After violence: Russia's Beslan school massacre and the peace that followed
"Starting on September 1, 2004, and ending 53 hours later, Russia experienced its most appalling act of terrorism in history, the seizure of School No. 1 in Beslan, North Ossetia. Approximately 1,200 children, parents, and teachers were taken hostage, and over 330 -nearly one of every hundred B...
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
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New York, NY
Oxford University Press
[2023]
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| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Literaturverzeichnis Register // Gemischte Register |
| Zusammenfassung: | "Starting on September 1, 2004, and ending 53 hours later, Russia experienced its most appalling act of terrorism in history, the seizure of School No. 1 in Beslan, North Ossetia. Approximately 1,200 children, parents, and teachers were taken hostage, and over 330 -nearly one of every hundred Beslan residents- were killed, hundreds more seriously wounded, and all severely traumatized. After Violence is the first book to analyze the aftermath of such large-scale violence with evidence from almost all direct victims. It explores the motivations behind individual responses to violence. When does violence fuel greater acceptance of retaliatory violence, and when does violence fuel nonviolent participation in politics? The mass hostage taking was widely predicted to provoke a spiral of retaliatory ethnic violence in the North Caucasus, where the act of terror was embedded in a larger context of ongoing conflict between Ossetians, Ingush, and Chechens. Politicians, journalists, victims, and other local residents asserted that vengeance would come. Instead, the hostage taking triggered unprecedented peaceful political activism on a scale seen nowhere else in Russia. Beslan activists challenged authorities, endured official harassment, and won a historic victory against the Russian state in the European Court of Human Rights. After Violence provides insights into this unexpected but preferable outcome. Using systematic surveys of 1,098 victims (82%) and 2,043 nearby residents, in-depth focus groups, journalistic accounts, investigative reports, NGO reports, and prior scholarly research, After Violence offers novel findings about the influence of anger, prejudice, alienation, efficacy, and other variables on post-violence behavior"-- |
| Beschreibung: | xviii, 580 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten 24 cm |
| ISBN: | 9780197683347 |
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| 505 | 8 | |a Introduction: Peace after violence in Beslan -- Part 1. The Beslan School hostage taking. Grievances against ethnic rivals -- Political grievances -- The surprisingly nonviolent aftermath -- The surprisingly political aftermath -- Part 2. Why politics and nonviolence? Anger and other emotions -- Ethnic prejudice -- Political alienation and blame -- Social alienation versus social support -- Self-efficacy and political efficacy -- Biography (demographics, prior harm, and prior activism) -- A portrait of political activists and violent retaliators -- Part 3. Generalizing findings from Beslan victims. Should results apply to nonvictims? -- Should results apply to victims in other places and times? -- Conclusion: Peace after violence | |
| 520 | 3 | |a "Starting on September 1, 2004, and ending 53 hours later, Russia experienced its most appalling act of terrorism in history, the seizure of School No. 1 in Beslan, North Ossetia. Approximately 1,200 children, parents, and teachers were taken hostage, and over 330 -nearly one of every hundred Beslan residents- were killed, hundreds more seriously wounded, and all severely traumatized. After Violence is the first book to analyze the aftermath of such large-scale violence with evidence from almost all direct victims. It explores the motivations behind individual responses to violence. When does violence fuel greater acceptance of retaliatory violence, and when does violence fuel nonviolent participation in politics? The mass hostage taking was widely predicted to provoke a spiral of retaliatory ethnic violence in the North Caucasus, where the act of terror was embedded in a larger context of ongoing conflict between Ossetians, Ingush, and Chechens. Politicians, journalists, victims, and other local residents asserted that vengeance would come. Instead, the hostage taking triggered unprecedented peaceful political activism on a scale seen nowhere else in Russia. Beslan activists challenged authorities, endured official harassment, and won a historic victory against the Russian state in the European Court of Human Rights. After Violence provides insights into this unexpected but preferable outcome. Using systematic surveys of 1,098 victims (82%) and 2,043 nearby residents, in-depth focus groups, journalistic accounts, investigative reports, NGO reports, and prior scholarly research, After Violence offers novel findings about the influence of anger, prejudice, alienation, efficacy, and other variables on post-violence behavior"-- | |
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Contents Figures Tables Acknowledgments Glossary ofIndividuals Introduction: Peace after Violence in Beslan ix xi xiii xv 1 PARTI. THE BESLAN SCHOOL HOSTAGE TAKING 1. Grievances against Ethnic Rivals 35 2. Political Grievances 53 3. The Surprisingly Nonviolent Aftermath 113 4. The Surprisingly Political Aftermath 132 PARTII. WHY POLITICS AND NONVIOLENCE? 5. Anger and Other Emotions . 193 6. Ethnic Prejudice 237 7. Political Alienation and Blame 269 8. Social Alienation versus Social Support 317 9. Self-Efficacy and Political Efficacy 343 10. Biography: Demographics, Prior Harm, and Prior Activism 373 11. A Portrait ofPolitical Activists and Violent Retaliators 395
viii CONTENTS PART III. GENERALIZING FINDINGS FROM BESLAN VICTIMS 12. Should Results Apply to Nonvictims? 425 13. Should Results Apply to Victims in Other Places and Times? 445 Conclusion: Peace after Violence 460 Appendix A: Chronology ofActivities after the Beslan School Hostage Taking Appendix B: Survey and Focus Group Methodologies References Index 481 515 527 563
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Index For the benefit ofdigital users, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52-53) may, on occasion, appear on only one ofthose pages. Tables and figures are indicated by t andƒfollowing the page number Abkhazia, 275 access to school in attack, 68-69 accountability for attack, 66,91-94,158-59, 167-70,172,181,211,287,300,301,458, 462. See also blame acquiescence bias, 186,212,305-6 activists. See political action; portrait of activists and retaliators Aguzarov, Tamerlan, 142,155-56,159-60,161, 169,352 aid, 42,133,322-24,331,333,334. See also compensation ofvictims and families Aidarov, Miroslav, 68,92-93 Alfa (FSB counterterrorism unit), 75-76,77-78, 282,288 alienation. See political alienation; social alienation and support al-Qaeda, 43-44,210 American General Social Survey, 255 amnesty granted to police officers, 8-9,66, 92-93,141,157,164-66,167 Andreyev, Valery counterterrorism authority of, 7-8,73, 74-77,291-92 demand for criminal prosecution of, 8-9,92, 142,145,154-55,167-69,351-52 ethnicities of terrorists and, 43-44 firefighters and, 77,87-88,292 Kulayev trial and, 76,160,291-92,351-53 negligence accusations made by, 77,292 promotion of, 96-97 removal of, 7-8,96-97 reversal of case against, 142 Torshin Commission and, 291-92 weapons stashed in advance and, 69 anger applicability of findings to nonvictims and, 426,4351,437,439,440-42,44 It, 444 applicability of findings to other places and times and, 454-55 blame and, 209,217-18,219-20,222,313 causal mechanisms and, 198,199, 200, 223-25 cognitive distortions and, 210,215 conditionality of, 217-20,221 f cultural
