Military strategies of the new European allies: a comparative study
"This book analyses how and to what extent ex-communist states have adjusted their defence strategies since joining the EU and NATO, and how differences and similarities between their strategies can be explained. Between 1999 and 2013, four phases of enlargement took place when the European Uni...
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
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London ; New York
Routledge
2023
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| Schriftenreihe: | Cass military studies
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| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Register // Gemischte Register |
| Zusammenfassung: | "This book analyses how and to what extent ex-communist states have adjusted their defence strategies since joining the EU and NATO, and how differences and similarities between their strategies can be explained. Between 1999 and 2013, four phases of enlargement took place when the European Union (EU) and NATO allowed 11 new former communist states to enter both organisations. These states share some common attributes and experiences related to strategic culture and common experiences during the Cold War era that can potentially explain similarities in behaviour and preferences among them. However, the strategic adjustments among these states are far from uniform. In an effort to explain these differences, the book introduces three intervening variables: (1) differences in relative power and position in the international system, (2) national geographical characteristics; and (3) historical experiences related to formative periods of state-building processes as well as wars and armed conflicts. Empirically, the book strives to present and analyse the defence strategies of each of the new allies by conducting a structured focused comparison of official strategic documents from the twenty-first century for each of the 11 cases. Theoretically and methodologically, it introduces an analytical framework enabling us to explain both similarities and differences in the formulation of the strategies of the 11 states, and to shed light on their external and internal efforts to promote their strategic interest by operationalising the dependent variable - defence strategy. The analytical framework combines elements of structural realism with classical realism, and constructivist research on unit-level characteristics related to relative power and perceptions of strategic exposure. This book will be of much interest to students of strategic studies, European Union policy, NATO and International Relations in general"-- |
| Beschreibung: | xi, 227 Seiten |
| ISBN: | 9781032286938 9781032286952 |
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| 505 | 8 | |a PART I -- Theoretical & Methodological Considerations: Framing the Research Design -- Strategic Adjustment in Central and Eastern Europe -- Analysing and Explaining Strategic Adjustment and Diversity -- Operationalising the Dependent Variable: Defence Strategy -- PART II -- The Empirical Exploration -- The Strategy of Bulgaria -- The Strategy of Croatia -- The Strategy of the Czech Republic (Czechia) -- The Strategy of Estonia -- The Strategy of Hungary -- The Strategy of Latvia -- The Strategy of Lithuania -- The Strategy of Poland -- The Strategy of Romania -- The Strategy of Slovakia -- The Strategy of Slovenia -- PART III -- Explaining the Findings -- The Aggregated Result of the Empirical Exploration -- Explaining the Diversity of Strategic Responses | |
| 520 | 3 | |a "This book analyses how and to what extent ex-communist states have adjusted their defence strategies since joining the EU and NATO, and how differences and similarities between their strategies can be explained. Between 1999 and 2013, four phases of enlargement took place when the European Union (EU) and NATO allowed 11 new former communist states to enter both organisations. These states share some common attributes and experiences related to strategic culture and common experiences during the Cold War era that can potentially explain similarities in behaviour and preferences among them. However, the strategic adjustments among these states are far from uniform. In an effort to explain these differences, the book introduces three intervening variables: (1) differences in relative power and position in the international system, (2) national geographical characteristics; and (3) historical experiences related to formative periods of state-building processes as well as wars and armed conflicts. Empirically, the book strives to present and analyse the defence strategies of each of the new allies by conducting a structured focused comparison of official strategic documents from the twenty-first century for each of the 11 cases. Theoretically and methodologically, it introduces an analytical framework enabling us to explain both similarities and differences in the formulation of the strategies of the 11 states, and to shed light on their external and internal efforts to promote their strategic interest by operationalising the dependent variable - defence strategy. The analytical framework combines elements of structural realism with classical realism, and constructivist research on unit-level characteristics related to relative power and perceptions of strategic exposure. This book will be of much interest to students of strategic studies, European Union policy, NATO and International Relations in general"-- | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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Contents List of Tables List ofAbbreviations vii viii PARTI Theoretical and methodological considerations: framing the research design I Strategic adjustment in Central and Eastern Europe 1 3 2 Analysing and explaining strategic adjustment and diversity 14 3 Operationalising the dependent variable: defence strategy 39 PART II The empirical exploration 49 4 The strategy of Bulgaria 51 The strategy of Croatia 61 5 6 The strategy of the Czech Republic (Czechia) 71 7 The strategy of Estonia 82 8 The strategy of Hungary 93 9 The strategy of Latvia 104 10 The strategy of Lithuania 115 11 The strategy of Poland 126 12 The strategy of Romania 138
vi Contents 13 The strategy of Slovakia 150 14 The strategy of Slovenia 161 PART III Explaining the findings 173 15 The aggregated result of the empirical exploration 175 16 Explaining the diversity of strategic responses 182 17 Conclusions: strategic responses to membership demands and changes in the external security environment 206 Index 216
Index Note: Page numbers in italics indicate a figure and page numbers in bold indicate a table on the corresponding page. Page numbers followed by ‘n’ indicate a note. Afghanistan 57, 76, 99, 112, 143, 168, 177; EU Police Mission in 110; NATOled operation in 112,119, 134, 143; Romania’s deployment to 143, 146, 178, 185 air defence systems 45, 131, 191,212 air surveillance radars 87, 108 Alecu de Fiers, Nicole 207 alignment strategies 41, 175-177; balanced approach towards 186; balance of power 135; basic options 40; concept of 39; differences in relative power 182-188; historical approach to 195-197; militaryoriented approach 176, 213; multiple courting 180; positional approach to 182-188, 187-188; Slovakian 157; Slovenian 177; strategic priorities regarding the choice of 182; see also defence strategies; military strategies Ämari Air Base, reconstruction of 85 American AEGIS Ashore system 143 An-32 transport aircraft 65 anti-ballistic defence 154 anti-sea mines operations 55 anti-surface and anti-mine warfare 65 anti-tank systems 87 Area of Operations 66, 109 armed aggression, WWII experiences of 196-197 armed forces: competences and recruitment processes of 18; interoperability with forces from other states 45; modernisation of 9, 51; ‘postnational’ ideas regarding of the use of 15 armoured combat vehicles (ACVs) 55 armoured personnel earners (APCs) 86 arms and technologies, illegal proliferation of 52 arms race 105 Austrian Empire 71 Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 93 Austro-Hungarian Empire 161 Axis alliance 93 Axis powers 138, 161 balance of power 7, 28,
39-41,43, 59, 102, 135 balance of threat theory 40-41 Balkan War (1912-1913) 51, 67 ballistic missile defence programme 134, 176, 202 Baltic States 5, 32, 111, 176, 185, 202; air policing mission 143; geographical approach, to defence planning 189; military cooperation with Nordic cooperation 112; multilateral strategies for national defence 192; multiple-courting strategy 213; NATO membership 122; potential need for adjusting the ends 211; priority of survival and territorial integrity 193; survival related to territorial security 197; territorial integrity of 209; trilateral cooperation among themselves 189 bandwagoning strategy: appeasement policy 40; Croatia 67; defensive 40; offensive 40, 176, 183,189, 195,200, 202; passive 168, 177, 184, 195; Polish 135; for profit 40; US-oriented 176 Baylis, John 41 Beaufre, André 41 Beeres, Robert 122
Index 217 Bell, Joseph 101, 135 BENELUX countries 15 Bennet, Andrew 11ո8 Berlin, Treaty of (1878) 5, 51 bilateral defence cooperation 89, 112, 209 bipolar world order 94 Black Sea Naval Cooperation Group (BLACKSEAFOR) 142 black trinity 23, 188 Borisov, Boyko 55 Bosnia and Herzegovina 64, 68, 99, 143 Brezhnev doctrine 23, 188 broader security-oriented approach 176, 183, 189, 193-194, 202, 208-209 Brussels, Treaty of (1965) 3 Bucharest, Treaty of ( 1913) 51 buck-passing strategy 40 Bulgarian Empire 51 Bulgaria, strategy of 51-59,58; defence white papers (DWPs) 51, 52; fundamental ends of 53-54; historical background 51; main military resources 56; means of 54-56; memberships in NATO/EU 53, 58; modernization of armed forces 51 ; multiple-courting 57; ‘NATO and EU First’ approach to defence policy 55; operations within the territory of other NATO member states 57; strategic environment 52-53; ways of 56-57 Bush, George H. W.: conceptualisations of a new US-led liberal world 188; vision of ‘Europe whole and free’ 23, 188 Byzantine Empire 161 Celestine III, Pope 82 Central Europe 5,23, 63, 71, 129, 152 chain gang 40 Chappell, Laura 134-135 chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CRBN) defence 65 chemical protection battalion 54 Christian orders 104, 115 Churchill, Winston 3 civil-military relations 19, 207 civil war 8, 16, 32, 117 Coast Guard Ship Flotilla 108 Cold War3, 106, 151, 188; events leading to the end of 1 ln3; military conflict during 59; NATO membership in the post-Cold War era 18; Nordic countries’ defence strategies during 31; power competition between US
and USSR 14; security order 21 collective security 7, 21, 28, 84, 167-168 collective self-defence 4,45; efforts related to 8, 33; NATO’s strategy for 46nl, 180; support and preparations for 30 combat engineer battalion 54 common defence planning 4 Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)99 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 94, 107 constitutional order, preservation of 96 Copenhagen criteria, for membership of EU 19 Council of Europe 99 counter-insurgency, strategy for 45 coup d’état 82, 104, 115 courting, strategy of 40 CO VID-19 pandemic 140, 152 Crimea, Russia’s annexation of 4, 78, 117, 140, 177,212 crisis management operations 87 Croatian armed forces, development of 61 Croatian crown 61 Croatian War of Independence 61 Croatia, strategy of 61-69, 198; armed forces, role of 66; bandwagoning 67; building offensive naval capabilities 69; chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CRBN) defence 65; competition with Venice for control over the eastern Adriatic coast 61 ; defence budget 68; Erdut Agreement ( 1995) 61 ; expeditionary capabilities 68; foreign policy 66; fundamental ends of 63-64; historical background 61; Hungarian invasion 61; main military resources 66; means of 64-66; Membership Action Plan (MAP) 69; memberships in NATO/ EU 67; military capabilities 64; military strategy risks 69; multilateral approach 68; multiple-courting 67; national cyber security strategy (NCSS) 61; Ottoman invasions 61 ; program of international defence co-operation 66; for protection of Croats living outside the borders of Croatia 64; on relation with US 69; seat in UNSC
