Return to the motherland: displaced Soviets in World War II and the Cold War
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
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Ithaca ; London
Cornell University Press
2023
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| Schriftenreihe: | Battlegrounds: Cornell studies in military history
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| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Register // Gemischte Register |
| Beschreibung: | xvii, 292 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten, Porträt |
| ISBN: | 9781501767395 1501767399 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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Contents Acknowledgments Note on Transliteration and Conventions Archival Abbreviations Terms and Abbreviations Recurring Personages Map of Soviet annexations, 1939-45 Map of the division of postwar Germany vii xi xiii xv xvii xviii xix Introduction: Displaced in War and Peace 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Workers from the East: Deportation and Conditions of Labor among Eastern Workers 1 15 Forced Labor Empire: Community, Transnational Contact, and Sex 33 Collaboration and Resistance: Wartime Agency and Its Limits in Wustrau and Leipzig 54 Liberated in a Foreign Land: Wild Re-Sovietization and the Choice to Return in Allied-Occupied Europe, 1945 81 Ambiguous Homecoming: Social Tensions in Repatriation to the USSR 104 Repatriation and the Economics of Coerced Labor: Between Punishment and Pragmatism 126 A Return to Policing: Collaborators, Spies, and the Cold War under Late Stalinism 143 Unheroic Returns: Returnee-Resisters, Historians, and Police 166 Wayward Children of the Motherland: The Soviet Fight for Nonreturners in Western-Occupied Europe 190 Return after Stalin: The Return to the Motherland Campaign in the 1950s 215 Conclusion: No One Is Forgotten, No One Is Forgiven 235 10.
vi CONTENTS Notes Note on Sources Index 241 279 281
Index Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations. Abakumov, Viktor, 131 agricultural and domestic labor, 27-31,29 Akhmatova, Anna, 159 alcohol and drunkenness, 24, 39,63,67, 90, 209,211,212,257n43 Aleksandra A., 38 Alexopoulos, Golfo, 10 Aliferenko, Vasilii, 89, 95 Altshuler, Isaak, 185-86 ambivalence/suspicion: of late returners and repatriation mission members, 191,212-13; ofPOWs, 128, 134; remembrance/ forgiveness and, 235-39; of repatriates, 104-5, 111, 114-20,119, 124-25, 159, 194, 235 America. See United States American Jewish Joint Distribution Commit tee, 102 Anatolii A., 20, 83-84, 91 Andreichuk, Khariton, 224 Anna Μ., 36 Anna P., 35 Anna Sh., 41 annexations 1939-45 by Soviets, xviii, 2, 7-8, 12,36, 87,97,103, 190. See also specific states anticommunism, 3, 6, 11,12, 69 Antilucci, Brosildo, 96, 97 antisemitism. See Jews Antonina Μ., 119 Antonina S., xvii, 42-43,46-47,99,124 Antonina V., 45,101,123 Archer, Ernest, 86 Argentina, re-émigrés from, 215, 220-26, 228-33 arrests of repatriates, 110,143,147-48,158, 159,229,230, 265Ո18 Arteniuk, Aleksei (“Dmitruk”), 230, 233 Article 58, 151-52 Astakhov, Petr, xvii, 61-62, 69, 72-73, 80,164 Astashina, Klavdia, 177 Auschwitz-Birkenau, 58,102 auxiliaries, 7, 52,54,56,60,78, 86,109, 127, 128,145 Baltic republics, 2, 12, 59, 61, 102, 108,137, 190,194, 199,208. See also Estonia/ Estonians; Latvia/Latvians; Lithuania/ Lithuanians Baron, Nick, 10 Basilov, Iakov, 212 Belarus/Belarusians, 2,30,36, 38,47,56, 59, 61,93, 102, 108, 115, 118, 121,148,190, 197, 199,217,218 Belashov, Anatolil, 210 Belikov, Vitalii, 35, 131-32 Belov,