differences in, 454-55 definition of, 193-94,197,223-25 diffuse forms of, 209-11,215 efficacy and, 208,217-18,219-20,222,223, 362 ethnic conflict and, 198,209-10,215,439 ethnic prejudice and, 223,265,266t hatred s relation to, 198,201,220 individual variation in, 195,202-3,223 interactive effects of, 217-20,218t, 221 ŕ interest representation and, 470-72 interviews on, 194-95 measurement and, 198,201-5,202t, 206-9 mediation by other factors of, 222-25,224t object of, 209,223-25 optimism and, 223-25 overview of, 193-97 political action and, 199-201,208,213-17, 214ŕ, 217í, 222,225-29,2281,362,415, 417,455,469,475 political alienation and, 222,223-25 portrait of activists and retaliators and, 40912,417 previous research on, 197-98,199-200,201, 209,217-18,222,223-25,226-27,454 productivity of, 454-55 resentment’s relation to, 201 retaliatory violence and, 28,122,197-99, 208-9,215-25,216í, 217í, 218t, 221 f, 362, 439,454-55,463,466 sex differences and, 220 social alienation and, 218-19,218t, 219n,2 targeted forms of, 209-10 victim data on, 202-3,202t, 213-17,214í, 216í, 217í violence reduction and, 466 Anisimov, Vladimir, 74-76,98,291-92
564 INDEX anniversaries of attack commemorative ceremonies held on, 24-25, 139,141-42 open letters and, 146-47 political action on, 137-38,139,144,146-47, 173 Putin disinvited to, 139,144 2005 anniversary, 139,141,144 2006 anniversary, 24-25 2007 anniversary, 141,146 2008 anniversary, 146-47 2009 anniversary, 146-47,173 2012 anniversary, 462 anxiety applicability of findings to nonvictims and, 426,427-28,437 causal mechanisms and, 199 correlation with other emotions of, 212-13, 223 depression and, 229,230 endurance of, 206 ethnic conflict and, 198-99 individual variation of, 196-97,198 measurement and, 201,202-3,202t, 206, 304 political action and, 200-1,216,225-26, 227-28,2281 portrait of activists and retaliators and, 403-7,408 previous research on, 198-99,304 responses to violence and, 193,195, 196-97 retaliatory violence and, 115,193,198-99, 217,217t, 223,236,237-38,326-27 social alienation and, 318-19,326-27 applicability of findings to nonvictims anxiety and, 426,427-28,437 depression and, 426,427-28 distinctions between victims and nonvictims, 426-28 ethnic prejudice and, 439,464 intercity variation and, 440-43,441 ŕ nonvictim survey and, 431-34 overview of, 425-26 political action and, 428,430,431,432-37, 432t, 435t, 441t, 443 posttraumatic growth and, 430 previous research on, 428-31,443 proximity and, 427-28,430,431,434-37, 438,444 retaliatory violence and, 427,428,430-31, 435t, 438-43,438t,441t victim models of post-violence and, 431-43 volunteerism and, 429,430 applicability of findings to victims in other places and times anger and, 454-55 Beslan as not unique,
448-53 counterterrorism operation and, 458 democgraphics and, 453-54 efficacy and, 453 ethnic prejudice and, 445,455-56 generalizations and, 453-58 overview of, 445 political action and, 453,455,457- 58 political alienation and, 456-58 pride and, 456-58 reasonable inferences and, 453-58 retaliatory violence and, 447,448-51,453, 454-56,458 social alienation and, 453 uniqueness of Beslan, 445-48 Arbour, Louise, 142-43 armed civilians, 75-76,77-78,78/, 79/114 armored personnel carrier, 63,168 armory Ingushetia attack (2004), 35,45-46, 66-67,70,72 army (58th army), 58,141-42,282 Aslakhanov, Aslambek, 43-44,59,72,74-75, 168,287-88,295 Association of Mothers and Children ofBeslan, 143 asylum, political, 144,369 attack anniversaries. See anniversaries of attack attackers. See terrorists in attack attribution of blame. See blame Aushev, Ruslan demands of terrorists and, 72-73 hostages saved by, 51,155-56 knowledge of attack by ordinary Ingush and Chechens and, 51 Kulayev trial and, 155-56,161 refusal to negotiate with terrorists and, 74 travel to Beslan by, 7,45,59,74-76,77 warning of retaliatory violence and, 2 authorities, insensitivity of, 98-103 Bagayeva, Fatima, 232-33 Basayev, Shamil, 3,45-46,396-97,465 Batagova, Felisa, 206,294-95 behavior of terrorists, 47-49 Beslan City of Angels Cemetery. See cemetery (Beslan City of Angels Cemetery) Beslan commission. See Torshin investigation Beslan police officers’ trial, 66,139-40,163-66 Beslan victim survey, 18-20,21 -22,211,205, 225-26,306,346,382,390,409
INDEX Besolov, Valery, 157-58,164,165-66 Betrozov, Ruslan, 47,47n.2,56,105ո.15 blases acquiescence bias, 186,212,305-6 recall bias, 13,176,177,178,184,302-4 response bias, 15,19-20,122,358-59 sampling bias, 19 social desirability bias, 123,176,177-78, 258,259 Bilan, Dima, 274-75 biography ageand, 381-83,383t applicability offindings to other places and times and, 453-54 biographical availability, 389-93 demographics and, 380-89,383t education and, 383Ѓ, 387-89 gender and, 383-87,383t income and, 383t, 387-89 interviews on, 375,377,382,385, 386-87, 390-93 overview of, 373-74 political action and, 375-81,3761,379t, 38283,383Ѓ, 386-87,388-89,390-92 portrait of activists and retaliators and, 412, 419,421 previous research on, 384,386,387-88 prior harm as predictor, 374-77,376t prior political activism as predictor, 377-80, 379t retaliatory violence and, 375,376-77,376f, 380-82,383-86,383t, 387-88,389-90, 392-93 blame. See also accountability for attack anger and, 209,217-18,219-20,221 ř, 222, 313 attribution of, 209,211,217-18,222,278, 291,292-93,297,299-301,306,313,39697,458 avoidance of, 278,279,282, 301 blame game, 291 -92 causal responsibility and, 278 conditionality of, 313-14, 314í, 315f conspiracy theories and, 293-95 corruption and, 290 counterterrorism operation and, 291-92 difficulty of assigning, 278,291-93 efficacy and, 313-14,314t, 3151,362-63 elusiveness of, 291-93 emotionsand, 211 ethnic prejudice and, 264-65,265t, 266f firefighters and, 292 incompetence and, 290 565 interviews on, 280-90,293-94,300-1 limitations to measurement of, 305-7 local authorities singled
out for, 286-90 measurement and, 302-7, ЗОЗѓ mobilizing frame of, 278-80 overview of, 269 political action and, 300-1,310,312f, 362-63 portrait of activists and retaliators and, 419-21 Putin singled out for, 280-86,306 responses to violence and, 278-95 retaliatory violence and, 296-97,307-10, 309t, 362-63,419-21 scapegoating and, 95,210,215,293-95 variation in, 284-86,288-90 victim data on, 303t, 307-10, 309t, 312t blockade, 8,59,87,139,154-55,227,299,32930,351,355,365 bloodfeuds, 11,114 Boloyev, Ruslan, 103-4 Brady, Henry, 13,176-77,184 Brasseur, Anne, 142-43 bribery, 65-66,70,290,471. See also corruption Budennovsk hospital hostage taking (1995), 43,55,67 Bzarova, Emilia, 143,155-56,170 cafeteria of school, 49,63-64 casualties of attack, 81-83,82r Caucasus Refugee Council, 15 causal responsibility, 278 causation, 26,203,207-9,363-67,371,413 cemetery (Beslan City of Angels Cemetery), 59, 137-38,142,232,385 census surveys, 15 Chaika, Yuri, 140-41,145,168 chain of command issues, 75-77 Chechen-Ossetian conflict Beslan attack in context of, 43 Chéchen Wars and, 41-42 . history of, 41-43 hostage situations in, 42 nationalist dimensions of, 41-42 Prigorodny region and, 41 terrorist attacks in, 42-43 Chechen War (1994-1996), 35,41-42,55,123 Chechen War (1999-2009), 35,42,55,123 checkpoints, 64-66,92-93,163,471 Chedzhemov, Taimuraz, 106,159-60,162, 165-66 Churkin, Vitaly, 275-76 City of Angels Cemetery. See cemetery (Beslan City of Angels Cemetery)
566 INDEX civilians during attack, 63-64,75-76,77-78, 78/79/, 319 Colonel. See Khuchbarov, Ruslan Committee of Beslan Teachers, 133-34 compensation ofvictims and families, 101-3, , 171,173,235,322-23,339,356-57 conditions enabling attack, 64-71 conspiracy theories, 51,293-95 Constitutional Court (Russia), 162,186,462 contempt, 201,225-26,257 contested questions about attack, 53-55,54t corruption, 7,64,65-66,68,71,89,98,134,135-36, 140,143,159,280,290. See ubo bribery Cossack units, 119,175 Council ofEurope, 142-43 counterterrorism operation accountability for, 91-94,96-97,118-19, 142,145,167-69,171-72,462,471 applicability of findings to other places and, 458 blame and, 292 cover-up of, 150,299 firefighters and, 89,92 first side to shoot during attack and, 56-60 gymnasium roof ignition and collapse and, 60-62 joint command missing during, 56 political grievances and, 75-78 preparations to put out fire and save hostages (lack of) and, 80 previous research on, 17 refusal to negotiate with terrorists and, 56, 71-75 strategic context for, 16,165-66,174 courtroom sit-ins, 6,107-8,132-33,142,159, 160,161,227,351-52 courts. See European Court of Human Rights (ECHR); Leninsky Court; Russian Constitutional Court; Supreme Court (Ingushetia); Supreme Court (Kabardino- · Balkaria); Supreme Court (North Ossetia); Supreme Court (Russia) courtyard, school, 56,59,62-63,84 cover-up of attack, 58,85-86,94-95,150,292 culpable officials rewarded with promotion, 96-98 cycle ofviolence, 11,28,268,444,455,458,460, 463,466,467,469,474-75 Daurova, Zarina, 63,73-74 Day of Knowledge, 31-32,69,294-95