69; security system 64; strategic environment 62-63; submarine warfare capability 65; War of the Croatian Succession 61 ; ways of 66-67 cultural heritage 58, 96, 118, 141, 177, 184 cyber-attacks 83, 140 cybercrime 53 cybersecurity 95 cyberspace 62, 163
218 Index cyberterrorism 63, 105 Czech and Slovak KFOR (Kosovo Force) battalion 76 Czechoslovakia 150, 177, 184, 195, 198; ad hoc coalition groupings 76; Armed Forces of 73; cyber defence of 75; dissolution of 72; goals of military reforms 79; Gross Domestic Products (GDP) 72; main military resources of 76; response to Russia’s war against Ukraine 213; Soviet occupation of 71; strategic interests 73; Velvet Revolution (1989) 71-72; war with Poland 126 Czech Republic (Czechia), strategy of 71-79; for crisis management operations 75; difference with Hungary’s defence strategies 188; for economic and social development 73; for ensuring the security of citizens 74; fundamental ends of 73-74; historical background 71-72; means of 74-76; multiple courting alignment strategy 77; for protection and defence of airspace 76; against risks of cyber attacks 73; SaintGermain-en-Laye, Treaty of (1919) 71; strategic environment 72-73; for strengthening of deployable capabilities 75; uprising against the communist regime 71; ways of 76-77 Dănilă, Ștefan 147 Danish Duchy of Estonia 82 de Bakker, Eric 122 decision-making 28, 43, 88 defeat in war 30 defence strategies: definition of 10, 39; intervening variables and the outcomes of 201; of Nordic countries during Cold War 31 ; see also alignment strategies; military strategies defence transformation 17,202; in response to a deteriorating European security order 211-213; towards expeditionary warfare 211 defence white papers (DWPs) 9, 51, 118 defensive realism, characteristic of 42 defensive realists 42 de Fiers, Nicole Alecu 20 democratic
statehood, strengthening of 107 Diesen, Sverre 16 “dividing lines” in Europe, idea of 18 division of labour 24 Doeser, Fredrik 135 domestic security 105-106 Dotzev, Nikolay 58 drugs trafficking 72 Duchy of Bohemia 71 Eastern Europe 3, 5, 19, 52-53, 73, 95, 142, 162, 175 Eastern military bloc 14; see also Warsaw Pact (WP) East-West division, of Europe 15 economic dimension of security 177 economic power resources 26 economic security 74, 105, 117, 147, 154 Edmunds, Timothy 17-18, 207 Eidenfalk, Joakim 135 ends: Baltic States political need to adjust 211; Bulgarian strategy 53-54; Croatian strategy 63-64; Czech Republic (Czechia), strategy of 73-74; element of the military strategy 177-178: Estonian strategy 84-85; geographical approach 189; historical approach 197-198; Hungarian strategy 95-96; Latvian strategy 106-107; Lithuanian strategy 117-118; military strategies 177-178; Polish strategy 128-129; positional approach 184; Romanian strategy 140-142; Romania’s priorities regarding 189; Slovakian strategy 152-153; Slovenian strategy 163-164; strategic 184 energy sources, diversification of 53 Enhanced Forward Presence 75, 144, 192 Erdut Agreement (1995) 61 Estonia, strategy of 82-90, 89, 209, 212; against cyber attack 83; defence development plans 82; fundamental ends of 84-85; historical background 82; Livonian Order 82; main military resources 86; means of 85-87; membership in NATO and the EU 87; for military defence 86; multiple courting 88; for national defence 89; pillars of military defence 87; response to Russia’s attack against Georgia 212; strategic environment
82-84; war of independence against the Soviets 82; ways of 87-88 ethnic conflicts 104—105 EU Battle Groups (EUBG)s 56, 64-65, 74, 76, 88, 143; concept of 207; Hungarian contributions to 98; Lithuanian contributions to 119 Eurasian ‘pivot area’ 22
Index Euratom see European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) Euro-Atlantic area 106, 118, 152, 162 Euro-Atlantic collective security system 84 Euro-Atlantic integration 53, 66, 94, 98-99, 118 Euro-Atlantic security 147 European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) 3 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)3, 15 European Communities (EC) 3, 15 European Council 19 European Economic Community (EEC) 3, 15 European great powers 15 European integration processes 207 Europeanisation, processes of 19-20 European Rapid Reaction Force 133 European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) 73, 133 European security dynamics 45, 188, 210; and membership processes 206-211 ; new and old 14-22; new post-national security dynamics 15-21 ; return of 21-22 European security order 4, 208; defence transformation towards expeditionary warfare 211 ; responses to a deteriorating 211-213 European Union (EU) 14, 52, 99; Bulgaria’s accession to 53. 58; Common Security and Defence Policy of 57, 88; Copenhagen criteria for membership of 19; crisis management capabilities 77; Croatia’s accession to 67; Estonia’s accession to 87; foreign policy acquis 20; Germany’s membership in 197; Helsinki Head Line Goals (1999) 18, 207; Latvia’s membership in 105; Lithuanian membership of 118; membership of 9-10, 207; Member States 57; Military Rapid Response Concept 56; Monitoring Mission in Georgia (EUMM Georgia) 110; operation in Macedonia 110; Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) 56; Police Mission in Afghanistan (EUPOL Afghanistan) 110; policy in relation to Russia 41; Polish membership of 127; Pooling and Sharing
initiatives 77; Romania’s membership of 140, 146; Slovenia’s membership of 163,169 European Union Force (EUFOR) 99 219 existential wars, idea of 16 expeditionary force, development of 68 expeditionary warfare 8, 20, 45, 146, 178, 184-186, 188, 204, 206, 208,214; Croatia’s development of 69; defence transformation towards 211; military capacities related to 21; military means to 190-192; priorities regarding 198; Slovakian capacity for 157, 185; Slovenian strategy of 168; and territorial defence 214 external efforts 7, 28-29, 33, 39, 187, 189, 191,211-212 F-35 combat aircraft 191,212 Fenko, Ana Bojinović 169 Ferdinand 1 of the Habsburg dynasty 61 fighter combat aircraft, self-defence by 55 First World War (WW1) 51; Bulgarian defeat in 51 ; defeat of Austria-Hungary in 61, 71, 138 Fiszer, Michal 158 force multiplier 17 Fox, Annette Baker 28 free development of the society 106 freedom of enterprise 96 French Empire 161 Fukuyama, Francis 23 Gajdoš, Peter 152 geographical approach, to defence planning 188-193,200-202; alignment strategy 189; in Baltic States 189; conclusions regarding 193; geographically exposed position 213; great power conflicts and 188; military means 190-192; to multiple-courting 189; offensive bandwagoning strategy 189; strategic ends 189; ways 192-193 geographical characteristics 5, 7, 14, 22-23, 29-30, 182, 188 George, Alexander 1 ln8 Germany: Bundeswehr 179, 185; unification of 1 ln3 global financial and economic crisis 52, 62 global security system 52 Glváč, Martin 154-155 government in exile 71, 126 grand strategy: definitions of 39, 42; versus
military strategy 42 Gray, Colin 7, lln5,42,188 Grčié Polic, Jelena 68 Greater Middle East 152 great power club 44
220 Index great powers 197; competition among 23; military cooperation (MC) with 32; military strategies of 6; permanent seats in UNSC 25; strategies of 188; tension between 7; see also middle powers Grizold, Anton 169 gross domestic product (GDP) 22, 25, 56 Group of Seven (G7) 43 Group of Twenty (G20) 25, 43 Habsburg Monarchy 93, 115, 126 Hart, Basil Liddell 41 Haushofer, Karl 22 hedging, strategy of 40, 41 Helsinki Head Line Goals (1999) 18, 207 Hendrickson, Ryan 101, 135 historical approach, to defence planning 194-200; alignment strategies 195-197; conclusions regarding 199-200; military means 198-199; strategic ends 197-198; unilateral and/or multilateral approach 199; ways 199 historical experiences 5, 7-10,14, 20, 22-24, 29-32, 129, 135,195, 198 Hitler, Adolf 22 Hoffmann, Stanley 30-31 Hojs, Aleš 165 Holy Roman Empire 71, 126, 161 Horthy, Miklós 93 host nation support (HNS) 66 House of Habsburg 71 humanitarian crises 72 Hungarian army: armoured reconnaissance battalion 98; capabilities in domestic matters 101; developments of 179; light infantry battalions 98; Mechanised Infantry Brigade, 5th 98; Mechanised Infantry brigade, 25th 98 Hungary: kingdom of 161; Ottoman conquest of 150; rebellion against the Habsburgs 150; Upper Hungary' 150 Hungary, strategy ОҐ93-102; alignment strategy 100; based on multiple-courting 100; contributions to the EUBG 98; difference with Czechia’s defence strategies 188; fundamental ends of 95-96; historical background 93-94; for international prestige and influence 96; and invasion of Red Army 94; main military resources 98; means of
97-98; national defence 100; national self strength 98; on policy towards Russia 101; on position within the EU 101; for preservation of the cultural heritage and identity 96; self-government and autonomy 96; strategic environment 94-95; for sustainable economic growth 96; voluntary reserve system 97, 98; ways of 98-100; Zrínyi 2026 plan for the modernisation of the armed forces 98 Huntington, Samuel 23 hybrid warfare 69, 73, 117 Hyde-Price, Adrian 16, 31, 32 Iancu, Avram-Florian 147 identification-friend-or-foe capability 87 infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) 75 influence 42, 44, 52, 78, 100; of Croatian democratic political system 64; of cultural and political identity 105; of Czech government 177; differences related to relative power 6; of geography and historical experiences 29-32; goals related to 20, 29; on military reform programs 18; of non-state actors 151; of previous experiences of armed conflicts 30; of Romanian state 146, 184; of Russia in Soviet Eastern and Central Europe 23; of Soviet Union 3; sphere of 4, 23, 72, 83; during systematic wars 31 information technology 105 Innocent IV, Pope 115 institutionalised multilateral cooperation 7 instrumental learning 19, 207 internal efforts 7, 28-29, 39, 187, 211, 214 internal security dynamics 14 International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) 10, 93, 98 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 26 international organized crime 151 international peace support operations 54, 58, 66, 68, 178, 180,206 International Relations (IR) 24-25, 42, 83, 100, 139 International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) 76 international
terrorism 52-53, 62, 83, 104,105, 127, 145, 207, 208; illegal proliferation of arms and technologies 52; non-state actors 16; regional instability caused by 18 interoperability, with the armed forces of friendly states 45 interstate armed conflicts 21, 72, 151, 207, 208; in failed/failing states 72; regional instability caused by 18 invading forces, protection against 23
Index Iohannis. Klaus 141 Iran, Islamic fundamentalism in 127 Iraq. US-led invasion of 134, 176, 183 Islamic State (IS): US-led Operation Inherent Resolve against 99-100; war against 46nl isolation, strategy of 40 Jagiellonian dynasty (Hungary) 93 Jakniunaite, Dovile 122 JAS-39 Gripen combat aircraft 75, 98 Jelušič. Ljubica 165,169 Jervis, Robert 7 Ji Yun Lee 41 Johnston, Alistair Iain 5 Joint Air-to-Surfacc Standoff Missile system 191 Kahn, Herman 41 Kanis, Pavol 158 Kasekamp, Andres 122 Kjellen. Rudolf 22, 188 knowledge, cumulative development of lln9 Komorowski, Bronistaw 130 Kopac, Erik 168 Kostov, Ivan 59n2 Kotnik-Dvojmoc, Igor 168 Krēsliņš, Kārlis 112 land and air forces, downsizing of 210 Lašas, Ainius 23, 188 Latvian state and society 107 Latvia, strategy of 104-112; air defence and anti-tank capabilities 109; capacity to counter NBC weapons 107; Coast Guard Ship Flotilla 108; crusade against pagans in Northern Europe 104; defence expenditures 190; fundamental ends of 106-107; historical background 104; information technology 105; joint military training with other NATO member states 108; key priority in the defence sector 112; main military resources 109; means of 107-109; membership in NATO and the EU 105; military combat capabilities 107; modern command and control systems 107; multilateral approach 111 ; multiple-courting hedging strategy 111 ; on national defence 111 ; National Guard 108-109; on national security 106; participation in EU-led international missions 110; risk of 221 external military aggression 110; selfdefence capabilities 112; strategic