Senior Lieutenant, 139 Berggolts, Olga, 235 Beria, Lavrentii, 130,134, 137,181 Berkun, Natalia, xvii, 77, 183, 186-87 Beznos, Leonid/Lev, 150 Bishop, Alec, 201 Black Allied soldiers, racism against, 91 Blonskii (repatriate and labor battalion member), 136 Bondarenko, Vsevolod, 180 Bormatov (peat processing plant dispatcher), 119-20 Breisler (Alimov), Mikhail, 58 Britain: émigré community working with Anglo-American intelligence in Cold War, 216; monument to displaced in, 3,4; postwar concerns about spies from, 158-65 Briukhanov, Aleksei, 197-202,207,210-13, 274nll2 Brodskii, Efim, xvii, 78, 167, 169-72, 188-89, 238 Bronislava A., 117 BSV (Brotherly Union of Prisoners of War), 77-78 Buchenwald, 82-83, 84, 89,176,179,180,182 Bulganin, Nikolai, 138, 140,217 Canada, emigration to/re-émigrés from, 100, 227-29,231-33 capitalism, 100,114,143, 158,164, 191,193, 203,204,208, 214,216,222, 228,230, 232, 234,237 281
282 INDEX Carthew, Brigadier General, 198,201 Central Committee for Struggle, xvii, 168, 173-76 Chegeleshvili, Konstantin, 88 Chekmazov, Vitalii, 204-5, 212 Chernov, Major, 204 Chernyshev, Vasilii, 106, 145 children: Return to the Motherland campaign (1950s) and, 224-25; war orphans of disputed origin, 191, 202-5 Chuiko, Vasilii-Jose (Khose), 230-31, 232 Chuliak, Valentina, 101 Churchill, Winston, 3,86,158, 159 CIC (American Counter Intelligence Corps), 191, 193, 195, 196 city/factory workers, Eastern Workers as, 20-27 civilian forced labor. See Eastern Workers Claude (French boyfriend/husband of Antonina S.), 47, 99, 124 coerced labor. See specific entries at forced labor Cold War: emergence of, 158-59; foreigners and foreignness, Soviet attacks on, 159; late returnees and, 207-8; nonreturners and, 190-91, 202; postwar reconstruction efforts and, 222; power of Soviet secret police and, 144; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 216,223. See also displaced Soviets in WWII and Cold War collaboration, resistance, and agency, 6-7, 54-80; auxiliary units, 7,52, 54, 56, 60, 78, 86, 109,127,128,145; Brodskii’s treatment of actors as autonomous historical agents, 171; difficulties quantifying or categorizing, 54-56,62-63,79-80,152,157, 239, 267n62; DP camp leaders claiming involvement in resistance, 88; formation of resistance committees after liberation, 94-96; German occupation police, service in, 150,163; in Girl 217 (Chelovek [Person] No. 217; film, 1944), 118-19; Leipzig resistance groups, 56, 73-79, 75; limits of resistance within Germany, 73-74; medical workers and
clinics, resistance groups organizing through, 77; nationalists, Slavic, German recruitment of, 60; popular image of resistance fighters, in postwar USSR, 184; postwar investigations of, 143-51; of POWs, 54, 55, 56-63,69, 73, 78, 79, 80; retaliation against collaborators after liberation, 89-91; sexualized retribution, 112; Soviet partisans, members of German formations redefecting to, 264n2, 264n7; Soviet rule, resistance reflecting preference for, 79; Trawniki training camp for death camp guards, 55,60, 62,63, 69,145-56; treatment of returnees and, 10-11. See also returnee resisters; ROA; RROK; secret police, postwar investigations by; Wustrau men “Commissar Order,” 56-57 Committee for Return to the Motherland, 13, 219-20, 233. See also Return to the Motherland campaign Communist Party, 56, 74,75, 78, 80, 95,118, 122,150,170,174, 220, 224, 232 Communist Youth League. See Komsomol communists, German, 76-77, 95 communities of Eastern Workers, 33-42 Conner, Angela, 4 criminality of Eastern Workers, German fears of, 25-27, 40 Dachau, 27, 77, 109 Daimler-Benz factory, 24 David-Fox, Michael, 11 Davydov, General, 192-93, 194 de Gaulle, Charles, 256n22 death camps: Eastern Workers incarcerated in, 27, 39; guards, displaced persons as, 5,6, 55, 56,60, 83, 90; Soviets placed in camp system for illegal activities, 82,176; Trawniki training camp for guards at, 55, 60,62,63,69, 145-46. See also specific camps Delakova, Maria, 224 Demianenko (investigator), 163 Demjanjuk, John, 5,146 deportation to Germany, 16-20 Derevenets, Anatolii, 41 de-Stalinization, 153 Deviataev, Mikhail, 188
