-i Jawid (Eternal Flame Party), and resistance against, 213n, 21443,45, 157 15, 225n; and Khalq-Parcham coup, Sibghatullah Mujadidi. See Mujadidi, 139; and Khalq-Parcham “nationali Sibghatullah ties policy,” 54: military position Siddiqi,
Professor Mrs. R. S., 325 of, 72, 121; mobilization of Afghans Siraj ul-Benat (Queen), 307 against, 52, 133, 169; promotion of Sistan, 304 Pashtun dominance by, 157; protec Sitami Milli (Against National Oppres tion of Afghan communists, 40; as enemy of Afghanistan and Islam, 49sion Party): armed opposition to Khalq-Parcham in Badakhshan, 160, 50; reported annexation of Wakhan 161; decimation of members in Corridor by, 163, 167; scholar’s Badakhshan, 163,168; formation of views on agrarian relations in Af by Tahir Badakhshi, 156; ideology ghanistan, 16; as sponsors of KhalqParcham parties and government, of, 157; initial support of Khalq25, 111, 119, 160, 202, 203, 206-8, Parcham, 43, 160; relations to na 214, 229, 230, 249, 257; weakness tional policy, 165 Slaves, 96, 110, 148 of resistance against, 93, 264; West Smuggling. See Corruption ern journalists characterization of Soviet invasion, 3, 119, 141, 184, 245: resistance against, 27 as dangerous precedent, 70; as anath Spina Herawi, 313 ema to Afghans, 332; as cause of Spinzar Cotton Company, 171n, 172n jihad, 56, 57; as cause for tribal State: Burhanuddin Rabbani’s model of unity, 71 ; and changes in Democrat Islamic, 55; conflicts about legitima ic Organization of Afghan Women, cy of, 56, 112, 126, 164; competi390
Index tion for control of, 140, 164-65, 166, 168; conditions in Darra-i Nur before incorporation in Afghan, 132; consequences of incorporation of Nuristanis into the Afghan, 94, 117-18; Islam and legitimacy of, 124, 165, 166, 168, 181, 200, 25 7; monarchy as symbolic focus of, 38; Muslim Youth’s conception of, 40; opposition against, 139, 265; role of Islam in development of, 30-36, 165; Sheikhanzai attitude toward Afghan, 257, 263. See also Ama nullah, Amir; Government; Kabul; Khalq-Parcham; Musahiban; Rah man, ‘Abdur Subsidies, to Pashtun tribes, 5, 8, 9, 177, 271 Subsistence (rural economies): as bases of Afghan economy, 180; conditions influencing farming, 17-20; demo graphic increase in Saripul and, 23738; economy and ethnic relations in Western Türkistan, 234, 302-4; economy and significance of social relations, 181, 255-56; egalitarian aspects of Sheikhanzai nomads, 261 ; government bias against nomadic, 251, 254-55, 262; importance of herding in Darra-i Nur, 131; land reform and, 20-22, 192, 194; orga nization of among Kalasha, 95-96; organization of in Darra-i Nur, 12830; percent of population engaged in, 15; problems of among Kalasha, 97; raiding in Darra-i Nur as a factor in, 132; seasonal patterns of activity in, 66-67; significance of marriage and exchange in, 297-302; Soviet characterization of production in, 16-17; structure in Badakhshan, 146-47; structure in Nahrin, 185-86; structure in Western Türkistan, 232. See also Agriculture; Land; Land ownership; Land reform; Merchants; Nomads Sufi(sm): as basis for religious leader ship, 51, 150-51; compared
with other religious figures among Ghilzai, 279-80, 284; as friends of God, 217; leaders as pivotal figures in networks, 216, 219-20; leaders role in opposition to Amanullah, 33; role of leaders among Ghilzai, 270; role of leaders among Sheikhanzai, 259. See also Naqshbandi; Pir; Ruhani; Tariqa; Wali Sulayman Khel, 273 Sultan Ali Kishtmand, 156 Sultan Muhammad Khan, 212 Sultana Umayd, 313 Sunnat (custom, e.g. of the Prophet), 267, 274, 276, 278, 280, 283, 284 Sunni, Sunism: of Central Badakhshan and Jawanan-i Musulman move ment, 158-59; of Central Badakh shan in Kabul schools, 154, 157; conversion of Hazarahs to, 234, 240; and development of concept of wali, 217n; groups in Badakhshan, 145-47 passim; Islamic coalitions in Bamyan, 222; as majority sect in Af ghanistan, 233; as official state sect, 269; opposition to Khalq-Parcham and the Soviets, 168; religious estab lishments in Badakhshan, 150, 152; and Shi’a relations in Badakhshan, 147-48, 167; and Shi'a relations in Saripul region, 240; population in Bamyan, 222; Sufi leaders, 222 Suraya (Queen), 307, 308, 314 Suraya (cousin of Karmal), 326n, 327, 329n Swat (Pakistan), 266, 286 Symbols, symbolic; interpretations of jihad in Afghanistan, 225, 229; of Islam as a basis of unity and identity, 126, 249, 265; of Islam as moti vating force in politics, 123, 134, 266; Darra-i Nur leaders manipula tion of, 133; manipulations and marriage rituals, 299; significance 391