environment 104—106; strategic goal after the end of the Cold War 106; on threats caused by foreign intelligence and security services 105; ways of 109-111 Layne, Christopher 29 leash slipping, strategy of 41 Lisbon, Treaty of 21, 88 Lithuania, kingdom of: creation of 115; defence policy 121 ; economic situation of 119; Grand Duchy of 115; independence from Russia 115; membership of NATO and EU 118; Moscow, Treaty of (1920) 115; warfare with the Christian orders, Poland and the Kiev-Russians 115 Lithuanian armed forces: combat service support units 119; development of 122; infantry battalion battle group 119; “Iron Wolf’ mechanized infantry brigade 119; jaeger battalion 119; main military resources of 120; motorised infantry brigade 118; National Defence Volunteer Forces 118; participation in NATO NRF and the EU Battlegroups 119; reformation of 212; Teutonic Knights 115; transformation of 118 Lithuania, strategy of 115-123; alignment strategy 121; bi- and multilateral defence cooperation 123; concept of territorial defence 121; on consequence of globalisation 116; on deterrence based on defence 120; on fostering citizenship and patriotism 118; fundamental ends of 117-118; historical background 115; on hybrid warfare 117; means of 118-120; on multilateral approach 122; multiple-courting hedging strategy 121; national defence 122; strategic environment 116-117; ways of 120-121; white paper on defence on 118 Livonian Order 82 logistic chains 45, 208 Louis II, King 93 Macierewicz, Antoni 131 Mackinder, Halford 22 Mahečić, Zvonimir 69 main battle tanks (MBTs) 55, 68, 97, 192,
210,212 Manicom, James 25
222 Index Mariana, Terra 104 Marušiak, Juraj 101 Matlary, Janne Haaland 15, 206 means: Bulgarian strategy 54—56; Croatian 64-66; Czech Republic (Czechia) strategy 74-76; element of the military strategy 178-179; Estonian strategy 85-87; to expeditionary warfare 190-192; geographical approach 190-192; historical approach 198-199; Hungary, strategy of 97-98; Latvian strategy 107-109; Lithuanian strategy 118-120; for national defence 179; to national defence 190-192; Polish strategy 129-132; to positional approach 184—186; Romanian strategy 142-144; for self-preservation 39; Slovakia, strategy of 153-155; Slovenia, strategy of 164—166 Mearsheimer, John 43 mechanized brigade 54 Membership Action Plan (MAP) 69, 207 Merger Treaty 3 Meri, Lennart 89 Mi-24 Hind helicopters 65, 97-98 Middle Ages 8, 32 Middle East 52-53, 94, 100, 127, 140, 162, 167 middle powers 183; definition of 25, 34n6; diplomacy 28; major 25; minor 26; Poland 26; see also great powers MiG-21 aircraft 64—66, 143 MiG-29 Fulcrum aircraft 97 military assistance (MA) 31 military blocs: Eastern 14; Western 14 military cooperation (MC), with great powers 32 military force, use of 56 military intelligence battalion 65 military means 184—186 military power resources 26 military strategies 41-46; concept of 39; Croatian 69; defined 42; elements of 46; ends element of 177-178; versus grand strategy 42; of great powers 6; key elements of 6; means element of 178-179; operationalisation of 39; ways element of 179-181; see also defence strategies military strength 10, 39, 97 Mill, John Stuart lln7 mine countermeasures vessel
(MCMV) 119 missile boats 143 missile defence program 79, 134, 143, 176, 189, 202 missile ships, Helsinki-class 69 Mistral surface-to-air missiles 85 Miszczak, Krzysztof 134 Mohács, Battle of (1526) 93 Moldavia 32, 93, 138, 141, 144, 213 Mölder, Holger 90 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939) 23, 188 monarchy, referendum abolishing 51 Moravian Empire 150 Moscow, Treaty of (1920) 115 Moumoutzis, Kyriakos 19, 207 Müller, Patrick 20, 207 multilateral approaches 45, 58, 68, 77-78, 89, 100, 111, 122, 146, 157, 179. 180, 186 multilateral defence cooperation 17, 123 multilateral expeditionary warfare 17 multilateral risk-sharing 17 Multinational Corps Northeast (MNC-NE) 75 Multinational Land Force (MLF) 66, 167 Multinational Peace Force-South-Eastern Europe (MPF-SEE) 142-143 Multinational Stand-by High Readiness Brigade (SHIRBRIG) 142 multiple-courting, strategy of 41, 175, 183; alignment 180; in Bulgaria 57; in Croatia 67; in Czech Republic 77; in Estonia 88; in Latvia 111 ; in Lithuania 121; military-oriented approach to 194-195, 199; in Romania 146; security-oriented approaches to 200; in Slovakia 157; in Slovenia 167 Munich Agreement (1938) 23, 188 Napoleonic paradigm 16 national characteristics, variables in 22-34; geographical characteristics 22; influence of geography and historical experiences 29-32; position in the international system 24—29; relative power 22, 24-29; strategic exposure 33-34 national defence 178, 184—186, 188; collective defence 45; development of 44; in Latvia 111 ; military means to 190-192; priorities regarding 198; unilateral capabilities 45 national
identity 139, 177 nationally controlled resources 7 national security 7, 210; in Bulgaria 57; in Croatia 69; cyber aspects of 63; in
Index Estonia 82, 87; goals related to 20; in Hungary 96; in Latvia 104—106, 110; in Lithuania 116-117; national security strategy (NSS) 51; in Poland 127; post national security paradigm 4, 15-21 ; in Slovenia 163 national self-strength 98 national strategic cultures, analysis of 23 national territorial defence, notion of 15, 206 nation-state model of defence 15, 206 NATO Response Force (NRF) 64, 66, 74, 76, 110 natural resources, depletion of 95 Nazi-Germany 8, 51, 115, 138, 150, 194, 214; annexation of Sudetenland 71; eastward expansion 188: invasion of Yugoslavia by 61; Reichskommissariat Ostland 82 Nemeth, Bence 102 new powers, rise of 22 niche diplomacy 29 non-aligned states 15 Nordic-Baltic military' cooperation 112 Nordic countries, defence strategies of 31 Norkus, Renatas 122 North Atlantic Treaty 75, 88 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 3, 14, 99; anti-ballistic defence 154; area of responsibility 57; Baltic Air Policing mission fighters 86: Bulgaria’s accession to 53, 58; collective defence system 77, 110, 180, 186; Comprehensive Operations Planning Directive (COPD) 207; Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence in Estonia 86; creation of 14; criteria for membership 18; Croatia’s accession to 67; defence planning 21; development of defence capabilities 74; engagement in stabilisation missions outside Europe 132; Estonia’s accession to 87; expansion in Central Europe 152; funding for developing the Slovenian military infrastructure 177; Germany’s membership in 197; İSAF in Afghanistan 177; Joint Response Force 143; KFOR in Kosovo 177; Latvia’s
membership in 105; leadership of 67; Lithuanian membership of 118; Membership Action Plan (MAP) 18-19, 69, 207; membership of 9-Ю, 207; military exercises 21; obligations of 106; Operational Concept and Force 223 Structure 146; Operation Resolute Support 99; operations against proliferation of WMD 57; Operation Unified Protector 135; opportunities for ‘instrumental learning’ 207; Partnership for Peace (PfP) program 18-19,207; Polish membership of 127; Rapid Deployable Corps based in Italy (NRDC-It) 165; Response Force 88; Romania’s membership of 140, 146; SFOR (Stabilisation Force) in Croatia 99; Slovenia’s membership of 163, 169; Smart Defence 77; strategy of collective defence in Europe 46nl; Study on NATO Enlargement (1995) report 18; Washington summit (1999) 19 nuclear, biological and chemical weapons (NBC) protection 54, 107 Oder-Neisse line 126 offensive realists 42 offensive warfare 8, 31, 32, 195, 197 off-shore balancing, strategy of 29 Operation Active Endeavour 143 Operation Atalanta 143 Operation Enduring Freedom 76 Operation Inherent Resolve 99 Operation Iraqi Freedom 110 Operation Mare Nostrum 167 Operation Resolute Support 99 Operation Unified Protector 135, 143 optional wars 15, 206 organised crime 52-53 organised international crime 16, 127 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 99 Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) 19, 52, 74, 99, 157, 167 Ottoman Empire 51, 93, 138, 150 Otzulis, Valdis 112, 122 Ozoliņa, Žaneta 112, 122 Paris, Treaty of (1947) 3, 94 Partnership for Peace (PfP) program 18-19, 207 Paszewski,
Tomasz 135 Patriot missile defence system 191, 212 peace support operations (PSOs) 4, 17, 185, 206 Péczeli, Anna 5 Peresin, Anita 69 Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) 56
224 Index Piłsudski, Józef 126 Planning and Review Process (PARP) 19 Poland 26, 30, 183, 198, 202; access to greater military resources 202; annexation of the Vilnius region 115; annexation of the Zaolzie region 71; balance between the uni- and multilateral approaches 181; civil resistance during 1980-1989 126; contributions to international military operations 179; contributions to US-led coalitions 189; cyber warfare capacity 131; Duchy of 126; geographical position of 127; industrial defence capacities 131 ; kingdom of 115; memberships in NATO and the EU 127; as middle power 187; missile defence agreement with US 135; modernisation of the air defence system 191; National Security Bureau (NSB) 127; occupation by Nazi-Germany and the USSR during WWII 126; offensive bandwagoning strategy 189; Patriot missile defence system 191; position during NATO’s Operation Unified Protector over Libya 135; protection of its national heritage and identity 129; as sovereign and democratic state in Central Europe 129; strategic culture 135; war with Czechoslovakia 126 Poland armed forces: development of 130; joint anti-terrorist operations 130; main military resources of 132; missile defence system 131; modernisation of the air defence system 131 ; tactical mobility of 131; technical modernisation of 131 Poland, strategy of 126-135; balance of power alignment strategy 135; bandwagoning with the US 135; in defence against external crisis 128; fundamental ends of 128-129; historical background 126; means of 129-132; for national defence 134; objectives of defence policy 128; strategic
environment 127-128; ways of 132-133 policy learning, definition of 19 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 115 Polish-Lithuanian Union 115 political extremism 116 political leadership, of small states 7 political pluralism, implementation of 96 political unilateralism 180, 187 Posen, Barry 42 positional approach, to defence planning 200; alignment strategies 183-184; conclusions regarding 187-188; differences in relative power 182-188; military means 184-186; strategic ends 184; ways 186-187 post-communist states 5 post-national security paradigm 4,209-210 Potsdam Conference (1945) 126 power maximisation, notion of 44 power of states 29 problem solving 5 Procházka, Josef 78-79 Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) 76 RBS-70 mobile air defence weapon system 108 realism: classical 24; defensive 42; structural 24 Red Army 82, 94 Reeves, Jeffrey 25 regional balancing, strategy of 40 regional conflicts 53, 62, 68, 76. 128, 139. 151 Regional Security Complex Theory' (RSCT)21 Reiter, Dan 8, 194 relative power, notion of 22 religious-extremist-driven tenorism 139 Riga, Treaty of (1920) 104 Rikveilis,Airis 111 rising power, threat perceptions of 41 Roland air defence missile system 166 Romania: Berlin, Treaty of (1878) 138; contribution to regional stability 142; economic security and foreign investments 147; geographical position 139; integration as a NATO and EU member 140, 146; military security of 141; national identity 139; participation in German invasion of the USSR 138; partnership with the US 147; Russian occupation 138; status as a security provider 142; transformation of the
armed forces towards expeditionary' capabilities 178; Transylvania and Wallachia principalities 138 Romanian armed forces: air policing mission in the Baltic States 143; American AEGIS Ashore system 143; contributions to the EU-led operation Althea in Bosnia-Herzegovina 143; deployment to Afghanistan 143; downsizing of 178; main military