displaced Soviets in WWII and Cold War, 1-14, 235-39; annexations 1939-45 by Soviets and, xviii, 2, 7-8,12; collaboration/ resistance/agency and, 6-7, 54-80 (See also collaboration, resistance, and agency); Eastern Workers and POWs, 2, 15-53, 235-36 (See also Eastern Workers; prisoners of war); experience of displacement, 1,6-7; forced labor in Soviet Union and, 9, 126-42 (See also forced laborers in Soviet Union); gender and sexual behavior of, 6 (See also gender; sex); historiography of, 3-5,43; late returners, 191, 206-13; liberation and choice to return, 7, 81-103, 236 (See also
INDEX liberation); methodological approach, 5-6; nationalist state, emergence of Soviet Union as, 11-12; nonreturners, 2, 7, 10, 190-214, 237 (See also nonreturners); numbers, classification, and outcomes of, 2; remembering/forgiving, 235-39; repatria tion of, 2-4, 7-11, 236-37 (See also repatriation; social tensions in repatriation); Return to the Motherland campaign, 13, 215-34, 237 (See also Return to the Motherland campaign); secret police and, 14,143-65, 236 (See also secret police); source materials, 5, 279-80; Ukraine and, 13 (See also Ukraine); youth of, 37, 90, 116, 117 Doctors’ Plot, 219 DP camps: anti-Soviet activity, believed to be hotbeds of, 214; Leipzig theater troupe in, 193; Lesnichenko as camp coordinator after liberation, 89, 94; liberation and, 81, 85, 87-89; nonreturners remaining in (See nonreturners); POWs as leaders of, 88; resistance, leaders claiming involvement in, 88 DPs (displaced persons). See displaced Soviets inWWII and Cold War Dragun, Vasilit, 88, 89 Druz, Petr, 175 Dunchevskii, Aleksei, xvii, 63, 65, 66, 69-71, 73, 153 Dzadzamia, Aleksandr, xvii, 74, 77-79,94, 95, 183-84,185, 187-88 Dzhalil, Musa (Cälil), 77-78,188 Eastern Workers, 15-53, 235-36; adaptation to life in Germany, 37-38; agricultural and domestic labor, 27-31,29; alcohol and drunkenness, 24, 39; barracks/room supervisors (starosta), 41; bombing raids and, 22, 24-25; Brodskii on, 188-89; city/ factory work, 20-27; communities established by, 33-42; cooperation with mobilization, 19, 20; criminality, German fears of, 25-27, 40; deportation and displacement of, 2, 16-20; Eastern
Workers (Ostarbeiter), concept of, 15-16; executions of, near end of war, 83, 91; food rations, housing, and living conditions, 20-21, 23, 24, 27-28, 38, 39; German reparations for, 238-39; holidays, celebration of, 38-39; as informants, 40; as kitchen workers, 41-42; labor conditions and discipline, 22-23, 28; letters home, 17-19, 37; medical examina 283 tions and treatment, 20,24, 40-41; mortality rates of, 24, 246n33; numbers of, 244-45Ո1; OST badge, 15, 23-24, 84-85, 85; POWs as, 17, 59-60; propaganda about, 17, 18, 50, 51; protests by, 21, 26-27, 36,245n31; religion and, 34-35, 38; repatriation process for, 106,107; sex lives of, 33-34,45-53,51; Slavic inferiority, German notions of, 15, 16, 22, 31-32, 33, 34, 53; source materials for, 15-16; Soviet mobilized workers compared, 31-32,247n91; from Soviet-annexed regions, 36; time off, 21, 23, 28,37-38,39; translators and interpreters for, 41; transnational relationships of, 33, 34, 42-44; volunteers versus, 17-19; youth of, 37. See also collaboration, resistance, and agency; liberation; nonreturners; repatriation Eden, Anthony, 86, 87 education, efforts of repatriates to resume, 116,117 Eisenhower, Dwight, 83, 99 émigré community: Cold War, working with Anglo-American intelligence in, 216; collaboration/resistance/agency and, 61,63, 67, 68, 70, 71,72; early Soviet attitudes toward, 11; Eastern Workers and, 30, 34, 35, 41, 42; late returnees and, 208; liberation and, 98, 99,100,103; nonreturners in DP camps and, 207; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 216, 217-18, 220-21,223-24; secret police investigations and,