Index of Kirghiz exodus, 160; significance of marriage payments, 297, 301; women as, 310, 339. See also Flag; Islam Daoud purges, 124-25; asprofession for women, 308, 309, 321; as sup porters ofJIA, 158-59; as supporters of Khalq, 155, 191, 196, 200; in Vaygal Valley, 104 Teachers Training College (Jalalabad) 202 Teachers Training High School (Kabul), 154, 155 Tehran, 311, 314 Television. See Radio and television; Radio Kabul Tokhi (Pashtun tribe), 236 Tolqun, Alamat, 326 Trade. See Economy Traders. See Merchants Transportation. See Communications and transportation Tribes: and class structures, 238, 24344; and differential privileges, 35, 38; and intertribal conflicts, 67-69, 131-33; and government cooptation, 34-35, 183, 265; opposition to Amanullah of, 33, 205; and religious authority, 261-63, 266-87; and resistance movement, 24-25, 27, 71, 78, 92-93, 120-21, 141, 208, 264; as so cial groupings in Afghanistan, 5-10, 213; structures in Nuristan of, 8083; as traditional power structures, 171-72, 182-83, 197, 254-55, 257 Tsunuk (Nuristan), 87, 90, 93 Turkey, 70 Turkic peoples, 8,186. See also Kirghiz; Turkmen; Uzbek Türkistan, 50, 98, 143-44, 167, 23235, 242, 250, 298 Turkmen: ethnic identity among, 6, 239-42, 303-4; in Imam Sahib, 172, 181n; raids in northwest of, 251-52; refugee communities of, 50; in Türk istan region, 233, 235, 238 Tahiri (tribe), 236 Tajik: dominance in Badakhshan of, 145-48, 154; ethnic identity among, 6, 239-43, 303; and fraternization with Soviet troops, 70; in govern ment administration, 253; and in terethnic conflicts, 53; in Nahrin, 185-86;
refugee communities of, 50, 167; religious organization among, 150-52; and resistance movement, 162, 167; in Türkistan region, 23334, 238 Takhar, 157, 160 Taliqan, 195 Taraki, Nur M: anti-Islamic stance of, 88, 246; elimination of established elites by, 80, 88; and factional strug gles with Parcham, 44, 60, 64; as founder of PDPA, 315; and Khalq propaganda, 200-201; reform pro gram of, 291-92, 312, 317-21; and Saur Revolution, 62, 119; as succes sor to Daoud, 61 Tarawih, 88 Tariqa/Tariqat, 51, 267, 270, 276-86 passim. See also Pir; Sufi Tarzi, Mahmud Beg, 31, 306, 308, 314, 331 Tashkand, 143, 232 Tashkent. See Tashkand Tashqurghan, 214n Tawakkul, 259-61 Ta'wiz, 261 Taxes: under Amanullah, 176; exemp tions from, 8, 271; under Musahibans, 177; in rural areas, 13, 124, 149, 175, 197; among Sheikhanzai nomads, 252, 262; in Väygal Valley, 105 ‘Ubaidullah, 89 Taymani, 234, 261 'Ulama: as counter-revolutionary force, Teachers: and class structure, 238; and 26; opposition to Amanullah of, 392
Index 176, 205; as refugees from commu nism, 143-44; and resistance move ment, 5, 42, 53, 56, 161-62, 168; role in government of, 31, 165, 176, 212, 267, 271; structures and functions in Badakhshan of, 147, 149, 152-53. See also Mawlawi; Mullah(s); Pir; Ruhani Umar, 150 Umma, 54, 280, 282 Unbeliever. See Kafir United Kingdom. See Great Britain United Nations, 69, 187 United States, 36, 47, 54, 69n, 169n, 329, 338 Urban populations, 37-51 passim, 125, 151-52, 159, 164, 171-74, 178-79, 205-6, 263, 283 ‘Ushr, 150 Usman, 150 Uzbek: and class structures, 244-45; dominance in Badakhshan of, 14548, 154; ethnic identity among, 6, 239-43, 303; and fraternization with Soviet troops, 70; in Imam Sahib, 171-72; and interethnic conflicts, 53; in Nahrin, 185; refugee commu nities of, 50,167; religious organiza tion among, 150-52; and resistance movement, 162, 167; in Türkistan region, 232-33, 237, 238 Vari,82 Väygal Valley, 49, 94-118 Villages: central government control in, 106, 124, 149,171-75, 180-82, 242, 262, 265; economic and political structures in, 128-31,145-53; ethnic identity in, 240-42; feudal exploita tion in, 17; land reforms in, 20; and resistance movement, 112-13, 120, 133, 161, 163-64, 166; and village headmen, 50,197. See also Peasants; Rural populations Waigal Valley. See Väygal Valley Wakhan, 146-47 Wakhan Corridor, 143, 145, 163 Wakhi, 53, 145, 163 Wakil, 156 Wakil, Abdul, 64 Wali, 51, 150, 151, 216, 217 Waqf, 22n Wardak, 48 Wardak (tribe), 236 Wardak, Amin, 48 Warduj Valley, 163 Watan, 31, 273 Watan Parast, 161. See also Revolution ary Defense Forces Water and