death penalty (Kulayev trial), 135,156,161, 334,338 dehumanization, 194,247,455-56 demands of terrorists ethnic conflict and, 35,45-46 interviews on, 73 official denial of existence of, 7,71-72,73,74 political grievances and, 71-75 prisoner release, 35,45-46,72,127 recognition of independent Chechnya, 4546,72-73 refusal to negotiate with terrorists and, 56, 71-75 withdrawal of troops from Chechnya, 45-46, 72-73,74-75 demographics. See biography depression anxiety and, 229,230 applicability of findings to nonvictims and, 426,427-28 definition of, 229 diffuse nature of, 211 endurance of, 206 hesitancy to seek treatment for, 235 incidence of, 234-35,234t individual variation in, 233,234-35 interviews on, 230,232,233 measurement and, 201,229-30 political action and, 230-31 related illnesses and, 232 responses to violence and, 196,229-36 retaliatory violence and, 230 treatment for, 235 detonations during attack, 48,57-58,61,85 disability resulting from attack, 101-2, lOln.14, 146-47,173,324,344 disappearances, 42,116,297,384 Doroga kpravdye (The Road to Truth), 170 drug use claims about terrorists, 6,71,72,73, 293 Dryayev, Georgy, 68,92-93,163 Dubrovka theater hostage taking (2002), 43,55, 75-76,105,157,171,174-75,449 Dudiyeva, Fatima, 67,68,69 Dudiyeva, Susanna accountability and, 91-92,94,107,134,159, 189 anniversaries and, 108-9 ban on political activism and, 104-5 Beslan police officers’ trial and, 164 ethnic prejudice and, 266 European Court of Human Rights case and, 274 flamethrowers and, 61,62 Grabovoi supported by, 335-36
INDEX gymnasium roof ignition and collapse and, 61,62 harassment of, 104 hunger strikes and, 337-38 insensitivity of authorities and, 99 on Kesayeva, 337 Kulayev trial and, 85,107,159-60 Medvedev meeting with, 142 meetings with public officials by, 141,142 Mothers of Beslan leader, 8,134-35 number of terrorists and, 85 open letters by, 134,143,175-76 political alienation and, 274 press appearances by, 144,144/, 159 Putin meeting with, 61,62,108-9,139-40 response to Shepel discrediting victims, 108 retaliatory violence and, 385,397 on Savelyev, 150 Torshin commission critiqued by, 88 treatment of deceased and, 99,134 dumping of deceased, 47,99,134 Dzantiyev, Kazbek, 75-76,92,96-97,135,136/, 154,167-68,287 Dzasokhov, Alexander blame of, 7,287-88,292 blockade and, 154-55 cabinet dissolved by, 351 Kulayev trial and, 59,68,160-61,351-53 laws for victims of terrorism and, 173 meetings with activists by, 135-36,136/, 139 promotion of, 97,352 prosecution demands against, 8-9,142,145, 154-55,167-69 resignation demands against, 7-8,92,135, 144,154,155,352 resignation of, 97,155,351,352 reversal of case against, 142 role in hostage situation of, 68,75-76,291 terrorist demands and, 72 Torshin investigation and, 291 Dzgoyev, Boris, 59,77,80,98,160,167-68,292 Džiova, Zalina, 155-56,337 ECHR. See European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) efficacy anger and, 208,217-18,219-20,222,223,362 applicability of findings to other places and times and, 453 blame and, 313-14,314t, 315t, 362-63 cautions about self-efficacy, 468 cognitive liberation and, 348-49 conditional or mediated role of, 362-63 567
definition of, 344,357 interest representation and, 473 interviews on, 354-56,364-66,369-70 measurement and, 357-59,358t objective (in)effectiveness of political action in Beslan, 351-53 overview of, 343 perceived (in)effectiveness of political action in Beslan, 353-57 pessimism and optimism and, 367-71 political action and, 28,348-57,359-61, 360t, 361 f, 362-63,417,462,469,475 political alienation and, 270,302,313-14, 314t,315t political efficacy, 343-44,345,348-57,358í, 361t, 362-64,366-67,371,469,473,475 portrait of activists and retaliators and, 4037,409-11,412,417,421 previous research on, 344,348-51,357 responses to violence and, 28,344-45 retaliatory violence and, 28,345-48,359-63, 359t reverse causation and, 363-67 self-efficacy, 28,343-48,349,357-60,358t, 359t, 360t, 362-63,371-72,468,469 victim data on, 3581,359-61,359t, 360t, 3611 violence reduction and, 468 Elkhotovo, North Ossetia, 45,70 emotions. See abo anger; anxiety; depression; hatred combination of negative and positive, 196-97 contempt, 201,225-26,257 contentment, 199 diffuse rather than targeted, 209-11 distinct measures of, 478 enthusiasm, 199,201,202-3,202t, 212-13, 216-17,217t, 227-28,411Ո.Յ ethnic conflict and, 195-96 ethnic prejudice and, 252-53,257-58,466 experimental manipulations of, 203-5 extreme vs moderate political action and, 225-29,228t gratitude, 196,199 hope, 196-97,199,201,202-3,202r, 212-13, 216,217t inferring causality with cross-sectional survey designs and, 207-9 joy, 199 limitations to measurement of, 203,205-13 measurement and, 201-13,202t optimism, 223-25,367-71,370t overview of,
193
568 INDEX emotions (cont.) political action and, 193,208,211,216,217í, 225-29,2281,415 political alienation and, 302 previous research on, 193-94,195-201, 203-5 pride, 199,201,202-3,202í, 212-13,217í, 219-20 resentment, 195-96,197-98,200,201,202í, 212-15,216,217í, 227-28,415,470 responses to violence and, 193-97 retaliatory violence and, 193,197-99,208-9, 211,217,217t, 236 reverse causation and, 207-9 sadness, 193,195,196-97,2021,211,229, 234í straight-line response sets and, 212-13 validity and, 205-7 victim data on, 2021, 213-17,2171 years after incident, 205-7 enthusiasm, 199,201,202-3,202t, 212-13, 216-17,217í, 227-28,41 ln.3 ethnic conflict anger and, 198,209-10,215,439 anxiety and, 198-99 behavior of terrorists and, 47-49 Chechen-Ossetian conflict and, 35,41-43 demands ofterrorists and, 35,45-46 emotionsand, 195-96 ethnicities of terrorists and, 43-47 grievances and, 35-52 history of, 36-43 Ingush-Ossetian conflict and, 35-41 interviews on, 48-49,50-51 knowledge of attack by ordinary Ingush and Chechens, 50-51 overview of, 35-36 resentment and, 198 retaliatory violence and, 113-31 Russian-Chechen conflict and, 35-36 ethnic identity, 238,243,247,255-57 ethnic prejudice anger and, 223,265,2661 applicability of findings to nonvictims and, 439,464 applicability of findings to other places and times and, 445,455-56 behavior’s relationship to, 259-66,261 ř, 263í, 265í, 2661, 267t blame and, 264-65,2651,2661 dehumanization and, 247 emotions and, 252-53,257-58,466 exacerbation of, 243-44 factors mitigating or exacerbating link with violence of, 251-53 following Beslan attack,
248-51 hate crimes and, 257-58,260 hatred and, 257 individual variation in, 244-47,248-49 in- group policing and, 251 interviews on, 239-42,244-46,248-49, 250-52,258 irrelevance for political action of, 253-54,2671 limitations to measurement of, 258-59 measurement and, 255-59,256t, 478 North Ossetia, stereotypes and, 238-43,244, 246,253,259,448,464 origins of, 243-44 overview of, 237-38 perpetuation of, 243-44 political action and, 253-54,265-66,267í portrait ofactivists and retaliators and, 411 12,419,421-22 previous research on, 253-54,259-60 questioning of, 244-45 responses to violence and, 27-28,237-38, 247-54 retaliatory violence and, 27-28,127,237, . 241-43,247-53,260-65, 261í, 263í, 2651, 2661,419,439,455-56,463-66 shared identity as requirement of, 238,243, 247,255-57 social alienation and support and, 325-26 stereotypes and, 222,238-43,244,246,253, 259,448,464 victim data on, 255-66,256f, 261í, 263í, 265f, 2661,2671 violence reduction and, 463-66 European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) complaints filed at, 6,8-9,141,147,170-72, 172/, 186 efficacy and, 353,356-57 final judgment of, 171-72,353,356-57,462 Ingushetian police officers’ trial and, 167 interviews on, 170 Kulayev trial and, 162,353 overview of, 170-72 Eurovision, 274-75,276 explosions during attack, 32,49,53-55,56-62, 63-64,71,80,89,153,160,162 extremism, 43,326 extremism charges against victim activists, 105-6, 135,141-42,147,153 Federal List of Extremist Materials, 105-6 Federal Security Services (North Ossetia), 59