152-53, 159; Soviet repatriation mission and, 197; Union of Soviet Patriots, 208; war orphans from, 203 Emil (French boyfriend/husband of Galina G.), 47-48,124 Eremenko, Nikolai, 221 escapes: by labor battalion members, 135-37; by POWs, 58-59; self-liberations, 82-84, 176; from special camps/settlements, 129-30 Estonia/Estonians, 97, 99, 121,137, 199, 200. See also Baltic republics ethnic belonging, Soviet conceptions of, 102 ethnic Estonians, 99,199 ethnic exchanges/cleansing, 217, 227 ethnic Germans, 8,16, 50,53, 59,61,67,106, 111, 175,217,227 ethnic homogenization of Soviet Republics, 13,216-17,227 ethnic identities, beliefs about stability of, 229 ethnic Italians, 217
284 INDEX ethnie Poles, 217,229 ethnie Russians, 11, 13,63,198,217 ethnie Ukrainians, 13,217, 229 ethnonationalism, 11-12, 34, 53, 56, 57,191, 192,198,203 Evdokia P., 28 factory/city workers, Eastern Workers as, 20-27 The Fall ofBerlin (film, 1949), 118 famines of 1932-33 and 1946-47, 140-41, 217 Fedorov, Anatolii, 208 Feldman, Iosif (Georgii Fesenko), 78-79,171 filtration: arrests of repatriates and, 143; circumvention of, 108,110,139, 148; concept of, 1,105; current availability of files, 265nl5; home districts, registration in, 106, 146,148; interview/investigation process, 109; oflabor battalion members, 132,134; numbers of repatriates to be verified, 108-9; outcomes for repatriates following, 3-4,5; postwar collaboration investigations and, 146-48; of POWs prior to reenlistment, 128, 132; reintroducing returnees to political system, 10; at Soviet border, 107-8 food: balanda, 21, 58; Eastern Workers and, 20-21, 23, 24,27-28, 36, 38, 39,44; famines of 1932-33 and 1946-47, 140-41, 217; liberation and search for, 84, 85-86; POWs, intentional starvation of, 15, 58; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 217,226; Soviet-occupied Europe, repatriate laborers in, 141; Wustrau men and, 67 forced laborers, Italians as, 42,43 forced laborers in Germany. See Eastern Workers forced laborers in Gulags, 9. See also Gulags forced laborers in Soviet Union, 9, 126-42; in home territories, 115, 116; labor battalions, 3,105, 110,126-27,131-37,139,140, 141; labor shortage and need for, 126; in Soviet-occupied Europe, 138-41; special settlements/camps, 9,110,128-31, 135; suspicion of
repatriates and, 126-28 forced repatriation, 3, 7, 190,194,195,198, 206,213, 271Ո18 foreigners and foreignness: corrupting effects of Western life on late returnees, 212; DPs accused of, 116-17; Μ. Gritsai’s praise of Americans, and spying charges, 160-63; RROK members and, 182, 183,185; Soviet Cold War attacks on, 159 Fowler, R. H. C„ 210 Frenzel, Obersturmführer, 63,69,70,71,254ո53 Friends of the Soviet Union, 224 Fürth dynamite factory explosion (1943), 174 Galetskaia, Florisa, 173, 175 Galina G„ 47-48, 124 Gavrichkova, Maria, 177,178, 180-81 Gavrilov, V. N., 191-92, 193 Gavronskaia, Nadezhda, 71 Gehlbach, Willy, 95, 185,258nn56֊57 gender, 6; cohabitation and marriage between Soviet DPs, 92-94, 93; domestic help, women working as, 28-30; filtration process and, 109; food consumption and, 20; German police use of violence and sexual humiliation against prisoners, 156,157; labor discipline and, 22; miscegenation, treatment of men versus women for, 50-52; post-liberation treatment of women by Soviet men, 91-92,112; propaganda, Soviet women trained in, 62; prostitution of female Eastern Workers, 48-49; restrictions on mobility of foreign workers/POWs and, 52; sexual bartering by women, 34, 46,47,49, 91,112; unskilled female Eastern Workers, factory preferences for, 20 Geneva Conventions, 86 Georgian ethnographic choir, Wustrau, 67-68, 69, 71-72, 74, 79-80,153 Georgii T„ 59 Gerasimov, Sergei, 221 German occupation police in Soviet Union, 150,163 Germany: Eastern Workers, reparations for, 238-39; end of control by, 81, 82-89 (See also liberation); ethnic Germans,