Index 225 resources of 144; missions of 142; Operation Active Endeavour 143; operational structure of 142, 144; Operation Atalanta 143; Operation Unified Protector 143; training mission to Mali 143; transformation in accordance with NATO and EU standards 142 Romanian-Hungarian Joint Peacekeeping Battalion 143 Romania, strategy of 138-147; adoption of multiple-courting 146; defense and security policy 147; economical-social shortcomings 139; for economic and social development 140; fundamental ends of 140-142; historical background 138; means of 142-144; strategic environment 138-140; ways of 144-145 Rome, Treaty of ( 1957) 3 Rončević, Berislav 62 Rostoks, Toms 112 Rothstein, Robert 28 Rublovskis, Raimonds 112 Russia: annexation of the Crimea 4, 78, 117, 140, 177, 212; efforts to strengthening its great power status 140; EU’s policy in relation to 41; Hungarian policy towards 101; military intervention in Georgia 4, 7, 21, 191, 208, 212, 213; use of military force for political purposes 21; war against Ukraine 4, 23, 122, 157, 177, 187, 190, 198,212-213 Šabič, Zlatko 169 Saeima (Latvian Parliament) 105-106, 110 Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Treaty of (1919) 71 Schelling, Thomas 41 Scott, David 123 search and rescue (SAR) capability 85 Second World War (WWII) 4, 51, 175, 196-197 security dynamics 21, 210; in Europe in the post-Cold War era 15; expeditionary warfare 45; internal 14; new European 14-22, 206-211; new post-national 15-21; return of old European 21-22, 188 security intelligence system 61 security policies, of European countries 16 security strategy: of Croatia 63, 69; of
Hungary 96 security threats, evaluation of 75 self-defence capabilities 112, 122 self-help strategies, development of 42 self-help system 39 self-identification, idea of 25 self-preservation, means for 39 Simeon II, Tsar 51 Simon, Jeffrey 19, 207 Slovakian armed forces: defence transformation process 186; expeditionary warfare 185; transformation of 185 Slovakian General Staff (GS) 151 Slovakia, strategy of 27, 150-158, 198; alignment strategy 157; capacity for expeditionary warfare 157; COVID-19 pandemic 152; fundamental ends of 152-153; historical background 150; main military resources and 155; means of 153-155; multilateral approach 157; multiple-courting hedging strategy 157; National Council (NC) 150; security and defence policy 153; strategic environment 150-152; ways of 156-157 Slovenian armed forces: air defence and communications 164; contribution to the joint military capabilities of the EU 164; crisis response operations 166; enlargement and modernization of the Cerklje ob Krki airfield 166; high-readiness battalion battle group 165; main military resources of 166; mechanized battalion battle group 166; medium infantry battalion group 165; motorised infantry company 164; Operation Mare Nostrum 167; participation to NATO-led operations 164; professionalization of 169; wartime strength of 164 Slovenian minorities, rights and development of 163 Slovenia, strategy of 161-169, 198; expeditionary warfare 168; fundamental ends of 163-164; historical background 161; key objectives of defence policy 163; means of 164-166; membership ofNATO and EU 163, 169; multilateral
approach 168; multiple-courting hedging strategy 167; passive bandwagoning 168; position and reputation in the international community 163; strategic environment 161-163; War of Independence 161; ways of 166-167 small states 6-7, 23, 25, 90, 182-184, 187; defence strategies 27-28; European 17;
226 Index goals related to influence and status 29; historical experiences relating to WWI and W Wil 31; institutionalised multilateral cooperation 7; multilateral strategies for collective territorial defence 214; multiple-courting strategy 200; national characteristics 22; operationalisation of influence 43; participation in international PSOs 208; political leadership of 7; strategic exposure 33; strategic priorities related to national defence among 190; unilateral approaches 210 Smith, Rubert 16 Snyder, Jack 1Խ5 Sobotka, Bohuslav 73 social development 63, 73, 94, 140, 163 socialization, notion of 20 social learning 19-20, 207 social stratification 105 social terrorism 116 South Eastern Europe Brigade (SEEBRIG) 143 sovereignty and integrity, of the state 177 Soviet military equipment, dependence of 21 Soviet Union 8, 197; Estonians war of independence against 82; German invasion of 138; implosion of 15; invasion of Bulgaria 51; occupation of Czechoslovakia 71; power competition with US 14; see also Russia special forces battalion 54, 65 special operations forces squadron 119, 191 state-building processes 5, 8, 24, 30 states’ competition, for status and recognition 43 state’s political independence and territorial integrity, protection of 43 status 8; definition of 44; great power 140; of Latvian language 105; of middle power 25; of national economy 104; peace support operations (PSOs) 17; positional 43; of Romania as a security provider 142; of Russia as global power 83; states’ competition for 43; survival 177, 184, 189 stealth capacities, for warships and airplanes 45
Stephen II, King 61 Stephen I, King 93 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) 26 strategic culture, definition of 5, 1Խ5 strategic ends 184 strategic exposure: and future challenges facing the new European allies 213-215; notion of 33-34; potential aggregated perception of 33 strategic resources, supply of 207 Strategic Studies 41 —42 structural realism, notion of 24 structured focused comparison (SFC) 6, 9 submarine warfare 65 surface-to-air missiles 75 survival 7, 24, 43^14, 57, 175, 177-178, 184, 187, 189; categories of 39; of Czech state 78; defensive realists 42; of Estonia 89; goals related to 20; of Hungary 96, 100; of Latvian state 111; of Lithuania 121; military strategy for 68, 89; against military threats 78; in nuclear age 41 ; of Poland 134; of Romania 146; of Slovakia 157; of Slovenian state 168; supremacy of 58; threats of 28 sustainable economic development 53 Svinarov, Nikolay 52-53 Swedish Empire 126 Takacs, David 89 Tartu, Treaty of (1920) 82 Tashev, Blagovest 58 Taylor, Maxwell 39, 42 technologically advanced military systems 45 technological revolution 95 territorial defence 86, 111, 121 territorial integrity 184 territorial security 194 Teutonic Knights 115 totalitarian ideologies 16 transatlantic security 99 trans-border organized crime 62 transport aircrafts 108 transport systems, for deployment of military units 45 transport technology 22 Transylvania, Principality of 93 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe 75 Treaty on European Union 76 Trianon, Treaty of (1920) 93-94 Truman doctrine 23 unilateral approach 134,
179-181,186-187, 199, 208,210 UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) 167
Index unipolar power, notion of 40 United Nations (UN) 17, 52 United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) 99 United States (US): anti-terrorist operation 76; ballistic missile defence programme 176; containment policy against world communism 188; invasion of Iraq 176; military presence in Latvia 110; missile defence program 79; Operation Enduring Freedom 76; Operation Inherent Resolve 99; Operation Iraqi Freedom 110; power competition with USSR 14; relation with Croatia 69; unipolar power 40 universal human values 53 UN Security Council (UNSC) 25, 43, 134 Upper Hungary, Principality of 150 Urbanovská, Jana 158 use of force, policy of 42 USSR see Russia; Soviet Union Ustaše organisation 61 Vaicekauskaitė, Živilė Marija 123 Vanaga, Nora 112 Varg, Gergely 101 Velvet Revolution (1989) 71 Venice, Republic of 161 Versailles, Treaty of 126 Vienna Document 75 Visegrád Cooperation 100, 157 Visegrad countries 98 Visegrad Group 5 Vojtek, Peter 155 voluntary reserve system 97-98 von Clausewitz, Carl 41 Walt, Stephen 40-41 Waltz, Kenneth 39 Warsaw Pact (WP) 5, 101 ; creation of 14; defence planning of 21, 207; dissolution 227 of 15, 59; establishment of 51; founding members of 51 ; resolution of 11 n3 War Ship Flotilla 108 Washington Treaty (1946) 3, 55, 74, 130 Watkins, Amadeo 69 ways: of Bulgaria 56-57; of Croatia 66-67; of Czech Republic (Czechia) 76-77; element of the military strategy 179-181 ; of Estonia 87-88; geographical approach 192-193; historical approach 199; of Hungary 98-100; of Latvia 109-111; ofPoland 132-133; positional approach 186-187; Romania’s priorities
regarding 144-145, 189; of Slovakia 156-157; of Slovenia 166-167; unilateral and/or multilateral approach 186-187, 192-193 weapons of mass destruction (WMD) 18, 53,62, 72, 94, 105, 116, 127, 139, 151, 207 Western military bloc 14; see also North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Wirtz, James 41 World Trade Organization (WTO) 89 Yalta Agreement (1945) 23, 188 Yaniszewski, Mark 101, 135 Yugoslavia, Kingdom of 61, 161; Axis invasions of 93; wars of independence (1991-2001)206 Yugoslav regency 61 Zajac, Justyna 5 Załęski, Krzysztof 134 Zartaloudis, Sotirios 19, 207 Zeitschrift für Geopolitik 22 Zord, Gábor 101 Zrínyi 2026 plan, for the modernisation of the armed forces 98 ZU-23-2 anti-aircraft cannons 85 ВяуегіШнб йШШп I |
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Contents List of Tables List ofAbbreviations vii viii PARTI Theoretical and methodological considerations: framing the research design I Strategic adjustment in Central and Eastern Europe 1 3 2 Analysing and explaining strategic adjustment and diversity 14 3 Operationalising the dependent variable: defence strategy 39 PART II The empirical exploration 49 4 The strategy of Bulgaria 51 The strategy of Croatia 61 5 6 The strategy of the Czech Republic (Czechia) 71 7 The strategy of Estonia 82 8 The strategy of Hungary 93 9 The strategy of Latvia 104 10 The strategy of Lithuania 115 11 The strategy of Poland 126 12 The strategy of Romania 138
vi Contents 13 The strategy of Slovakia 150 14 The strategy of Slovenia 161 PART III Explaining the findings 173 15 The aggregated result of the empirical exploration 175 16 Explaining the diversity of strategic responses 182 17 Conclusions: strategic responses to membership demands and changes in the external security environment 206 Index 216
Index Note: Page numbers in italics indicate a figure and page numbers in bold indicate a table on the corresponding page. Page numbers followed by ‘n’ indicate a note. Afghanistan 57, 76, 99, 112, 143, 168, 177; EU Police Mission in 110; NATOled operation in 112,119, 134, 143; Romania’s deployment to 143, 146, 178, 185 air defence systems 45, 131, 191,212 air surveillance radars 87, 108 Alecu de Fiers, Nicole 207 alignment strategies 41, 175-177; balanced approach towards 186; balance of power 135; basic options 40; concept of 39; differences in relative power 182-188; historical approach to 195-197; militaryoriented approach 176, 213; multiple courting 180; positional approach to 182-188, 187-188; Slovakian 157; Slovenian 177; strategic priorities regarding the choice of 182; see also defence strategies; military strategies Ämari Air Base, reconstruction of 85 American AEGIS Ashore system 143 An-32 transport aircraft 65 anti-ballistic defence 154 anti-sea mines operations 55 anti-surface and anti-mine warfare 65 anti-tank systems 87 Area of Operations 66, 109 armed aggression, WWII experiences of 196-197 armed forces: competences and recruitment processes of 18; interoperability with forces from other states 45; modernisation of 9, 51; ‘postnational’ ideas regarding of the use of 15 armoured combat vehicles (ACVs) 55 armoured personnel earners (APCs) 86 arms and technologies, illegal proliferation of 52 arms race 105 Austrian Empire 71 Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 93 Austro-Hungarian Empire 161 Axis alliance 93 Axis powers 138, 161 balance of power 7, 28,
39-41,43, 59, 102, 135 balance of threat theory 40-41 Balkan War (1912-1913) 51, 67 ballistic missile defence programme 134, 176, 202 Baltic States 5, 32, 111, 176, 185, 202; air policing mission 143; geographical approach, to defence planning 189; military cooperation with Nordic cooperation 112; multilateral strategies for national defence 192; multiple-courting strategy 213; NATO membership 122; potential need for adjusting the ends 211; priority of survival and territorial integrity 193; survival related to territorial security 197; territorial integrity of 209; trilateral cooperation among themselves 189 bandwagoning strategy: appeasement policy 40; Croatia 67; defensive 40; offensive 40, 176, 183,189, 195,200, 202; passive 168, 177, 184, 195; Polish 135; for profit 40; US-oriented 176 Baylis, John 41 Beaufre, André 41 Beeres, Robert 122