INDEX Federal Security Services (FSB) (Russia), 59,70, 71,76-77,87,91,92,93,141,157,164-65, 281-82 fire extinguishing (lack of preparations), 80 firefighters, 77,78-80,87-88,89,92,150,292, 299, 323 fires during attack, 56,57,60-62,78-80,87-88, 89,98,157,160 first side to shoot during attack, 56-60 flamethrowers (Shmel), 57-58,60-62,63-64, 65,76,87-88,89,90-92,98,99,149, 152-53,157,168,169-70,291-92,351-52, 387,462 floorboards of school, 68-69 floor plan of school, 68-69 focus group methodology, 18,23-24,23t forest (Sunzhenskii forest), 65,66-67,86-87, 282 Freedom Square (Square of Liberty), 104, 136-37,138/ FSB. See Federal Security Services (FSB) (Russia) funerals, 3,5,6,33/, 101,329, 342,390,391 Gadiyeva, Aneta, 90,166,173,295,336,338 Gagloyev, Andrei, 58,153 Galashki, Ingushetia, 70 garbage dumping of deceased, 99,134 GAZ-66 army truck, 64,70-71,84-85,150-51 generalizability, 17,25,29-30,423-24,434,440, 443,444,445,446-48,451-59. See also applicability of findings to nonvictims; applicability of findings to victims in other places and times Geneva Convention, 62 Georgia, 37-38,239,242,251,275,294 Gobuyev, Oleg, 107 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 37-38 Grabovoi, Grigorii Mothers of Beslan members and, 109,335-37 resurrection ofvictims promised by, 109, 335-37 social alienation and, 335-36 suspicion of being plot to discredit victims, 109 Voice of Beslan founded as result of meetings with, 336-37 gratitude, 196,199 Gray House rally (2004), 135-36 grenade launchers, 57-58,63-64,65,80,89, 91-92,150,152-53,168 grievances. See ethnic conflict; political grievances 569 Grozny, Chechnya,
42,460-61 Guburova, Zalina, 62,107-8,166,352 Gutseriyev, Mikhail, 59-60,71,74-77 gymnasium roof ignition and collapse, 53,56, 57-58,60-62,63-64,80,88,89 Hammarberg, Thomas, 142-43 harassment ofvictims, 96, 103-7,136-37,138/, 157,158/284 hate crimes, 197,206,247-48,257-58,259-60 hatred anger’s relation to, 198,201,220 diffuse forms of, 210-11 ethnic prejudice and, 190,257 measurement and, 201,202t, 213-15,214t, 217t, 478 political action and, 200,214-15,216,217Ѓ, 225-28,228t, 236,470 previous research on, 193,197-98 resentment’s relation to, 201 responses to violence and, 195-96 retaliatory violence and, 190,193,197-98, 216,217t, 229,236,470 targeted forms of, 210-11 Hautala, Heidi, 142-43 highway blockade (Rostov-Baku/Caucasus Federal Highway), 8,59,87,139,154-55, 227,299,329-30,351,355,365 hope, 196-97,199,201,202-3,202t, 212-13, 216,217t hostages, deaths, and injuries in attack, 81-83, 82t hostage takers. See terrorists in attack House of Culture, 6,103,135,136-37,139 humanitarian aid, 42,133,322-24,331,333, 334. See also compensation of victims and families human rights, 18,42,142-43,147-48,171-72, 172/, 174,175,185,353,374-75,384, 395-96,462 hunger strikes, 6,132-33,135,155-58,227, 337-38,387 identity, 238,243,247,255-57 Ignatchenko, Sergei, 295 Ilyukhin, Viktor, 86-87 inability to obtain clear answers, 80-96 in-groups, 9-10,238,244,251,252-53,456 Ingushetia armory attack (2004), 35,45-46, 66-67,70,72 Ingushetia Ministry of Internal Affairs, 152 Ingushetian police officers’ trial, 139-40, 166-67
570 INDEX Ingush-Ossetian conflict Beslan attack in context of, 35,40-41 cultural dimensions of, 36 demographics of, 36 ethnic conflict and, 35-41 history of, 36-41 hostage attack of 1992 in, 35 interviews on, 39-41,128-30 overview of, 35-36 perestroika era and, 37-38 Prigorodny region and, 2,35,37-38,40-41, 43,114,115-16,127,254 refugees of, 38 religious dimensions of, 36 Soviet Union and, 36-38 injuries resulting from attack, 15,32,78,81-82, 82r, 83,88,101-3,133,134,146-47,166, 173,182-84,320-21,324,331,344,353, 390-92 insensitivity ofauthorities, 98-103 insults added to injuries, 96-111 intelligence failures, 66-68 intercity variation, 440-43,4411 interest representation anger and, 26-27,470-72 eflicacy and, 473 overview of, 469-70 political action and, 11-12,26-27,473 political alienation and, 472-73 retaliatory violence and, 463,470-71 interethnic conflict. See ethnic conflict investigations. See North Ossetian parliamentary investigative commission; Prosecutor General’s Investigation; Torshin investigation; victim-led investigations Islam and Muslims, 1,16,17,35,36,42,43,45, 70,117,126-27,237,239,246,294,297, 326,463 Ivanov, Yuri, 74 journalists targeted with harassment, 104, 106-7 Kadyrov, Ramzan, 48-49,175 Kaloyev, Vitaly, 115, 385,396,397 KamAZ vehicles, 51,100 Karkuzashvili-Misikova, Marina, 60,63-64 Karlov, Valery, 140,151,165-66 Katsanov, Murat, 99 Kesayev, Stanislav civiliansand, 319 commission’s oral report of, 151-52 corruption and, 65-66 counterterrorism operation and, 76,89,110 criticism leveled by, 89,90,93,94-95,110 criticized by Kolesnikov, 149
flamethrowers and, 90,152-53 gymnasium roof ignition and collapse and, 61-62 hostage numbers and, 81-82 Kulayev trial and, 94-95 Russian tank fire and, 62-63 Kesayev commission, 89,319 Kesayeva, Ella accountability and, 93,169 asylum statement and, 144 Beslan police officers’ trial and, 164,165 blame and, 299 court charges against, 105-6,147,157-58, 169,300 ECHRand, 162,172/368 efficacy and, 356-57 flamethrowers and, 99,149 Grabovoi critiqued by, 335-36 gymnasium roof ignition and collapse and, 88 harassment of, 105-6,147,157-58,284 hunger strike by, 155-57 identities of terrorists and, 86-87 Ingushetian police officers’ trial and, 167 insensitivity of authorities and, 99 international activism of, 142-43 Kaloyev critiqued by, 396 Kesayev (North Ossetian Parliament) report critiqued by, 89,151-52 Kulayev trial and, 110-11,160,161-63,338 laws for victims of terrorism and, 173 male activists and, 387 meetings with public officials by, 142-43, 146-48,149 Mothers of Beslan criticism of, 337 Mothers of Beslan departure of, 135,145, 335-36 number and survival of terrorists and, 110-11 optimism and, 368-69 public statements by, 144 Putin critiqued by, 74,92,284,300,337 refusal to negotiate with terrorists and, 74 on relation between violence and activism, 396 on retaliatory violence, 120 road sign Kurs Putina and, 105-6,157-58, 158/ sit-in participation of, 142
INDEX as watchdog of official investigators, 149, 151-52 Voice of Beslan disbanding and, 105-6,156-57, 169,300,337 Voice of Beslan leader, 8,135 Khamitseva, Alma, 155-56,232,337 Khasavyurt Accord (1996), 42 Khasbulatov, Ruslan, 2 Khodikov, Alan, 61 Khodov, Vladimir conversion of, 237 corruption and, 68 criminal background of, 70,237 escape of, 85 ethnicity of, 45 gunshot wound of, 72 Islam and, 237 previous terrorism of, 70 refusal to negotiate with terrorists and, 75 wanted status of, 70,85,237 Khrushchev, Nikita, 37 Khuchbarov, Ruslan (“Colonel”) behavior of, 47 criminal background of, 70,237 demands of terrorists and, 72 escape of, 85 ethnicity of, 44-45 first side to shoot and, 59-60 negotiations and, 59-60 number of hostages and, 75 number of terrorists and, 84 previous terrorism of, 70 quarrels with fellow attackers of, 48 wanted status of, 70,237 Khurikau, North Ossetia, 50,64-65 kidnapping, 42,48-49,84-85,116,297,375, 384 knowledge of attack by ordinary Ingush and Chechens, 50-51 Kokoity, Eduard, 116 Kolesnikov, Vladimir appointment of, 140,351,352-53 blockade and, 87,154-55 firing of, 140 flamethrowers and, 157 meetings with victims by, 140 Torshin commission criticism and, 87-88 victim complaints about, 146 watchdogs over, 149-50 Koran, 57,103-4 Kotiyev, Akhmed, 92-93,96-97,166 Kozak, Dmitry, 8,93,104,108-9,139,140,141, 155,351,352-53,387 571 Kulayev, Khan-Pasha, 44,48-49,71 Kulayev, Nur-Pasha Beslan designed to cause retaliatory violence, 1-2,35 claim of being forced to join terrorists by, 48-49,465 ethnicity of, 44 false testimony coerced for trial of, 103-4
first side to shoot and, 57 interviews on, 95-96,354-55,365,366 number of terrorists and, 84,85 pity for, 107 political grievances and, 94-96 role in attack of, 94-96,108 Kulayev trial Andreyev testimony and, 76,291-92,351-52 appeal attempts of, 161-63,351 Aushev potential testimony and, 155-56,161 criticism of, 58,94-95,161 death penalty potential in, 135,156,161,338 demands for more witnesses in, 161 Dzasokhov testimony and, 68,160-61,291, 351-52 Dzgoyev testimony and, 292 ECHR and, 162,353 ending of, 161-62 on ethnicity of terrorists, 44-45 guilty verdict in, 161 hunger strike at end of, 155-56,227,337-38 Mothers of Beslan and, 160, 337-38 overview of, 159-63 picketing of, 161-62 political action during, 159-63 Roshal testimony and, 161,337 sentence to life in prison, 96,161,162 sit-in at courthouse of, 159,351-52 Voice of Beslan and, 155-56,160,161-63, 337-38 watchdog hats ofvictims at, 159-60 Kurs Putina slogan (Putin’s course), 105-6, 157-58,158/ law enforcement agencies, 65-66,67,164,175, 281-82,291-92,297 Law on the Rehabilitation of Repressed Peoples (1991), 38 laws for victims of terrorism (proposed), 13738,143,146-48,157,172-75 lawsuits, 170,171-72,300,353,462. See also Kesayeva, Ella: court charges against; legal political action legal political action, 158-74 Leninsky Court, 105-6,168-69