8,16,50,53,59, 61,67,106, 111, 175,217,227;historiography of displacement in, 4-5; postwar division, map of, xix; Slavic inferiority, notions of, 15, 16, 22,31-32, 33, 34; Soviet repatriation officers in, 191-97; Soviet Union, invasion of, 16-17,54; Soviet-occupied Germany, Soviet workers in, 138-39. See also Eastern Workers; prisoners of war Giles, Julien (Zhile), 101 Girl 217 (Chelovek [Person] No. 217; film, 1944), 118-19, 184 “Girnyi” (re-émigré journalist), 220-21 Golik, Bill and Nadia, 227-29, 231-32 Golikov, Filipp, 9, 105, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 141,142,195, 197, 206,208, 217, 218 Golos Rodiny (radio program), 233 Golubev, Konstantin, 105, 140, 206, 212
INDEX 285 Goncharenko, Liudmila, 116 Göring, Hermann, 22 Great Break (1928-29), 166 Great Terror (1937-38), 10,118,130,143,151, 163-64, 236 Grinchenko, Gelinada, 239 Gritsai, Aleksandr, 160 Gritsai, Mefodii, 160-63 Guggenbichler family, 28,29 Gulag Museum, Moscow, 239 Gulags: anti-Soviet propaganda about, 208; death of Stalin, amnesty following, 151,153, 181, 219; dynamics of Eastern Worker camps compared to, 40; forced labor, providing, 9; labor battalion members and, 133, 136, 137; medical personnel in, 41; numbers of repatriates sent to, 72,103,105, 110; occupation police, service in, 150; postwar amnesty, 130; postwar convictions for collaboration, 153, 155,157, 179; re-émigrés sent to, 230; sexual behavior in, 33; Soviet repatriation mission members sent to, 212; special camps/settlements compared, 130; “spies” sentenced to, 164; suspicion of repatriates and fear of, 118; Wustrau men sentenced to, 153,155, 164 Gumych, Tamara, 18 IG Farben, 26-27 infiltration of Soviet Union, 8, 106,128,137,168 informants: Eastern Workers as, 40; late returners as, 207, 208, 273n81; Return to Motherland campaign and, 220,224,229, 230, 231,232; for secret police, 149-50 International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, 17,209 interpreters. See translators and interpreters Iosif A., 102, 135-36 “Iron Curtain” speech (Churchill), 158,159 Islam-Zade, Islam, 133-34 Israel, foundation of, 172 Italy/Italians: ethnic Italians, “repatriation” of, 217; as forced laborers and POWs, 42,43; Georgian ethnographic choir, Wustrau, obtaining certificates of partisan service from, 80; Mussolini, overthrow
of, 42; Severilova’s efforts to migrate to Italy and locate boyfriend, 96-97; Soviet-Italian couples, post-liberation aggression against, 91-92 lurkin, Mikhail, 203 luzhnyi krest (Southern cross; Slepukin), 223, 224,225 Ivan K„ 36-37, 98 Ivan S„ 21 Halyna Ia., 30-31 Halyna K„ 28,29 Herbert, Ulrich, 5 Hero of the Soviet Union awards, 188 Heydrich, Reinhard, 26 Himmler, Heinrich, 24,28-30 History of the Civil War in the USSR, 168 History of Ukraine-Rus' (Hrushevsky), 66 Hitler, Adolf, 3,8, 16-17, 38, 39, 55,57, 59-60, 79, 153, 170 Hittmanová, Libuše, 174 Hiwis, 60 Holocaust, 6, 48,63, 135-36,145,192,227. See also death camps homosexuality, 26, 52,25ІПІ01 housing situations: for Eastern Workers, 20-21,27-28; for repatriates, 115-16; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 226; for Wustrau men, 66-67 Hrushevsky, Mykhailo, 66 Huebner, Clarence, 196 Japan, WWII defeat of, 132 Jewish Antifascist Committee, 159,267n67 Jews: American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 102; contact with