Index 217 Bell, Joseph 101, 135 BENELUX countries 15 Bennet, Andrew 11ո8 Berlin, Treaty of (1878) 5, 51 bilateral defence cooperation 89, 112, 209 bipolar world order 94 Black Sea Naval Cooperation Group (BLACKSEAFOR) 142 black trinity 23, 188 Borisov, Boyko 55 Bosnia and Herzegovina 64, 68, 99, 143 Brezhnev doctrine 23, 188 broader security-oriented approach 176, 183, 189, 193-194, 202, 208-209 Brussels, Treaty of (1965) 3 Bucharest, Treaty of ( 1913) 51 buck-passing strategy 40 Bulgarian Empire 51 Bulgaria, strategy of 51-59,58; defence white papers (DWPs) 51, 52; fundamental ends of 53-54; historical background 51; main military resources 56; means of 54-56; memberships in NATO/EU 53, 58; modernization of armed forces 51 ; multiple-courting 57; ‘NATO and EU First’ approach to defence policy 55; operations within the territory of other NATO member states 57; strategic environment 52-53; ways of 56-57 Bush, George H. W.: conceptualisations of a new US-led liberal world 188; vision of ‘Europe whole and free’ 23, 188 Byzantine Empire 161 Celestine III, Pope 82 Central Europe 5,23, 63, 71, 129, 152 chain gang 40 Chappell, Laura 134-135 chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CRBN) defence 65 chemical protection battalion 54 Christian orders 104, 115 Churchill, Winston 3 civil-military relations 19, 207 civil war 8, 16, 32, 117 Coast Guard Ship Flotilla 108 Cold War3, 106, 151, 188; events leading to the end of 1 ln3; military conflict during 59; NATO membership in the post-Cold War era 18; Nordic countries’ defence strategies during 31; power competition between US
and USSR 14; security order 21 collective security 7, 21, 28, 84, 167-168 collective self-defence 4,45; efforts related to 8, 33; NATO’s strategy for 46nl, 180; support and preparations for 30 combat engineer battalion 54 common defence planning 4 Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)99 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 94, 107 constitutional order, preservation of 96 Copenhagen criteria, for membership of EU 19 Council of Europe 99 counter-insurgency, strategy for 45 coup d’état 82, 104, 115 courting, strategy of 40 CO VID-19 pandemic 140, 152 Crimea, Russia’s annexation of 4, 78, 117, 140, 177,212 crisis management operations 87 Croatian armed forces, development of 61 Croatian crown 61 Croatian War of Independence 61 Croatia, strategy of 61-69, 198; armed forces, role of 66; bandwagoning 67; building offensive naval capabilities 69; chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CRBN) defence 65; competition with Venice for control over the eastern Adriatic coast 61 ; defence budget 68; Erdut Agreement ( 1995) 61 ; expeditionary capabilities 68; foreign policy 66; fundamental ends of 63-64; historical background 61; Hungarian invasion 61; main military resources 66; means of 64-66; Membership Action Plan (MAP) 69; memberships in NATO/ EU 67; military capabilities 64; military strategy risks 69; multilateral approach 68; multiple-courting 67; national cyber security strategy (NCSS) 61; Ottoman invasions 61 ; program of international defence co-operation 66; for protection of Croats living outside the borders of Croatia 64; on relation with US 69; seat in UNSC
69; security system 64; strategic environment 62-63; submarine warfare capability 65; War of the Croatian Succession 61 ; ways of 66-67 cultural heritage 58, 96, 118, 141, 177, 184 cyber-attacks 83, 140 cybercrime 53 cybersecurity 95 cyberspace 62, 163
218 Index cyberterrorism 63, 105 Czech and Slovak KFOR (Kosovo Force) battalion 76 Czechoslovakia 150, 177, 184, 195, 198; ad hoc coalition groupings 76; Armed Forces of 73; cyber defence of 75; dissolution of 72; goals of military reforms 79; Gross Domestic Products (GDP) 72; main military resources of 76; response to Russia’s war against Ukraine 213; Soviet occupation of 71; strategic interests 73; Velvet Revolution (1989) 71-72; war with Poland 126 Czech Republic (Czechia), strategy of 71-79; for crisis management operations 75; difference with Hungary’s defence strategies 188; for economic and social development 73; for ensuring the security of citizens 74; fundamental ends of 73-74; historical background 71-72; means of 74-76; multiple courting alignment strategy 77; for protection and defence of airspace 76; against risks of cyber attacks 73; SaintGermain-en-Laye, Treaty of (1919) 71; strategic environment 72-73; for strengthening of deployable capabilities 75; uprising against the communist regime 71; ways of 76-77 Dănilă, Ștefan 147 Danish Duchy of Estonia 82 de Bakker, Eric 122 decision-making 28, 43, 88 defeat in war 30 defence strategies: definition of 10, 39; intervening variables and the outcomes of 201; of Nordic countries during Cold War 31 ; see also alignment strategies; military strategies defence transformation 17,202; in response to a deteriorating European security order 211-213; towards expeditionary warfare 211 defence white papers (DWPs) 9, 51, 118 defensive realism, characteristic of 42 defensive realists 42 de Fiers, Nicole Alecu 20 democratic
statehood, strengthening of 107 Diesen, Sverre 16 “dividing lines” in Europe, idea of 18 division of labour 24 Doeser, Fredrik 135 domestic security 105-106 Dotzev, Nikolay 58 drugs trafficking 72 Duchy of Bohemia 71 Eastern Europe 3, 5, 19, 52-53, 73, 95, 142, 162, 175 Eastern military bloc 14; see also Warsaw Pact (WP) East-West division, of Europe 15 economic dimension of security 177 economic power resources 26 economic security 74, 105, 117, 147, 154 Edmunds, Timothy 17-18, 207 Eidenfalk, Joakim 135 ends: Baltic States political need to adjust 211; Bulgarian strategy 53-54; Croatian strategy 63-64; Czech Republic (Czechia), strategy of 73-74; element of the military strategy 177-178: Estonian strategy 84-85; geographical approach 189; historical approach 197-198; Hungarian strategy 95-96; Latvian strategy 106-107; Lithuanian strategy 117-118; military strategies 177-178; Polish strategy 128-129; positional approach 184; Romanian strategy 140-142; Romania’s priorities regarding 189; Slovakian strategy 152-153; Slovenian strategy 163-164; strategic 184 energy sources, diversification of 53 Enhanced Forward Presence 75, 144, 192 Erdut Agreement (1995) 61 Estonia, strategy of 82-90, 89, 209, 212; against cyber attack 83; defence development plans 82; fundamental ends of 84-85; historical background 82; Livonian Order 82; main military resources 86; means of 85-87; membership in NATO and the EU 87; for military defence 86; multiple courting 88; for national defence 89; pillars of military defence 87; response to Russia’s attack against Georgia 212; strategic environment
82-84; war of independence against the Soviets 82; ways of 87-88 ethnic conflicts 104—105 EU Battle Groups (EUBG)s 56, 64-65, 74, 76, 88, 143; concept of 207; Hungarian contributions to 98; Lithuanian contributions to 119 Eurasian ‘pivot area’ 22
Index Euratom see European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) Euro-Atlantic area 106, 118, 152, 162 Euro-Atlantic collective security system 84 Euro-Atlantic integration 53, 66, 94, 98-99, 118 Euro-Atlantic security 147 European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) 3 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)3, 15 European Communities (EC) 3, 15 European Council 19 European Economic Community (EEC) 3, 15 European great powers 15 European integration processes 207 Europeanisation, processes of 19-20 European Rapid Reaction Force 133 European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) 73, 133 European security dynamics 45, 188, 210; and membership processes 206-211 ; new and old 14-22; new post-national security dynamics 15-21 ; return of 21-22 European security order 4, 208; defence transformation towards expeditionary warfare 211 ; responses to a deteriorating 211-213 European Union (EU) 14, 52, 99; Bulgaria’s accession to 53. 58; Common Security and Defence Policy of 57, 88; Copenhagen criteria for membership of 19; crisis management capabilities 77; Croatia’s accession to 67; Estonia’s accession to 87; foreign policy acquis 20; Germany’s membership in 197; Helsinki Head Line Goals (1999) 18, 207; Latvia’s membership in 105; Lithuanian membership of 118; membership of 9-10, 207; Member States 57; Military Rapid Response Concept 56; Monitoring Mission in Georgia (EUMM Georgia) 110; operation in Macedonia 110; Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) 56; Police Mission in Afghanistan (EUPOL Afghanistan) 110; policy in relation to Russia 41; Polish membership of 127; Pooling and Sharing
initiatives 77; Romania’s membership of 140, 146; Slovenia’s membership of 163,169 European Union Force (EUFOR) 99 219 existential wars, idea of 16 expeditionary force, development of 68 expeditionary warfare 8, 20, 45, 146, 178, 184-186, 188, 204, 206, 208,214; Croatia’s development of 69; defence transformation towards 211; military capacities related to 21; military means to 190-192; priorities regarding 198; Slovakian capacity for 157, 185; Slovenian strategy of 168; and territorial defence 214 external efforts 7, 28-29, 33, 39, 187, 189, 191,211-212 F-35 combat aircraft 191,212 Fenko, Ana Bojinović 169 Ferdinand 1 of the Habsburg dynasty 61 fighter combat aircraft, self-defence by 55 First World War (WW1) 51; Bulgarian defeat in 51 ; defeat of Austria-Hungary in 61, 71, 138 Fiszer, Michal 158 force multiplier 17 Fox, Annette Baker 28 free development of the society 106 freedom of enterprise 96 French Empire 161 Fukuyama, Francis 23 Gajdoš, Peter 152 geographical approach, to defence planning 188-193,200-202; alignment strategy 189; in Baltic States 189; conclusions regarding 193; geographically exposed position 213; great power conflicts and 188; military means 190-192; to multiple-courting 189; offensive bandwagoning strategy 189; strategic ends 189; ways 192-193 geographical characteristics 5, 7, 14, 22-23, 29-30, 182, 188 George, Alexander 1 ln8 Germany: Bundeswehr 179, 185; unification of 1 ln3 global financial and economic crisis 52, 62 global security system 52 Glváč, Martin 154-155 government in exile 71, 126 grand strategy: definitions of 39, 42; versus
military strategy 42 Gray, Colin 7, lln5,42,188 Grčié Polic, Jelena 68 Greater Middle East 152 great power club 44
220 Index great powers 197; competition among 23; military cooperation (MC) with 32; military strategies of 6; permanent seats in UNSC 25; strategies of 188; tension between 7; see also middle powers Grizold, Anton 169 gross domestic product (GDP) 22, 25, 56 Group of Seven (G7) 43 Group of Twenty (G20) 25, 43 Habsburg Monarchy 93, 115, 126 Hart, Basil Liddell 41 Haushofer, Karl 22 hedging, strategy of 40, 41 Helsinki Head Line Goals (1999) 18, 207 Hendrickson, Ryan 101, 135 historical approach, to defence planning 194-200; alignment strategies 195-197; conclusions regarding 199-200; military means 198-199; strategic ends 197-198; unilateral and/or multilateral approach 199; ways 199 historical experiences 5, 7-10,14, 20, 22-24, 29-32, 129, 135,195, 198 Hitler, Adolf 22 Hoffmann, Stanley 30-31 Hojs, Aleš 165 Holy Roman Empire 71, 126, 161 Horthy, Miklós 93 host nation support (HNS) 66 House of Habsburg 71 humanitarian crises 72 Hungarian army: armoured reconnaissance battalion 98; capabilities in domestic matters 101; developments of 179; light infantry battalions 98; Mechanised Infantry Brigade, 5th 98; Mechanised Infantry brigade, 25th 98 Hungary: kingdom of 161; Ottoman conquest of 150; rebellion against the Habsburgs 150; Upper Hungary' 150 Hungary, strategy ОҐ93-102; alignment strategy 100; based on multiple-courting 100; contributions to the EUBG 98; difference with Czechia’s defence strategies 188; fundamental ends of 95-96; historical background 93-94; for international prestige and influence 96; and invasion of Red Army 94; main military resources 98; means of