572 INDEX letters sent by activists, 143-48 Levada Center polls, 94,396-97 Levada, Yuri, 134-35 library of school, 103 lineika, 32,81-82 local authorities blamed, 286-90 Lozitsky, Vladimir, 164,167 Lyufi, Konstantin, 7,103 Malgobek District, Ingushetia, 64,65,66,9293,96-97,166-67 Mamitova, Larisa, 46,72 Mamsurov, Taimuraz, 75-76,90,139,141,142, 144,155,156,287,289,292,352,381 marginality, 108,271,325-26 Maskhadov, Aslan, 46,59,74-75,168,291 measurement. See also methodology anger and, 198,201-5,202t, 206-9 anxiety and, 201,202-3,202t, 206,304 blame and, 302-7,303t depression and, 201,229-30 efficacy and, 357-59,358t emotions and, 201-13,202t ethnic prejudice and, 255-59,256ř, 478 hatred and, 201,202ř, 213-15,214r, 217t, 478 limitations to, 126-28,203,205-13,258-59, 305-7 participation measurement contributions, 184-86 political action and, 176-87,179t, 183t, 184Г, 476-77 political alienation and, 302-7,303f portrait of activists and retaliators and, 4038,404t previous research on, 184-86,203-5 resentment and, 201 retaliatory violence and, 122-30,124t, 129t reverse causation and, 207-9 social alienation and support and, 339 straight-line response sets and, 212-13 validity and, 10,13,123-28,203-7,229,339, 478 violence measurement contributions, 125-26 Medvedev, Dmitry Chechen-Ossetian conflict and, 43 City of Angels Cemetery trip of, 142 meetings with victims by, 141-42,174 open letters to, 105,146-48,173,175 . power vertical legislation under, 16n.2 meetings with political officials, 139-43 mental health, 196-97,229-30,234-36,343, 427-28,458. See also anxiety; depression
methodology. See ako measurement acquiescence bias, 186,212,305-6 case selection, 474-75 census surveys, 15 examples of study samples on, 13-15,14t focus groups and, 18,23-24,23t generalizability and, 25,29-30 implications of study for, 473-79 limitations of, 24-26 (see ako measurement: limitations to) mixed-method studies and, 18,208, 478-79 near miss, 15-16,113,115-16,476 negative cases, 15-16,475-76 overview of, 9-10,12-16 political action and, 176-77,474,476-77 response bias, 15, 19-20,122,358-59 response rates, 15,20,21 r, 22,22Г, 479 retaliatory violence and, 125-28,474,476 reverse causation, 26,203,207-9,363-67, 371,413 sampling bias, 19 sampling error, 15,479 selecting populations of consequence and, 474-75 social desirability bias, 123,176,177-78, 258,259 straight-line response sets and, 212-13,305 survey nonresponse, 19-20,177 types ofviolence and, 476 validity, 10,13,20,123-25,126,127,203-7, 339,478 victim defined, 18-19,20 violence defined, 11 Minister for Emergency Situations (North Ossetia). SeeDzgoyev, Boris Minister of Internal Affairs (North Ossetia), See Dzantiyev, Kazbek Minister of Internal Affairs (Russia). See Nurgaliyev, Rashid Ministry for Emergency Situations (Russia), 56,77 Ministry of Internal Affairs (North Ossetia), 81, 104,135,152,301 Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) (Russia), 59, ■ 67,77,280,281,282 mixed methods, 18,208,478-79 morgue, 33/, 99,100,173,281,391,392,393 Moscow, Russia. See also Dubrovka theater hostage taking (2002) metro bombings of 2010 in, 147-48 rallies in, 105,137-38,157 Mothers for Human Rights (Dagestan), 175
INDEX Mothers of Beslan accountability and, 80,167-68,169 Beslan police officers’ trial and, 163-64 charges against members of, 166 court room sit-in by, 142 discreting of, 107 Dzasokhov criminal charges by, 167-68,169 ECHRand, 167 establishment of, 133 fire department critique by, 80 flamethrowers and, 61,152-53 Grabovoi meetings with members of, 109, 335-37 growth of, 134 harassment of, 104 hunger strikes and, 155,156 influence of, 134-35 Kulayev trial and, 107,159,160,338 lack of preparations to put out fire and, 80 Litvinovich, Marina, and, 106-7 meetings with public officials by, 140,141, 142,356 mission of, 134 open letters by, 134,143,146-47 petitions by, 144,164-65 pickets by, 155,156 public statements by, 137-38,144,144/ 146-47,173 Putin meeting with, 57,61,62,80,108-9, 134,144 rallies and, 136-38,138/ rally permit denied to, 104 road sign Kurs Putina and, 157-58 Savelyevs report supported by, 149-50 tanks and, 62,152-53 tenacity of, 134-35 victim-led investigation by, 152-53 victim welfare and, 173 videotapes received by, 58,99,153 Voice of Beslan, disagreements with, 135, 144-45,156, 336-38,387 women run nature of, 386-87 mourning, 2,114,115,118,144,207,211,331, 342,447,451 multi-method research, 18,208,478-79 Muslims and Islam, 1,16,17,35,36,42,43,45,70, 117,126-27,237,239,246,294,326,463 MVD. See Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) (Russia) Nabiyev, Bakhtiyar Kara-Olgy, 58,153 Nalchik, Kabardino-Balkaria, 85-86,101,141, 166-67 573 napalm use in attack, 60-62,152-53 Nazran, Ingushetia, 70,72,96-97,147,239,242 near miss, 15-16,113,115-16,476 negative cases,
15-16,475-76 negligence, 8-9,53-55,64,66,68,71,77,88, 92-93,143,161,163-64,166-68,169-70, 292,462 negotiations, 7,56,59,71-75,88,91-92,161, 163-64,168,169-70,337 Nogayev, Elbrus, 67,76,163-64 nonvictim survey in Beslan and Vladikavkaz, 18-19,20-22,221,431,479 North Ossetian Federal Security Services, 59 North Ossetian Minister for Emergency Situations. See Dzgoyev, Boris North Ossetian Ministry of Internal Affairs. See Ministry of Internal Affairs (North Ossetia) North Ossetian parliamentary investigative commission, 61-62,65-66,73,81-82,89, 97-98. See also Kesayev, Stanislav North Ossetian Prosecutor General. See Prosecutor General (North Ossetia) North Ossetian Supreme Court. See Supreme Court (North Ossetia) Nurgaliyev, Rashid, 67,97-98,157,281,291 oil, 42,65-66,283 open letters, 143-48,173,175-76 optimism, 223-25,367-71,370t organizations dedicated to political action, 133-35. See also Mothers of Beslan; Voice of Beslan Ossetian-Chechen conflict. See Chechen-Ossetian conflict out-groups, 195,238,244,252-53,257,456 Pak, Marina, 159,165,230-31,233 Palace of Culture, Beslan, 272, 387 parliamentary commission (Russia). See Torshin investigation parliamentary investigative commission (North Ossetia). See North Ossetian parliamentary investigative commission patriotism, 269-70,302,319,472-73 Patrushev, Nikolai, 77,92,97-98,137-38,157, 281 Peskov, Dmitry, 97-98 pessimism, 367-71,370t petitions, 143-45,146-47,163,186 pickets, 155,156,157-58,158/, 161-62 police officers. See amnesty granted to police officers; Beslan police officers’ trial; corruption; Ingushetian police
officers’ trial; law enforcement agencies
574 INDEX political action accountability and, 167-70 anger and, 199-201,208,213-17,214t, 217t, 222,225-29,228f, 362,415,417,455,469, 475 anniversaries and, 137-38,139,144,146-47, 173 anxiety and, 200-1,216,225-26,227-28, 228t applicability of findings to nonvictims and, 428,430,431,432-37,432t, 435t, 4411,443 applicability of findings to other places and times and, 453,455,457-58 Beslan police officers’ trial and, 163-66 biography and, 375-81,376f, 379t, 382-83, 383t, 386-87,388-89,390-92 blame and, 300-1,310,312t, 362-63 blockade, 8,59,87,139,154-55,227,299, 329-30,351,355,365 broader activism, 174-76 definition of, 11 depression and, 230-31 efficacy and, 28,348-57,359-61,360t, 361 ř, 362-63,417,462,469,475 emotions and, 193,208,211,216,217r, 22529,2281,415 ethnic prejudice and, 253-54,265-66,267t extreme forms of, 154-74,225-29,228t harassment ofparticipants in, 96,103-7, 136-37,138/, 157,158/284 . hatred and, 200,214-15,216,217t, 225-28, 2281,236,470 hunger strikes, 6,132-33,135,155-58,227, 337-38,387 Ingushetian police officers’ trial and, 139-40, 166-67 interest representation and, 11-12,26-27, 473 interviews on, 6,150-51,170,173 journalists targeted and, 104,106-7 Kulayev trial and, 159-63 laws for victims of terrorism and, 137-38, 143,146-48,157,172-75 letters, 143-48 measurement and, 176-87,179f, 183t, 184t, 476-77 measurement contributions, 184-86 meetings with political officials, 139-43 methodology and, 176-77,474,476-77 moderate forms of, 133-53,158-74,225-29, 228f official ban on, 104-5 organizations dedicated to, 133-35 overview of, 5-9,132-33,461-62