Eastern Workers, 42,44; “cosmopolitanism” as euphemism for Jews with connections outside USSR, 159; Doctors’ Plot, 219; as domestic workers, 30; Eastern Workers with Jewish backgrounds, 42-43; ethnic homogenization and, 227; Feldman/ Fesenko, resistance activities of, 78-79,171; final solution made possible by use of Eastern Workers, 19; foundation of Israel and Soviet views on, 172; Holocaust, 6,48, 63,135-36,145, 192, 227; as “infiltratees,” 8; Kiselev’s denunciation of cellmate as Jew, in German prison, 178; as nonreturners, 102, 192; Palestine, emigration to, 102; postwar antisemitism and anti-
Jewish violence, 8, 149, 159,172,219; repatriation of, 102, 136; Soviet merging of Jewish WWII victim hood into Soviet suffering, 136; Ukraine, genocide in, 13; Wustrau men and antisemitic propaganda, 63, 64, 66,69 Junkers factory, Magdeburg, 43 I Want to Go Home (Mikhalkov, 1948), 204 identity fluidity: ethnic identities, beliefs about stability of, 229; postwar, 96-99,255nl
286 INDEX Kalashnik, Valentina, 39 Kalyvas, Stathis, 6 Kaminskii, Bronislav, 253ո34 Kammler, Hans, 83 Kapanadze, lokim, 95, 183 Karpov, Nikolai, 108 Kashia, Aleksandr, xvii, 71-72, 152-58,154, 155, 266n41 Kavsadze, Davit, 67-68, 69, 71-72, 74, 79-80,153 Kavsadze, Sandro, 67-68 Kenchington, A. G„ 192 Kereselidze, Leo, 68 Kereselidze, Mariam, 68, 79 KGB (Committee for State Security), 13, 215, 220-21, 224, 225, 228-34. See also secret police Khrulev, Andrei, 105-6 Khrushchev, Nikita, 43,122, 124, 152,153, 181, 215, 216, 218, 222-23, 225, 233, 280 Kiselev, Evgenii, xvii; at Buchenwald, 82-83, 84; cohabitation and “marriage” between Soviet DPs, 92-93, 177,178; collaborators, post-liberation retaliation against, 89-91; on conflicts with non-Russian foreign laborers, 43; as DP camp leader, 89; Gulag, sentenced to, 179; repatriation of, 103; resistance/collaboration claims regarding, 82,94-95,176-82, 187-88; RROK and, 94-95,176,179, 181; self-liberation of, 82-83, 84, 89 kitchen workers, Eastern Workers as, 41-42 Klemmé, Marvin, 85-86, 88, 95 Klimenchenko, Lidia, 232 Kobulov, Bogdan, 145 Kogan, Μ. Ia., 168, 173,175 Kolomeets, Natalia, 175 Komsomol, 34, 49, 75, 76, 80,122, 149, 152, 169, 231 Konev, Ivan, 138 Konovalov, General, 201 KONR (Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia), 60,67 Korchagin, Lieutenant, 139 Korean War, 12 Koshechka, Valia, 85 Kosmodemianskaia, Zoia, 184 Kovalenko, Aleksandr, 163, 268n94 Kovalenko, Petr, 161,162-63 Kovkhaev, Andrei, 71 Krasnala Zvezda, 67,170 Kruglov, Sergei, 131 Krupp factory, Essen, 21 Kukh, Mikhail (G. L. Sigai), 211-12 Kulikov,
Captain, 89-90,176 Kuprii, Aleksandr, xvii, 77, 183, 186-87 Kursk, Battle of (1943), 19,72, 79 Kutuzov, Colonel, 199-200 Kvinska, Tosia, 18 labor battalions, repatriates sent to, 3,105,110, 126-27,131-37, 139,140,141 Lashkul, Raisa, 104 late returners, 191, 206-13. See also Return to the Motherland campaign Latvia/Latvians, 97, 143, 199, 200, 204. See also Baltic republics Leipzig: resistance groups working in, 56,74-79, 75, 180; theater troupe in DP camp, 193 Lenin, Vladimir, 11 Lesnichenko, Prokofii, xvii, 74; cohabitation and marriage between Soviet DPs, 93-94; as DP camp coordinator after liberation, 89, 94; Leipzig resistance group and, 75, 75-79; as postwar returnee-resister, 166,167, 176, 179,182-87, 189; RROK and, 94-96, 166, 176,179,182-87,189; as Pavel Shevchenko, 75, 89 liberation, 7,81-103,236; Allied troops, arrival of, 81,84-86; choice of return, 7, 96-103; cohabitation and marriage between Soviet DPs, 92-94, 93, 177,178; crime and looting during, 85-86; documentation of resistance activities, 94; DP camps, 81,85, 87-89; end of German control, 81,82-89; food, search for, 84, 85-86; “free-living” DPs, 88; guards, disappearance of, 81, 84; identity fluidity postwar and, 96-99, 255nl; nonreturners and, 96-101; pro-German formations, Soviets serving in, 86; repatriation agreements, 86-87; resistance committees, formation of, 94-96; re-Sovietization after, 89-96; retaliation against collaborators, 89-91; self-liberations and escapes, 82-84; women, post-liberation treatment of, 91-92 Lithuania/Lithuanians, 108,118, 199, 207. See also Baltic republics Liūdi i zveri