97-98; national defence 100; national self strength 98; on policy towards Russia 101; on position within the EU 101; for preservation of the cultural heritage and identity 96; self-government and autonomy 96; strategic environment 94-95; for sustainable economic growth 96; voluntary reserve system 97, 98; ways of 98-100; Zrínyi 2026 plan for the modernisation of the armed forces 98 Huntington, Samuel 23 hybrid warfare 69, 73, 117 Hyde-Price, Adrian 16, 31, 32 Iancu, Avram-Florian 147 identification-friend-or-foe capability 87 infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) 75 influence 42, 44, 52, 78, 100; of Croatian democratic political system 64; of cultural and political identity 105; of Czech government 177; differences related to relative power 6; of geography and historical experiences 29-32; goals related to 20, 29; on military reform programs 18; of non-state actors 151; of previous experiences of armed conflicts 30; of Romanian state 146, 184; of Russia in Soviet Eastern and Central Europe 23; of Soviet Union 3; sphere of 4, 23, 72, 83; during systematic wars 31 information technology 105 Innocent IV, Pope 115 institutionalised multilateral cooperation 7 instrumental learning 19, 207 internal efforts 7, 28-29, 39, 187, 211, 214 internal security dynamics 14 International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) 10, 93, 98 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 26 international organized crime 151 international peace support operations 54, 58, 66, 68, 178, 180,206 International Relations (IR) 24-25, 42, 83, 100, 139 International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) 76 international
terrorism 52-53, 62, 83, 104,105, 127, 145, 207, 208; illegal proliferation of arms and technologies 52; non-state actors 16; regional instability caused by 18 interoperability, with the armed forces of friendly states 45 interstate armed conflicts 21, 72, 151, 207, 208; in failed/failing states 72; regional instability caused by 18 invading forces, protection against 23
Index Iohannis. Klaus 141 Iran, Islamic fundamentalism in 127 Iraq. US-led invasion of 134, 176, 183 Islamic State (IS): US-led Operation Inherent Resolve against 99-100; war against 46nl isolation, strategy of 40 Jagiellonian dynasty (Hungary) 93 Jakniunaite, Dovile 122 JAS-39 Gripen combat aircraft 75, 98 Jelušič. Ljubica 165,169 Jervis, Robert 7 Ji Yun Lee 41 Johnston, Alistair Iain 5 Joint Air-to-Surfacc Standoff Missile system 191 Kahn, Herman 41 Kanis, Pavol 158 Kasekamp, Andres 122 Kjellen. Rudolf 22, 188 knowledge, cumulative development of lln9 Komorowski, Bronistaw 130 Kopac, Erik 168 Kostov, Ivan 59n2 Kotnik-Dvojmoc, Igor 168 Krēsliņš, Kārlis 112 land and air forces, downsizing of 210 Lašas, Ainius 23, 188 Latvian state and society 107 Latvia, strategy of 104-112; air defence and anti-tank capabilities 109; capacity to counter NBC weapons 107; Coast Guard Ship Flotilla 108; crusade against pagans in Northern Europe 104; defence expenditures 190; fundamental ends of 106-107; historical background 104; information technology 105; joint military training with other NATO member states 108; key priority in the defence sector 112; main military resources 109; means of 107-109; membership in NATO and the EU 105; military combat capabilities 107; modern command and control systems 107; multilateral approach 111 ; multiple-courting hedging strategy 111 ; on national defence 111 ; National Guard 108-109; on national security 106; participation in EU-led international missions 110; risk of 221 external military aggression 110; selfdefence capabilities 112; strategic
environment 104—106; strategic goal after the end of the Cold War 106; on threats caused by foreign intelligence and security services 105; ways of 109-111 Layne, Christopher 29 leash slipping, strategy of 41 Lisbon, Treaty of 21, 88 Lithuania, kingdom of: creation of 115; defence policy 121 ; economic situation of 119; Grand Duchy of 115; independence from Russia 115; membership of NATO and EU 118; Moscow, Treaty of (1920) 115; warfare with the Christian orders, Poland and the Kiev-Russians 115 Lithuanian armed forces: combat service support units 119; development of 122; infantry battalion battle group 119; “Iron Wolf’ mechanized infantry brigade 119; jaeger battalion 119; main military resources of 120; motorised infantry brigade 118; National Defence Volunteer Forces 118; participation in NATO NRF and the EU Battlegroups 119; reformation of 212; Teutonic Knights 115; transformation of 118 Lithuania, strategy of 115-123; alignment strategy 121; bi- and multilateral defence cooperation 123; concept of territorial defence 121; on consequence of globalisation 116; on deterrence based on defence 120; on fostering citizenship and patriotism 118; fundamental ends of 117-118; historical background 115; on hybrid warfare 117; means of 118-120; on multilateral approach 122; multiple-courting hedging strategy 121; national defence 122; strategic environment 116-117; ways of 120-121; white paper on defence on 118 Livonian Order 82 logistic chains 45, 208 Louis II, King 93 Macierewicz, Antoni 131 Mackinder, Halford 22 Mahečić, Zvonimir 69 main battle tanks (MBTs) 55, 68, 97, 192,
210,212 Manicom, James 25
222 Index Mariana, Terra 104 Marušiak, Juraj 101 Matlary, Janne Haaland 15, 206 means: Bulgarian strategy 54—56; Croatian 64-66; Czech Republic (Czechia) strategy 74-76; element of the military strategy 178-179; Estonian strategy 85-87; to expeditionary warfare 190-192; geographical approach 190-192; historical approach 198-199; Hungary, strategy of 97-98; Latvian strategy 107-109; Lithuanian strategy 118-120; for national defence 179; to national defence 190-192; Polish strategy 129-132; to positional approach 184—186; Romanian strategy 142-144; for self-preservation 39; Slovakia, strategy of 153-155; Slovenia, strategy of 164—166 Mearsheimer, John 43 mechanized brigade 54 Membership Action Plan (MAP) 69, 207 Merger Treaty 3 Meri, Lennart 89 Mi-24 Hind helicopters 65, 97-98 Middle Ages 8, 32 Middle East 52-53, 94, 100, 127, 140, 162, 167 middle powers 183; definition of 25, 34n6; diplomacy 28; major 25; minor 26; Poland 26; see also great powers MiG-21 aircraft 64—66, 143 MiG-29 Fulcrum aircraft 97 military assistance (MA) 31 military blocs: Eastern 14; Western 14 military cooperation (MC), with great powers 32 military force, use of 56 military intelligence battalion 65 military means 184—186 military power resources 26 military strategies 41-46; concept of 39; Croatian 69; defined 42; elements of 46; ends element of 177-178; versus grand strategy 42; of great powers 6; key elements of 6; means element of 178-179; operationalisation of 39; ways element of 179-181; see also defence strategies military strength 10, 39, 97 Mill, John Stuart lln7 mine countermeasures vessel
(MCMV) 119 missile boats 143 missile defence program 79, 134, 143, 176, 189, 202 missile ships, Helsinki-class 69 Mistral surface-to-air missiles 85 Miszczak, Krzysztof 134 Mohács, Battle of (1526) 93 Moldavia 32, 93, 138, 141, 144, 213 Mölder, Holger 90 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939) 23, 188 monarchy, referendum abolishing 51 Moravian Empire 150 Moscow, Treaty of (1920) 115 Moumoutzis, Kyriakos 19, 207 Müller, Patrick 20, 207 multilateral approaches 45, 58, 68, 77-78, 89, 100, 111, 122, 146, 157, 179. 180, 186 multilateral defence cooperation 17, 123 multilateral expeditionary warfare 17 multilateral risk-sharing 17 Multinational Corps Northeast (MNC-NE) 75 Multinational Land Force (MLF) 66, 167 Multinational Peace Force-South-Eastern Europe (MPF-SEE) 142-143 Multinational Stand-by High Readiness Brigade (SHIRBRIG) 142 multiple-courting, strategy of 41, 175, 183; alignment 180; in Bulgaria 57; in Croatia 67; in Czech Republic 77; in Estonia 88; in Latvia 111 ; in Lithuania 121; military-oriented approach to 194-195, 199; in Romania 146; security-oriented approaches to 200; in Slovakia 157; in Slovenia 167 Munich Agreement (1938) 23, 188 Napoleonic paradigm 16 national characteristics, variables in 22-34; geographical characteristics 22; influence of geography and historical experiences 29-32; position in the international system 24—29; relative power 22, 24-29; strategic exposure 33-34 national defence 178, 184—186, 188; collective defence 45; development of 44; in Latvia 111 ; military means to 190-192; priorities regarding 198; unilateral capabilities 45 national
identity 139, 177 nationally controlled resources 7 national security 7, 210; in Bulgaria 57; in Croatia 69; cyber aspects of 63; in
Index Estonia 82, 87; goals related to 20; in Hungary 96; in Latvia 104—106, 110; in Lithuania 116-117; national security strategy (NSS) 51; in Poland 127; post national security paradigm 4, 15-21 ; in Slovenia 163 national self-strength 98 national strategic cultures, analysis of 23 national territorial defence, notion of 15, 206 nation-state model of defence 15, 206 NATO Response Force (NRF) 64, 66, 74, 76, 110 natural resources, depletion of 95 Nazi-Germany 8, 51, 115, 138, 150, 194, 214; annexation of Sudetenland 71; eastward expansion 188: invasion of Yugoslavia by 61; Reichskommissariat Ostland 82 Nemeth, Bence 102 new powers, rise of 22 niche diplomacy 29 non-aligned states 15 Nordic-Baltic military' cooperation 112 Nordic countries, defence strategies of 31 Norkus, Renatas 122 North Atlantic Treaty 75, 88 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 3, 14, 99; anti-ballistic defence 154; area of responsibility 57; Baltic Air Policing mission fighters 86: Bulgaria’s accession to 53, 58; collective defence system 77, 110, 180, 186; Comprehensive Operations Planning Directive (COPD) 207; Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence in Estonia 86; creation of 14; criteria for membership 18; Croatia’s accession to 67; defence planning 21; development of defence capabilities 74; engagement in stabilisation missions outside Europe 132; Estonia’s accession to 87; expansion in Central Europe 152; funding for developing the Slovenian military infrastructure 177; Germany’s membership in 197; İSAF in Afghanistan 177; Joint Response Force 143; KFOR in Kosovo 177; Latvia’s
membership in 105; leadership of 67; Lithuanian membership of 118; Membership Action Plan (MAP) 18-19, 69, 207; membership of 9-Ю, 207; military exercises 21; obligations of 106; Operational Concept and Force 223 Structure 146; Operation Resolute Support 99; operations against proliferation of WMD 57; Operation Unified Protector 135; opportunities for ‘instrumental learning’ 207; Partnership for Peace (PfP) program 18-19,207; Polish membership of 127; Rapid Deployable Corps based in Italy (NRDC-It) 165; Response Force 88; Romania’s membership of 140, 146; SFOR (Stabilisation Force) in Croatia 99; Slovenia’s membership of 163, 169; Smart Defence 77; strategy of collective defence in Europe 46nl; Study on NATO Enlargement (1995) report 18; Washington summit (1999) 19 nuclear, biological and chemical weapons (NBC) protection 54, 107 Oder-Neisse line 126 offensive realists 42 offensive warfare 8, 31, 32, 195, 197 off-shore balancing, strategy of 29 Operation Active Endeavour 143 Operation Atalanta 143 Operation Enduring Freedom 76 Operation Inherent Resolve 99 Operation Iraqi Freedom 110 Operation Mare Nostrum 167 Operation Resolute Support 99 Operation Unified Protector 135, 143 optional wars 15, 206 organised crime 52-53 organised international crime 16, 127 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 99 Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) 19, 52, 74, 99, 157, 167 Ottoman Empire 51, 93, 138, 150 Otzulis, Valdis 112, 122 Ozoliņa, Žaneta 112, 122 Paris, Treaty of (1947) 3, 94 Partnership for Peace (PfP) program 18-19, 207 Paszewski,
Tomasz 135 Patriot missile defence system 191, 212 peace support operations (PSOs) 4, 17, 185, 206 Péczeli, Anna 5 Peresin, Anita 69 Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) 56
224 Index Piłsudski, Józef 126 Planning and Review Process (PARP) 19 Poland 26, 30, 183, 198, 202; access to greater military resources 202; annexation of the Vilnius region 115; annexation of the Zaolzie region 71; balance between the uni- and multilateral approaches 181; civil resistance during 1980-1989 126; contributions to international military operations 179; contributions to US-led coalitions 189; cyber warfare capacity 131; Duchy of 126; geographical position of 127; industrial defence capacities 131 ; kingdom of 115; memberships in NATO and the EU 127; as middle power 187; missile defence agreement with US 135; modernisation of the air defence system 191; National Security Bureau (NSB) 127; occupation by Nazi-Germany and the USSR during WWII 126; offensive bandwagoning strategy 189; Patriot missile defence system 191; position during NATO’s Operation Unified Protector over Libya 135; protection of its national heritage and identity 129; as sovereign and democratic state in Central Europe 129; strategic culture 135; war with Czechoslovakia 126 Poland armed forces: development of 130; joint anti-terrorist operations 130; main military resources of 132; missile defence system 131; modernisation of the air defence system 131 ; tactical mobility of 131; technical modernisation of 131 Poland, strategy of 126-135; balance of power alignment strategy 135; bandwagoning with the US 135; in defence against external crisis 128; fundamental ends of 128-129; historical background 126; means of 129-132; for national defence 134; objectives of defence policy 128; strategic