pessimism and optimism and, 368-70 petitions, 143-45,146-47,163,186 pickets, 155,156,157-58,158/, 161-62 previous research on, 9-10,12-15,14t, 176, 181,184-86,222 prior political activism as predictor of, 377-80,3791 public statements, 137-38,143-48,144/, 153,173 rallies, 135-38,136/, 137/ responses to violence and, 9-10,11-12 retaliatory violence’s relationship to, 395-403, 398f, 399/, 4011,402/469 sign postings, 157-58,158/ size and diversity of, 6,8 unexpected rise in, 5-9 victim-led investigations, 152-53 victim welfare and, 172-74 violence reduction and, 468-69 watchdogs over official investigators, 149-52 political alienation anger and, 222,223-25 applicability of findings to other places and times and, 456-58 conditionality of, 313-15,314f, 315t definition of, 269-71,302 efficacy and, 270,302,313-14,314t, 315t emotions and, 302 following Beslan attack, 271-74 individual variation in, 274-78 interest representation and, 469,472-73 interviews on, 272-74,275-78,299 limitations to measurement of, 305-7 marginality and, 271 measurement and, 302-7,3031 operationalization of, 302-4 optimism and, 225 overview of, 269 political action and, 28,298-301,310,311 ř, 417,468-69,475 portrait of activists and retaliators and, 412, 417,419-21 previous researchon, 223-25,269-70,298,313 productivity of, 28,456-58,472-73 responses to violence and, 271-78 retaliatory violence and, 28,225,296-97, 307-10,308t, 362-63,419-21,467-68 trust and, 269-70,297,298,299-300,302, 304 value justifiable forms of, 472-73 victim data on, 303t, 307-10,308t, 31 If violence reduction and, 467-68
INDEX political asylum, 144,369 political efficacy (see efficacy) political entrepreneur, 197-98,251,350-51,456 political grievances access to school by terrorists, 68-69 accountability and, 91-94 armed civilians and, 77-78 chain of command issues, 75-77 civilians rescuing hostages, 78/ 79/ compensation ofvictims and families, 101-3, 173-74 conditions enabling attack, 64-71 contested questions about attack, 53-55,54t corruption and (see corruption) counterterrorism operation and, 75-78 criminal records of terrorists, 70-71 demands of terrorists and, 71-73 drug use claims about terrorists, 6,71,72, 73,293 explosion questions, 56-62 fire extinguishing (lack of preparations), 80 first side to shoot during attack, 56-60 flamethrowers and (see flamethrowers) grenade launchers and (see grenade launchers.) gymnasium roof ignition and collapse, 53,56, 57-58,60-62,63-64,80,88,89 harassment of innocent victims by authorities, 103-7 inability to obtain clear answers, 80-96 insensitivity of authorities, 98-103 insults added to injuries, 96-111 intelligence failures, 66-68 interviews on, 73,87,92,95-96,100-1,110 investigations (deficiencies of), 86-91 Kulayev’s role, 94-96 negotiations with terrorists (refusal to negotiate), 56,71-75,91-92,169-70 number of hostages, deaths, and injuries, 81-83,82t number of terrorists, 84-86 overview of, 53-55,54t planning of the attack, 64-66 promotions for culpable officials, 96-98 protection following attack (lack of), 109-11 tanks used in attack, 62-64,76,89,91-92,98, 99,152-53,168,291-92 treatment of deceased bodies, 98-101 victims ignored,
discredited, and demeaned, 107-9 weapons stored at school, 6-7,68-69,87-88, 294-95 political officials, meetings with, 139-43 575 portrait of activists and retaliators anger and, 409-12,417 biography and, 412,419,421 blame and, 409-11,419-21 causality and, 413 correlation between participation and violence (lack of), 395-403,398t, 399/ 40 It, 402/ efficacy and, 409-11,412,417,421 ethnic prejudice and, 412,419,421 interviews on, 396,408 measurement and, 403-8,404t missing data and, 409 modeling of, 403-14 overview of, 395 political alienation and, 409-11,412,417, 419-21 probabilities of supporting violence or participating in politics, 414-21,416/, 418/, 420/ results of multivariate analysis, 409-13,410í social alienation and, 409-11,412 portraits of victims on school wall, 34/ posttraumatic growth, 196,349,430,468,472 posttraumatic stress, 13,115,231-32,426 power vertical, 16 Pravoberezhny, North Ossetia, 68,92-93,163, 164,289 Pravoberezhny Court, 164 prejudice, ethnic. See ethnic prejudice press conferences, 87-88,104,149,154 pride, 199,201,202-3,202t, 212-13,217t, 21920. See abo political alienation Prigorodny, North Ossetia, 2,35,37-38,41,43, 114,115-16,127,239,254 prior harm by Ingush or Chechen, 374-77,376t, 394,415,419,421-22 promotions for culpable officials, 96-98 Pronichev, Vladimir, 74-75,76,97-98,291-92 Prosecutor General (North Ossetia), 58-59, 63-64 Prosecutor General’s Investigation (Russia), 7, 44,48,60-61,68,71,81 -82,85,86-87,88, 154,156,160 protection following attack (lack of), 109-11 protests. See blockade; hunger strikes; petitions; pickets; political
action; rallies; sign postings proverbs, 251,280 Psedakh, Ingushetia, 64-65,150 PTSD. See posttraumatic stress public statements, 137-38,143-48,144/, 153, 173
576 INDEX Putin, Vladimir absence during attack, 7,77,281,285-86 accountability and (see Putin, Vladimir: blame attributed to) anniversaries and, 139,141,144,146 blame attributed to, 92,105-6,112,135,145, 147,153,157,159,174-75,280-86,303t, 304-5,306,315 Chechen War under, 42,123 corruption and, 65-66 counterterrorism operation and, 280 criminal charges filed against, 8-9,169-70 efficacy and, 363 ethnicities of hostage takers and, 43-44 fire extinguishing (lack of preparations) and, 80 gymnasium roofignition and collapse and, 61 interviews on, 280-86 investigative commission resisted by, 86 meetings with activists and, 61,62,87-88, 108-9,139-40,336-37 Mothers of Beslan and, 57,61,62,80,108-9, 134,142,143-44 negotiations with terrorists (refusal to negotiate), 71-72,73-74,169-70,285,387 open letters sent to, 143-45,146,168,174-75 political participation and blame attributed to, 300,310,312t, 409-11,472 power vertical and, 16 retaliatory violence and, 1-2,123 support for retaliatory violence and blame attributed to, 307-10,309t tanks used in attack and, 62-63,169-70 variation in blame toward, 284-86 Voice of Beslan and, 8-9,105-6,135,145, 147,153,157-58,169-70,175,284,300, 337 Putin’s course (Kurs Putina) road sign, 105-6, 157-58,158/ rallies, 8,105,135-38,136/ 137/ recall bias, 13,176,177,178,184,302-4 refusal to negotiate with terrorists, 56,71 ֊75, 91-92,169-70 rehabilitation, 133,173,235,325 representation of interests. See interest representation rescue operation. See counterterrorism operation resentment, 195-96,197-98,200,201, 202t, 212-15,216,217t, 227-28,415,470
response bias, 15,19-20,122,358-59 response rates, 15,20,21t, 22,22t, 479 responses to violence anxiety and, 193,195,196-97 blame and, 278-95 chapter summary ofpresent volume on, 29-30 contributions to research on, 9-10,12-16,25, 26-29, Ï25-26,184-86,473-79 depression and, 196,229-36 efficacy and, 28,344-45 emotions and, 193-97 ethnic prejudice and, 27-28,237-38,247-54 goals of present volume on, 16-17 hatred and, 195-96 individual variation in, 9-10 overview of, 9-12,479-80 political action and, 9-10,11-12 political alienation and, 271-78 previous research on, 9-11,12-16,14t, 17, 20-21,27 puzzle of, 11-12 retaliatory violence and, 9-10,11,27 social alienation and support and, 318-25 retaliatory violence anger and, 28,122,197-99,208-9,215-25, 216t, 217t, 218r, 221ř, 362,439,454-55, 463,466 anticipation of, 1-5,114-16 anxiety and, 115,193,198-99,217,217t,223, 236,237-38,326-27 applicability of findings to nonvictims and, 427,428,430-31,435t, 438-43,438t, 441t applicability of findings to other places and times and, 447,448-51,453,454-56,458 Beslan attack as designed to provoke, 1 -2,3,35 biography and, 375-77,376t, 380-82,383-86, 383t, 387-88,389-90,392-93 blame and, 296-97,307-10, 309t, 362-63, 419-21 bloodfeuds, 11,114 contributions to measurement of, 125-26 definition of, 11 dehumanization and, 455-56 depression and, 230 efficacy and, 28,345-48,359-63,359t emotions and, 193,197-99,208-9,211,217, 2171,236 ethnic conflict and, 113-31 ethnic prejudice and, 27-28,127,237,241-43, 247-53,260-65,261t, 263t, 2651,266f, 419, 439,455-56,463-66 hatred and, 190,193,197-98,216,217t,
229, 236,470
INDEX incidents of, 116-21 individual variation in support for, 121-22 interest representation and, 463,470-71 interviews on, 114-15,118-22,128-30 less extreme forms of, support for, 128-30 limitations on measurement of, 122-23, 126-28 measurement and, 122-30,124t, 129í methodology and, 125-28,474,476 overview of, 113,130-31,461 pessimism and optimism and, 367-68,370t political action’s relation to, 395-403,398t, 399/, 40 It, 402/, 469 political alienation and, 28,225,296-97, 307-10,308t, 362-63,419-21,467-68 previous research on, 9-10,113,123-24,125, 197-99,222 public legitimation of, 9-10,11,123,296-97 responses to violence and, 9-10,11,27 social alienation and support and, 325-27, 340-41,340t, 341t, 453 unrealized expectations of, 1-5,15-16, 114-16 validity and, 122-26 vendettas, 11,114 violence reduction and, 463-69 reverse causation, 26,203,207-9,363-67,371, 413 Road to Truth, The (Deroga к pravdye), 170 roof ignition and collapse, 57,60-62,63, 80, 88 Roshal, Leonid, 3,72,161,288,337,396-97 Rostov, Russia, 6,100,106,173,178,391,392 Rostov-Baku/Caucasus Federal Highway blockade. See blockade Russian-Chechen conflict, 35-36,41-42,55, 123 Russian Constitutional Court, 162,186,462 Russian Criminal Code, 8-9,169-70 Russian Federal Security Services (FSB). See Federal Security Services (FSB) (Russia) Russian Ministry for Emergency Situations, 56,77 Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD). See Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) (Russia) Russian parliamentary commission. See Torshin investigation Russian special forces (Spetsnaz). See Spetsnaz (Russian special forces)