Power, Ministry of, 160 West, 6n, 10, 15, 25-30 passim, 42, 4647, 54, 57, 201. See also Europe; United States Wilayat (friendship with God; power of a wali), 217 Wilayat (province), 103 Wish Zalmayan. See Awakened Youth Women, 291-305; 306-40; and adult education classes, 161; as court con sorts or hostages, 100-101, 107; in division of labor, 96; and ethnic identity, 241, 255, 276; and KhalqParcham reforms, 13-15, 186, 19091, 196, 203, 205n, 207, 264; in pir networks, 218; and pre-Khalq emancipation reforms, 13-14, 36, 176, 178, 190,196, 207; role in sea sonal feuds of, 66-67; selling of, 10; and traditional divorce procedure, 198. See also Decree No. 7;Mahr Women’s Hospital (Kabul), 314 Women’s Welfare Association, 315 Wulusi Jirgah, 155, 314 Wuluswal, 88, 102, 108, 231, 253 Wuluswali, 77, 79, 92,102-3,112,145, 185 Wuri, 81 Wurjest, 82, 90 Wushtrot (Nuristan), 90 Xinjiang, 142, 144 393
Index Yaftal, 168 Yak Awlang, 222 Yarkand, 143 Yarm (Jilga) Valley, 185, 186, 190 Yugoslavia, 73, 74, 316 Yürmür, 77 Yusuf, Muhammad, 58 Zahir Shah, Muhammad (1933-73), 41, 46, 58, 108-9, 196, 213, 245, 264, 308 Zakat, 258, 259 Zarghunah, 313 Zaynab, 313 Zibaki, 53, 145, 146 Ziyarat, 151 Zuhak, 328 Zabihullah, 48 394 |
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| author2 | Shahrani, M. Nazif Mohib 1945- Canfield, Robert L. 1930- |
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| era | Geschichte 1978-1983 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1978-1983 |
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| id | DE-604.BV049374251 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T22:55:23Z |
| indexdate | 2024-08-10T00:22:26Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780253066770 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-034634146 |
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| physical | xxii, 394 Seiten Karten 24 cm |
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| publishDate | 2022 |
| publishDateSearch | 2022 |
| publishDateSort | 2022 |
| publisher | Indiana University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Revolutions and rebellions in Afghanistan anthropological perspectives edited by M. Nazif Shahrani, Robert L. Canfield [New edition] Bloomington, Indiana Indiana University Press [2022] xxii, 394 Seiten Karten 24 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Geschichte 1978-1983 gnd rswk-swf Saurrevolution (DE-588)1082260134 gnd rswk-swf Besetzung (DE-588)4006020-2 gnd rswk-swf Afghanistan (DE-588)4000687-6 gnd rswk-swf Afghanistan / History / Soviet occupation, 1979-1989 Afghanistan / Social conditions Social conditions Afghanistan 1979-1989 History (DE-588)4143413-4 Aufsatzsammlung gnd-content Afghanistan (DE-588)4000687-6 g Saurrevolution (DE-588)1082260134 s Besetzung (DE-588)4006020-2 s Geschichte 1978-1983 z DE-604 Shahrani, M. Nazif Mohib 1945- (DE-588)172403073 edt Canfield, Robert L. 1930- (DE-588)172015111 edt Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034634146&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034634146&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034634146&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Revolutions and rebellions in Afghanistan anthropological perspectives Saurrevolution (DE-588)1082260134 gnd Besetzung (DE-588)4006020-2 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)1082260134 (DE-588)4006020-2 (DE-588)4000687-6 (DE-588)4143413-4 |
| title | Revolutions and rebellions in Afghanistan anthropological perspectives |
| title_auth | Revolutions and rebellions in Afghanistan anthropological perspectives |
| title_exact_search | Revolutions and rebellions in Afghanistan anthropological perspectives |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Revolutions and rebellions in Afghanistan anthropological perspectives |
| title_full | Revolutions and rebellions in Afghanistan anthropological perspectives edited by M. Nazif Shahrani, Robert L. Canfield |
| title_fullStr | Revolutions and rebellions in Afghanistan anthropological perspectives edited by M. Nazif Shahrani, Robert L. Canfield |
| title_full_unstemmed | Revolutions and rebellions in Afghanistan anthropological perspectives edited by M. Nazif Shahrani, Robert L. Canfield |
| title_short | Revolutions and rebellions in Afghanistan |
| title_sort | revolutions and rebellions in afghanistan anthropological perspectives |
| title_sub | anthropological perspectives |
| topic | Saurrevolution (DE-588)1082260134 gnd Besetzung (DE-588)4006020-2 gnd |
| topic_facet | Saurrevolution Besetzung Afghanistan Aufsatzsammlung |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034634146&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034634146&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034634146&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT shahranimnazifmohib revolutionsandrebellionsinafghanistananthropologicalperspectives AT canfieldrobertl revolutionsandrebellionsinafghanistananthropologicalperspectives |