environment 127-128; ways of 132-133 policy learning, definition of 19 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 115 Polish-Lithuanian Union 115 political extremism 116 political leadership, of small states 7 political pluralism, implementation of 96 political unilateralism 180, 187 Posen, Barry 42 positional approach, to defence planning 200; alignment strategies 183-184; conclusions regarding 187-188; differences in relative power 182-188; military means 184-186; strategic ends 184; ways 186-187 post-communist states 5 post-national security paradigm 4,209-210 Potsdam Conference (1945) 126 power maximisation, notion of 44 power of states 29 problem solving 5 Procházka, Josef 78-79 Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) 76 RBS-70 mobile air defence weapon system 108 realism: classical 24; defensive 42; structural 24 Red Army 82, 94 Reeves, Jeffrey 25 regional balancing, strategy of 40 regional conflicts 53, 62, 68, 76. 128, 139. 151 Regional Security Complex Theory' (RSCT)21 Reiter, Dan 8, 194 relative power, notion of 22 religious-extremist-driven tenorism 139 Riga, Treaty of (1920) 104 Rikveilis,Airis 111 rising power, threat perceptions of 41 Roland air defence missile system 166 Romania: Berlin, Treaty of (1878) 138; contribution to regional stability 142; economic security and foreign investments 147; geographical position 139; integration as a NATO and EU member 140, 146; military security of 141; national identity 139; participation in German invasion of the USSR 138; partnership with the US 147; Russian occupation 138; status as a security provider 142; transformation of the
armed forces towards expeditionary' capabilities 178; Transylvania and Wallachia principalities 138 Romanian armed forces: air policing mission in the Baltic States 143; American AEGIS Ashore system 143; contributions to the EU-led operation Althea in Bosnia-Herzegovina 143; deployment to Afghanistan 143; downsizing of 178; main military
Index 225 resources of 144; missions of 142; Operation Active Endeavour 143; operational structure of 142, 144; Operation Atalanta 143; Operation Unified Protector 143; training mission to Mali 143; transformation in accordance with NATO and EU standards 142 Romanian-Hungarian Joint Peacekeeping Battalion 143 Romania, strategy of 138-147; adoption of multiple-courting 146; defense and security policy 147; economical-social shortcomings 139; for economic and social development 140; fundamental ends of 140-142; historical background 138; means of 142-144; strategic environment 138-140; ways of 144-145 Rome, Treaty of ( 1957) 3 Rončević, Berislav 62 Rostoks, Toms 112 Rothstein, Robert 28 Rublovskis, Raimonds 112 Russia: annexation of the Crimea 4, 78, 117, 140, 177, 212; efforts to strengthening its great power status 140; EU’s policy in relation to 41; Hungarian policy towards 101; military intervention in Georgia 4, 7, 21, 191, 208, 212, 213; use of military force for political purposes 21; war against Ukraine 4, 23, 122, 157, 177, 187, 190, 198,212-213 Šabič, Zlatko 169 Saeima (Latvian Parliament) 105-106, 110 Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Treaty of (1919) 71 Schelling, Thomas 41 Scott, David 123 search and rescue (SAR) capability 85 Second World War (WWII) 4, 51, 175, 196-197 security dynamics 21, 210; in Europe in the post-Cold War era 15; expeditionary warfare 45; internal 14; new European 14-22, 206-211; new post-national 15-21; return of old European 21-22, 188 security intelligence system 61 security policies, of European countries 16 security strategy: of Croatia 63, 69; of
Hungary 96 security threats, evaluation of 75 self-defence capabilities 112, 122 self-help strategies, development of 42 self-help system 39 self-identification, idea of 25 self-preservation, means for 39 Simeon II, Tsar 51 Simon, Jeffrey 19, 207 Slovakian armed forces: defence transformation process 186; expeditionary warfare 185; transformation of 185 Slovakian General Staff (GS) 151 Slovakia, strategy of 27, 150-158, 198; alignment strategy 157; capacity for expeditionary warfare 157; COVID-19 pandemic 152; fundamental ends of 152-153; historical background 150; main military resources and 155; means of 153-155; multilateral approach 157; multiple-courting hedging strategy 157; National Council (NC) 150; security and defence policy 153; strategic environment 150-152; ways of 156-157 Slovenian armed forces: air defence and communications 164; contribution to the joint military capabilities of the EU 164; crisis response operations 166; enlargement and modernization of the Cerklje ob Krki airfield 166; high-readiness battalion battle group 165; main military resources of 166; mechanized battalion battle group 166; medium infantry battalion group 165; motorised infantry company 164; Operation Mare Nostrum 167; participation to NATO-led operations 164; professionalization of 169; wartime strength of 164 Slovenian minorities, rights and development of 163 Slovenia, strategy of 161-169, 198; expeditionary warfare 168; fundamental ends of 163-164; historical background 161; key objectives of defence policy 163; means of 164-166; membership ofNATO and EU 163, 169; multilateral
approach 168; multiple-courting hedging strategy 167; passive bandwagoning 168; position and reputation in the international community 163; strategic environment 161-163; War of Independence 161; ways of 166-167 small states 6-7, 23, 25, 90, 182-184, 187; defence strategies 27-28; European 17;
226 Index goals related to influence and status 29; historical experiences relating to WWI and W Wil 31; institutionalised multilateral cooperation 7; multilateral strategies for collective territorial defence 214; multiple-courting strategy 200; national characteristics 22; operationalisation of influence 43; participation in international PSOs 208; political leadership of 7; strategic exposure 33; strategic priorities related to national defence among 190; unilateral approaches 210 Smith, Rubert 16 Snyder, Jack 1Խ5 Sobotka, Bohuslav 73 social development 63, 73, 94, 140, 163 socialization, notion of 20 social learning 19-20, 207 social stratification 105 social terrorism 116 South Eastern Europe Brigade (SEEBRIG) 143 sovereignty and integrity, of the state 177 Soviet military equipment, dependence of 21 Soviet Union 8, 197; Estonians war of independence against 82; German invasion of 138; implosion of 15; invasion of Bulgaria 51; occupation of Czechoslovakia 71; power competition with US 14; see also Russia special forces battalion 54, 65 special operations forces squadron 119, 191 state-building processes 5, 8, 24, 30 states’ competition, for status and recognition 43 state’s political independence and territorial integrity, protection of 43 status 8; definition of 44; great power 140; of Latvian language 105; of middle power 25; of national economy 104; peace support operations (PSOs) 17; positional 43; of Romania as a security provider 142; of Russia as global power 83; states’ competition for 43; survival 177, 184, 189 stealth capacities, for warships and airplanes 45
Stephen II, King 61 Stephen I, King 93 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) 26 strategic culture, definition of 5, 1Խ5 strategic ends 184 strategic exposure: and future challenges facing the new European allies 213-215; notion of 33-34; potential aggregated perception of 33 strategic resources, supply of 207 Strategic Studies 41 —42 structural realism, notion of 24 structured focused comparison (SFC) 6, 9 submarine warfare 65 surface-to-air missiles 75 survival 7, 24, 43^14, 57, 175, 177-178, 184, 187, 189; categories of 39; of Czech state 78; defensive realists 42; of Estonia 89; goals related to 20; of Hungary 96, 100; of Latvian state 111; of Lithuania 121; military strategy for 68, 89; against military threats 78; in nuclear age 41 ; of Poland 134; of Romania 146; of Slovakia 157; of Slovenian state 168; supremacy of 58; threats of 28 sustainable economic development 53 Svinarov, Nikolay 52-53 Swedish Empire 126 Takacs, David 89 Tartu, Treaty of (1920) 82 Tashev, Blagovest 58 Taylor, Maxwell 39, 42 technologically advanced military systems 45 technological revolution 95 territorial defence 86, 111, 121 territorial integrity 184 territorial security 194 Teutonic Knights 115 totalitarian ideologies 16 transatlantic security 99 trans-border organized crime 62 transport aircrafts 108 transport systems, for deployment of military units 45 transport technology 22 Transylvania, Principality of 93 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe 75 Treaty on European Union 76 Trianon, Treaty of (1920) 93-94 Truman doctrine 23 unilateral approach 134,
179-181,186-187, 199, 208,210 UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) 167
Index unipolar power, notion of 40 United Nations (UN) 17, 52 United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) 99 United States (US): anti-terrorist operation 76; ballistic missile defence programme 176; containment policy against world communism 188; invasion of Iraq 176; military presence in Latvia 110; missile defence program 79; Operation Enduring Freedom 76; Operation Inherent Resolve 99; Operation Iraqi Freedom 110; power competition with USSR 14; relation with Croatia 69; unipolar power 40 universal human values 53 UN Security Council (UNSC) 25, 43, 134 Upper Hungary, Principality of 150 Urbanovská, Jana 158 use of force, policy of 42 USSR see Russia; Soviet Union Ustaše organisation 61 Vaicekauskaitė, Živilė Marija 123 Vanaga, Nora 112 Varg, Gergely 101 Velvet Revolution (1989) 71 Venice, Republic of 161 Versailles, Treaty of 126 Vienna Document 75 Visegrád Cooperation 100, 157 Visegrad countries 98 Visegrad Group 5 Vojtek, Peter 155 voluntary reserve system 97-98 von Clausewitz, Carl 41 Walt, Stephen 40-41 Waltz, Kenneth 39 Warsaw Pact (WP) 5, 101 ; creation of 14; defence planning of 21, 207; dissolution 227 of 15, 59; establishment of 51; founding members of 51 ; resolution of 11 n3 War Ship Flotilla 108 Washington Treaty (1946) 3, 55, 74, 130 Watkins, Amadeo 69 ways: of Bulgaria 56-57; of Croatia 66-67; of Czech Republic (Czechia) 76-77; element of the military strategy 179-181 ; of Estonia 87-88; geographical approach 192-193; historical approach 199; of Hungary 98-100; of Latvia 109-111; ofPoland 132-133; positional approach 186-187; Romania’s priorities
regarding 144-145, 189; of Slovakia 156-157; of Slovenia 166-167; unilateral and/or multilateral approach 186-187, 192-193 weapons of mass destruction (WMD) 18, 53,62, 72, 94, 105, 116, 127, 139, 151, 207 Western military bloc 14; see also North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Wirtz, James 41 World Trade Organization (WTO) 89 Yalta Agreement (1945) 23, 188 Yaniszewski, Mark 101, 135 Yugoslavia, Kingdom of 61, 161; Axis invasions of 93; wars of independence (1991-2001)206 Yugoslav regency 61 Zajac, Justyna 5 Załęski, Krzysztof 134 Zartaloudis, Sotirios 19, 207 Zeitschrift für Geopolitik 22 Zord, Gábor 101 Zrínyi 2026 plan, for the modernisation of the armed forces 98 ZU-23-2 anti-aircraft cannons 85 ВяуегіШнб йШШп I |
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| author | Edström, Håkan 1963- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1045001244 (DE-588)1172039089 |
| author_facet | Edström, Håkan 1963- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Edström, Håkan 1963- |
| author_variant | h e he |
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| bvnumber | BV048896536 |