Russian Supreme Court. See Supreme Court (Russia) Russian tank fire. See tanks used in attack 577 sadness, 193,195,196-97,202t, 211,229,234t sampling bias, 19 sampling error, 15,479 sappers, 58-59 Savelyev, Yuri, 57-58,59,62-63,85,89-90,91, 97-98,109,145,149-50,152 scapegoating, 95,210,215,293-95 school in attack access by terrorists to, 68-69 cafeteria of, 49,63-64 ceiling collapse of (see gymnasium roof ignition and collapse) courtyard of, 56,59,62-63,84 floorboards of, 68-69 floor plan of, 68-69 gymnasium roof ignition and collapse of, 53, 56,57-58,60-62,63-64,80,88,89 library of, 103 weapons of terrorists stored at, 6,68-69, 87-88,294-95 wreckage of, 61,105-6,135,136-37,150 self-efficacy. See efficacy September 11th attacks, 20,197,206,210,222, 244,247,253,427-28,430,452-53 Shepel, Nikolai. See also Prosecutor General’s Investigation Beslan police officers’ trial and, 163 demands of terrorists and, 71 ethnicity of attackers and, 86-87 firing of, 88,140,351,352,369 flamethrowers and, 60-61,86-87,90,91, 152-53 gymnasium roof ignition and collapse and, 60-61,86-87 intelligence failures and, 68 Kolesnikov endorses conclusins of, 149 meetings with activists by, 6-8,103,134,139, = 140,143,159 negotiations with terrorists (refusal to negotiate) and, 71 numbers of terrorists and, 6,85,86-87 petition to remove, 144,149,159-60 rebuke by Supreme Court of, 352,356-57 victims discredited by, 107-8 weapons of terrorists stored at school and, 6,69 Shmel (flamethrowers). See flamethrowers (Shmel) shrapnel, 58,63,102,245-46,331 sign postings, 157-58,158/ sit-ins,
6,107-8,132-33,142,159,160,161, 227,351-52 snipers, 57,59,60,62
578 INDEX social alienation and support anger and, 218-19,218f, 219n.2 anxiety and, 318-19,326-27 applicability of findings to other places and times and, 453 compensation ofvictims and, 322-24 definition of, 317,318 ethnic prejudice and, 325-26 following Beslan attack, 319-25 interviews on, 319-25,329-35 kinship through victimization and, 319 measurement and, 339 multidimensionality of, 318,339 overview of, 317 political action and, 327-38,340-41,341 ŕ, 453 previous research on, 318-19,325-26, 328-29 relation of victims to larger Russian society, 325 responses to violence and, 318-25 retaliatory violence and, 325-27,340-41, 340t, 34 It, 453 social movement organizations and, 335-38 victim data on, 340-41,340t, 341 ŕ social capital, 317,325 social desirability bias, 123,176,177-78,258, 259 social support. See social alienation and support Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 141,143,151,152 South Ossetia, 36-38,77,78,116,141-42,242, 275-76,427 Soviet Union Chechnya in, 41-42 Day of Knowledge and, 31-32 ethnic conflict and, 35,37-38 ethnic prejudice and, 255-57 Ingush-Ossetian conflict and, 36-38 perestroika era in, 37-38 responses to violence and, 17 women’s movements following, 386 Spetsnaz (Russian special forces), 55,61,62-64, 74,75-76,77-78,86-87,91,128,273,279, 284,322,336 Square of Liberty (Freedom Square) rally, 104, 136-37,138/ stereotypes, 222,238-43,244,246,253,259, 448,464 storming during attack, 55,56,59,61,64, 74-76,77,86-87,89,91-92,97-98,102, 291-92,471 Strasbourg, France. See European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) suicide bombers, 43,48,74,85,104-5,239,326,
345,368,375,381-82,384,387-88,427 Sunzhenskii forest, 65,66-67,86-87,282 Supreme Court (Ingushetia), 92-93,166-67 Supreme Court (Kabardino-Balkaria), 166-67 Supreme Court (North Ossetia) Beslan police officers’ trial and, 165-66 hunger strike and, 156-57 Kulayev trial and, 159,161 Leninsky Court reversed by, 169 Mothers of Beslan and, 169 protest and, 156-57,159 sit-in at, 142,161,169 Voice of Beslan ordered to disband by, 105-6, 156-57,169 Supreme Court (Russia), 92-93,110-11,16162,163,167,186,351,352,353,356-57, 368 survey nonresponse, 19-20,177 Sydoruk, Ivan, 88,91,141,145,147,150,167, 168,352,369 Tagayeva, Emma, 56,105-6,135,155-56,170, 172/ Tagayeva and Others v. Russia, 170,171-72,353, 462. See also European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) tanks used in attack, 62-64,76,89,91-92,98, 99,152-53,168,291-92,351-52 Taziyev, Ali, 110,152 teachers, 15,81-82,133-34,144,170,320-22, 333,335 telegram from Ministry of Internal Affairs, 67, 281,291 terrorist camp, 64,65,66-67,88,92-93,152 terrorists in attack. See also demands of terrorists behavior of, 47-49 criminal records of, 70-75,237,465 drug use claims about, 6,71,72,73, 293 ethnicities of, 43-47,248,465 number of, 84-86,292 planning of, 64-66 weapons stored at school claims, 6,68-69, 87-88,294-95 Tikhonov, Alexander, 8-9,25,74-76,80,98, 145,168-69,291-92 Torshin investigation access by terrorists to the school and, 69 blame and, 56,291 commissioning of, 86 counterterrorism operation and, 56 criticism of, 8,86-88,89-90,146
INDEX delay ofreport by, 88,152 dissenting member of, 57,109 drug use claims and, 71 extension of, 88,152 intelligence failure and, 56 letters sent to, 143 negotiations with terrorists (refusal to negotiate) and, 71,74 parliamentary investigation headed by, 53 political action and, 139,143,152 public opinion on, 53,94 victims discredited by, 107,109 trauma. See posttraumatic growth; posttraumatic stress treatment of deceased bodies, 98-101 treatment responsibility, 278 treatments (medical and psychological) following attack, 102-3,173,235-36,325, 332,333,390-91,392 trials. See Beslan police officers’ trial; Ingushetian police officers’ trial; Kulayev trial trust in government, 269-70,297,298,299-300, 302,407-8,413 Tskhinvali, South Ossetia, 275 Tuayeva, Elvira, 142,165 Tuayev, Mairbek, 93,140,143 United States, 147,153,197,200,206,210,222, 247,253-54,255-57,258,272,293,294, 364,383-84,450-51,452-53,455,457, 478 USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). See Soviet Union Ustinov, Vladimir behavior of terrorists and, 48 cancelled meeting with victims by, 140 demands of terrorists and, 71 negotiations with terrorists (refusal to negotiate) and, 71 number of hostages and, 81-82 resignation of, 140 validity, 10,13,20,123-25,126,127,203-7, 339,478 vendettas, 11,114 victim-led investigations, 152-53 victims ignored, discredited, and demeaned, 107-9 victims of terrorism laws (proposed). See laws for victims of terrorism (proposed) videotapes, 51,58-59,63-64,72,73,74-75,89, 91,99,109,142,153 579 vigilantes, 56,78,123,319,347,396 violence. See ethnic conflict; responses to violence;
retaliatory violence violence reduction anger and, 466 efficacy and, 468 ethnic prejudice and, 463-66 overview of, 463 political action and, 468-69 political alienation and, 467-68 retaliatory violence and, 463-69 Vladikavkaz, North Ossetia assassination of mayors in, 43 car bomb attack by Khodov in, 70 market explosion in, 43,117 pickets in, 155,157,161-62,164-65 rallies in, 104,135-38,136/, 138/ 157 sit-in at courthouse in, 107-8,159,161,351-52 terrorist victim law demands in, 157 Voice of Beslan accountability of powerful political officials and,168-70 anti-terror law opposition to, 145,175 Beslan police officers’ trial and, 163-64 court sit-in by, 142,160 court termination of, 105-6,156-57 ECHRand, 147,162 election observer attempt by, 175 establishment of, 135,145 extremism charges against, 105-6,135,147, 153 harassment of, 105-6,158/, 284 hunger strikes by, 155-57,337-38 internal divisions in, 284,300,337 Kulayev trial and, 135,155-56,160-63, 337-38 laws for victims of terrorism demands of, 146-47,173-74,175 meetings with officials by, 141-42 Mothers of Beslan, disagreements with, 135, 144-45,156,336-38,387 open letters by, 145,146-48,168,173,175 petitions by, 147-48 pickets by, 157-58,158/ public statements by, 145,153,168 Putin critiqued by, 8-9,74,105-6,135,145, 147,153,157-58,169-70,175,284,300, 337 reorganization and renaming of, 105-6, 156-57 road sign Kurs Putina and, 105-6,157-58, 158/. Savelyev’s report supported by, 149-50
580 INDEX Voice of Beslan (cont.) victim-led investigation by, 153 victim welfare and, 146-47,173 watchdog of official investigators, 152 wider activism of, 175 women run nature of, 386,387 Vympel (FSB special forces), 61-62,75-76, 282,288 wall portrait for victims, 34/ wanted list, 70-71,85,237,268 watchdogs over official investigators, 149-52 weapons stored at school claims, 6-7,68-69, 87-88,294-95 wreckage, school, 61,105-6,135,136-37,150 Yeltsin, Boris, 38,41-42,123,132,283, 284,306 Yevkurov, Yunus-Bek, 110,254 Yevloyev, Mukhazhir, 92-93,96-97,166 Zangionov, Vitaly, 74-75 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Münchan |
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| author | Javeline, Debra 1967- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1146429177 |
| author_facet | Javeline, Debra 1967- |
| author_role | aut |
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| bvnumber | BV049002450 |
| contents | Introduction: Peace after violence in Beslan -- Part 1. The Beslan School hostage taking. Grievances against ethnic rivals -- Political grievances -- The surprisingly nonviolent aftermath -- The surprisingly political aftermath -- Part 2. Why politics and nonviolence? Anger and other emotions -- Ethnic prejudice -- Political alienation and blame -- Social alienation versus social support -- Self-efficacy and political efficacy -- Biography (demographics, prior harm, and prior activism) -- A portrait of political activists and violent retaliators -- Part 3. Generalizing findings from Beslan victims. Should results apply to nonvictims? -- Should results apply to victims in other places and times? -- Conclusion: Peace after violence |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1392145418 (DE-599)BVBBV049002450 |
| era | Geschichte 2004-2020 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 2004-2020 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic_facet | Beslan |
| id | DE-604.BV049002450 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T22:09:51Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T09:52:31Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780197683347 |
| language | English |
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| physical | xviii, 580 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten 24 cm |
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| spelling | Javeline, Debra 1967- Verfasser (DE-588)1146429177 aut After violence Russia's Beslan school massacre and the peace that followed Debra Javeline New York, NY Oxford University Press [2023] xviii, 580 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten 24 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Introduction: Peace after violence in Beslan -- Part 1. The Beslan School hostage taking. Grievances against ethnic rivals -- Political grievances -- The surprisingly nonviolent aftermath -- The surprisingly political aftermath -- Part 2. Why politics and nonviolence? Anger and other emotions -- Ethnic prejudice -- Political alienation and blame -- Social alienation versus social support -- Self-efficacy and political efficacy -- Biography (demographics, prior harm, and prior activism) -- A portrait of political activists and violent retaliators -- Part 3. Generalizing findings from Beslan victims. Should results apply to nonvictims? -- Should results apply to victims in other places and times? -- Conclusion: Peace after violence "Starting on September 1, 2004, and ending 53 hours later, Russia experienced its most appalling act of terrorism in history, the seizure of School No. 1 in Beslan, North Ossetia. Approximately 1,200 children, parents, and teachers were taken hostage, and over 330 -nearly one of every hundred Beslan residents- were killed, hundreds more seriously wounded, and all severely traumatized. After Violence is the first book to analyze the aftermath of such large-scale violence with evidence from almost all direct victims. It explores the motivations behind individual responses to violence. When does violence fuel greater acceptance of retaliatory violence, and when does violence fuel nonviolent participation in politics? The mass hostage taking was widely predicted to provoke a spiral of retaliatory ethnic violence in the North Caucasus, where the act of terror was embedded in a larger context of ongoing conflict between Ossetians, Ingush, and Chechens. Politicians, journalists, victims, and other local residents asserted that vengeance would come. Instead, the hostage taking triggered unprecedented peaceful political activism on a scale seen nowhere else in Russia. Beslan activists challenged authorities, endured official harassment, and won a historic victory against the Russian state in the European Court of Human Rights. After Violence provides insights into this unexpected but preferable outcome. Using systematic surveys of 1,098 victims (82%) and 2,043 nearby residents, in-depth focus groups, journalistic accounts, investigative reports, NGO reports, and prior scholarly research, After Violence offers novel findings about the influence of anger, prejudice, alienation, efficacy, and other variables on post-violence behavior"-- Geschichte 2004-2020 gnd rswk-swf Verbrechensopfer (DE-588)4078782-5 gnd rswk-swf Geiselnahme (DE-588)4121329-4 gnd rswk-swf Konfliktregelung (DE-588)4164958-8 gnd rswk-swf Beslan (DE-588)4620826-4 gnd rswk-swf Beslan Massacre, Beslan, Russia, 2004 Terrorism / Russia / History / 21st century Violence / Psychological aspects Terrorism Russia Russia (Federation) / Beslan 2000-2099 History Beslan (DE-588)4620826-4 g Geiselnahme (DE-588)4121329-4 s Verbrechensopfer (DE-588)4078782-5 s Konfliktregelung (DE-588)4164958-8 s Geschichte 2004-2020 z DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe 9780197683354 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034265600&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034265600&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034265600&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Javeline, Debra 1967- After violence Russia's Beslan school massacre and the peace that followed Introduction: Peace after violence in Beslan -- Part 1. The Beslan School hostage taking. Grievances against ethnic rivals -- Political grievances -- The surprisingly nonviolent aftermath -- The surprisingly political aftermath -- Part 2. Why politics and nonviolence? Anger and other emotions -- Ethnic prejudice -- Political alienation and blame -- Social alienation versus social support -- Self-efficacy and political efficacy -- Biography (demographics, prior harm, and prior activism) -- A portrait of political activists and violent retaliators -- Part 3. Generalizing findings from Beslan victims. Should results apply to nonvictims? -- Should results apply to victims in other places and times? -- Conclusion: Peace after violence Verbrechensopfer (DE-588)4078782-5 gnd Geiselnahme (DE-588)4121329-4 gnd Konfliktregelung (DE-588)4164958-8 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4078782-5 (DE-588)4121329-4 (DE-588)4164958-8 (DE-588)4620826-4 |
| title | After violence Russia's Beslan school massacre and the peace that followed |
| title_auth | After violence Russia's Beslan school massacre and the peace that followed |
| title_exact_search | After violence Russia's Beslan school massacre and the peace that followed |
| title_exact_search_txtP | After violence Russia's Beslan school massacre and the peace that followed |
| title_full | After violence Russia's Beslan school massacre and the peace that followed Debra Javeline |
| title_fullStr | After violence Russia's Beslan school massacre and the peace that followed Debra Javeline |
| title_full_unstemmed | After violence Russia's Beslan school massacre and the peace that followed Debra Javeline |
| title_short | After violence |
| title_sort | after violence russia s beslan school massacre and the peace that followed |
| title_sub | Russia's Beslan school massacre and the peace that followed |
| topic | Verbrechensopfer (DE-588)4078782-5 gnd Geiselnahme (DE-588)4121329-4 gnd Konfliktregelung (DE-588)4164958-8 gnd |
| topic_facet | Verbrechensopfer Geiselnahme Konfliktregelung Beslan |
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