| contents | PART I -- Theoretical & Methodological Considerations: Framing the Research Design -- Strategic Adjustment in Central and Eastern Europe -- Analysing and Explaining Strategic Adjustment and Diversity -- Operationalising the Dependent Variable: Defence Strategy -- PART II -- The Empirical Exploration -- The Strategy of Bulgaria -- The Strategy of Croatia -- The Strategy of the Czech Republic (Czechia) -- The Strategy of Estonia -- The Strategy of Hungary -- The Strategy of Latvia -- The Strategy of Lithuania -- The Strategy of Poland -- The Strategy of Romania -- The Strategy of Slovakia -- The Strategy of Slovenia -- PART III -- Explaining the Findings -- The Aggregated Result of the Empirical Exploration -- Explaining the Diversity of Strategic Responses |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1373325601 (DE-599)BVBBV048896536 |
| format | Book |
| fullrecord | <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><collection xmlns="http://www.loc.gov/MARC21/slim"><record><leader>00000nam a2200000 c 4500</leader><controlfield tag="001">BV048896536</controlfield><controlfield tag="003">DE-604</controlfield><controlfield tag="005">20230807</controlfield><controlfield tag="007">t|</controlfield><controlfield tag="008">230412s2023 xx |||| 00||| eng d</controlfield><datafield tag="020" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">9781032286938</subfield><subfield code="c">hardback</subfield><subfield code="9">978-1-03-228693-8</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="020" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">9781032286952</subfield><subfield code="c">paperback</subfield><subfield code="9">978-1-03-228695-2</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(OCoLC)1373325601</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(DE-599)BVBBV048896536</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="040" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-604</subfield><subfield code="b">ger</subfield><subfield code="e">rda</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="041" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">eng</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="049" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-12</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="084" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">OST</subfield><subfield code="q">DE-12</subfield><subfield code="2">fid</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="100" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Edström, Håkan</subfield><subfield code="d">1963-</subfield><subfield code="e">Verfasser</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)1045001244</subfield><subfield code="4">aut</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="245" ind1="1" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Military strategies of the new European allies</subfield><subfield code="b">a comparative study</subfield><subfield code="c">Håkan Edström and Jacob Westberg</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="264" ind1=" " ind2="1"><subfield code="a">London ; New York</subfield><subfield code="b">Routledge</subfield><subfield code="c">2023</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="300" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">xi, 227 Seiten</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="336" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">txt</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacontent</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="337" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">n</subfield><subfield code="2">rdamedia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="338" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">nc</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacarrier</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="490" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Cass military studies</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="505" ind1="8" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">PART I -- Theoretical & Methodological Considerations: Framing the Research Design -- Strategic Adjustment in Central and Eastern Europe -- Analysing and Explaining Strategic Adjustment and Diversity -- Operationalising the Dependent Variable: Defence Strategy -- PART II -- The Empirical Exploration -- The Strategy of Bulgaria -- The Strategy of Croatia -- The Strategy of the Czech Republic (Czechia) -- The Strategy of Estonia -- The Strategy of Hungary -- The Strategy of Latvia -- The Strategy of Lithuania -- The Strategy of Poland -- The Strategy of Romania -- The Strategy of Slovakia -- The Strategy of Slovenia -- PART III -- Explaining the Findings -- The Aggregated Result of the Empirical Exploration -- Explaining the Diversity of Strategic Responses</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="520" ind1="3" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">"This book analyses how and to what extent ex-communist states have adjusted their defence strategies since joining the EU and NATO, and how differences and similarities between their strategies can be explained. 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| geographic | Osteuropa (DE-588)4075739-0 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Osteuropa |
| id | DE-604.BV048896536 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T21:49:40Z |
| indexdate | 2025-01-02T13:19:07Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9781032286938 9781032286952 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-034161038 |
| oclc_num | 1373325601 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | xi, 227 Seiten |
| psigel | BSB_NED_20230807 |
| publishDate | 2023 |
| publishDateSearch | 2023 |
| publishDateSort | 2023 |
| publisher | Routledge |
| record_format | marc |
| series2 | Cass military studies |
| spelling | Edström, Håkan 1963- Verfasser (DE-588)1045001244 aut Military strategies of the new European allies a comparative study Håkan Edström and Jacob Westberg London ; New York Routledge 2023 xi, 227 Seiten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Cass military studies PART I -- Theoretical & Methodological Considerations: Framing the Research Design -- Strategic Adjustment in Central and Eastern Europe -- Analysing and Explaining Strategic Adjustment and Diversity -- Operationalising the Dependent Variable: Defence Strategy -- PART II -- The Empirical Exploration -- The Strategy of Bulgaria -- The Strategy of Croatia -- The Strategy of the Czech Republic (Czechia) -- The Strategy of Estonia -- The Strategy of Hungary -- The Strategy of Latvia -- The Strategy of Lithuania -- The Strategy of Poland -- The Strategy of Romania -- The Strategy of Slovakia -- The Strategy of Slovenia -- PART III -- Explaining the Findings -- The Aggregated Result of the Empirical Exploration -- Explaining the Diversity of Strategic Responses "This book analyses how and to what extent ex-communist states have adjusted their defence strategies since joining the EU and NATO, and how differences and similarities between their strategies can be explained. Between 1999 and 2013, four phases of enlargement took place when the European Union (EU) and NATO allowed 11 new former communist states to enter both organisations. These states share some common attributes and experiences related to strategic culture and common experiences during the Cold War era that can potentially explain similarities in behaviour and preferences among them. However, the strategic adjustments among these states are far from uniform. In an effort to explain these differences, the book introduces three intervening variables: (1) differences in relative power and position in the international system, (2) national geographical characteristics; and (3) historical experiences related to formative periods of state-building processes as well as wars and armed conflicts. Empirically, the book strives to present and analyse the defence strategies of each of the new allies by conducting a structured focused comparison of official strategic documents from the twenty-first century for each of the 11 cases. Theoretically and methodologically, it introduces an analytical framework enabling us to explain both similarities and differences in the formulation of the strategies of the 11 states, and to shed light on their external and internal efforts to promote their strategic interest by operationalising the dependent variable - defence strategy. The analytical framework combines elements of structural realism with classical realism, and constructivist research on unit-level characteristics related to relative power and perceptions of strategic exposure. This book will be of much interest to students of strategic studies, European Union policy, NATO and International Relations in general"-- Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 gnd rswk-swf NATO (DE-588)377-3 gnd rswk-swf Strategie (DE-588)4057952-9 gnd rswk-swf Militär (DE-588)4039305-7 gnd rswk-swf Osteuropa (DE-588)4075739-0 gnd rswk-swf National security / Europe North Atlantic Treaty Organization European Union European Union countries / Defenses Military readiness National security Europe European Union countries Osteuropa (DE-588)4075739-0 g Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 b NATO (DE-588)377-3 b Militär (DE-588)4039305-7 s Strategie (DE-588)4057952-9 s DE-604 Westberg, Jacob Sonstige (DE-588)1172039089 oth Äquivalent Druck-Ausgabe, Paperback 978-1-03-228695-2 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, ebk. 978-1-00-329805-2 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034161038&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034161038&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Edström, Håkan 1963- Military strategies of the new European allies a comparative study PART I -- Theoretical & Methodological Considerations: Framing the Research Design -- Strategic Adjustment in Central and Eastern Europe -- Analysing and Explaining Strategic Adjustment and Diversity -- Operationalising the Dependent Variable: Defence Strategy -- PART II -- The Empirical Exploration -- The Strategy of Bulgaria -- The Strategy of Croatia -- The Strategy of the Czech Republic (Czechia) -- The Strategy of Estonia -- The Strategy of Hungary -- The Strategy of Latvia -- The Strategy of Lithuania -- The Strategy of Poland -- The Strategy of Romania -- The Strategy of Slovakia -- The Strategy of Slovenia -- PART III -- Explaining the Findings -- The Aggregated Result of the Empirical Exploration -- Explaining the Diversity of Strategic Responses Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 gnd NATO (DE-588)377-3 gnd Strategie (DE-588)4057952-9 gnd Militär (DE-588)4039305-7 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)5098525-5 (DE-588)377-3 (DE-588)4057952-9 (DE-588)4039305-7 (DE-588)4075739-0 |
| title | Military strategies of the new European allies a comparative study |
| title_auth | Military strategies of the new European allies a comparative study |
| title_exact_search | Military strategies of the new European allies a comparative study |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Military strategies of the new European allies a comparative study |
| title_full | Military strategies of the new European allies a comparative study Håkan Edström and Jacob Westberg |
| title_fullStr | Military strategies of the new European allies a comparative study Håkan Edström and Jacob Westberg |
| title_full_unstemmed | Military strategies of the new European allies a comparative study Håkan Edström and Jacob Westberg |
| title_short | Military strategies of the new European allies |
| title_sort | military strategies of the new european allies a comparative study |
| title_sub | a comparative study |
| topic | Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 gnd NATO (DE-588)377-3 gnd Strategie (DE-588)4057952-9 gnd Militär (DE-588)4039305-7 gnd |
| topic_facet | Europäische Union NATO Strategie Militär Osteuropa |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034161038&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=034161038&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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