(People and Beasts; film, 1962), 221 Liudmila G., 44,121-22 Lobanov, S. E., 194, 195 Lohr, Eric, 12 Lokot Autonomy, 253n34 Magalashvili, Georgii, 71-72 Maidan Revolution (2014), 13
INDEX Maksimenko, Akulina, 28 Malenkov, Georgii, 170 Maliar, Grigoril, 150 marches of returnees, 107 Maria G., 49, 52,84-85 Maria K., 37 Maria Kh., 28 Maria S„ 149 marriage. See sex “Martianov” (informant), 186 Marxist-Leninist ideology: autobiographical commemoration in Soviet Union and, 94; nationalist state, emergence of Soviet Union as, 11, 191; war orphans, Soviets seeking return of, 203; Wustrau men’s training against, 64, 67 Maslova, Anna, 183,185 Max-Moor textile firm, Hamburg, 212 medical care and personnel: for Eastern Workers, 20,24, 40-41; in Gulags, 41; for labor battalions, 133; resistance groups and, 76 Melnichuk, Leonid, 230 Mendes (Argentinean consul), 231 MGB (Ministry for State Security), 130-31, 132, 133,146,149, 186,195, 265nl8. See also secret police Mikhail B.,24, 38, 120-21 Mikhailo K„ 238-39 Mikhailov, Nikolai Filippovich, 219 Mikhaleva, Aleksandra, xvii; community of, as Eastern Worker, 35, 36, 39, 40, 53; on conflicts with non-Russian foreign laborers, 43; diaries kept by, 40; displacement experience of, 1; on food rations, 21, 36; holidays celebrated by, as Eastern Worker, 39; on kitchen workers, 41-42; on labor discipline, 23; on liberation, 90-92,99,101; marriage of, 123-24; repatriation, desire for, 101; repatriation process experienced by, 107; on sex lives of Eastern Workers, 45,48; on Soviet male aggression, 91-92; Ugo (Italian boyfriend), 1, 92, 99,101,123 Mikhaleva, Galina, 1,35,48,92 Mikhalkov, Sergei, 204 Mints, Isaak, and Mints Commission, 168, 169,173 Mishakova, Olga, 152 Moch, Leslie Page, 8 Mokriakov, Major, 199 Molotov, Viacheslav,
105-6,131, 208 Moscow, Battle of (1942), 168 Motherland Association, 233-34 287 Mussolini, Benito, 42 Muza L, 49 MVD (Ministry for Internal Affairs), 131, 132, 265nl8. See also secret police Napoleon, Patriotic War against, 168 National Committee for a Free Germany, 169 nationalism: ethnonationalism, 11-12,34, 53, 56, 57, 191, 192, 198, 203; German recruitment of Slavic nationalists, 60; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 217; Soviet Union’s emergence as nationalist state, 11-12,198; Ukrainian, 60, 66, 71,114, 147,158; Wustrau men trained in, 67, 69 Nazis. See collaboration, resistance, and agency; Eastern Workers; prisoners of war; racial ideology of Nazis; specific Nazis by name Nechiporenko, Colonel, 138 Nekrasova, Zhenia, 85 Netto, Igor, 99 Netto, Lev, 99-100 New York Times, 220 Nikolai (Orthodox Archbishop of Germany), 195 Nikolai G„ 27-28, 122 “Nina” (KGB agent), 228-29 Nina Μ., 44 NKGB (People’s Commissariat for State Security), 145. See also secret police NKVD (People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs): counterinsurgency efforts, 147; exploitation of repatriates and, 111, 113; Feldman/Fesenko and, 78-79; labor battalions, sending repatriates to, 110; POWs, filtration and reintegration into army of, 132; repatriation process and, 106, 107-8, 121; special camps/settlements, 128-29,130. See also secret police nonreturners, 190-214, 237; child war orphans of disputed origin, 191,202-5; Cold War and, 190-91,202; defined, 2; detentions and kidnappings of, 195,196-97; expulsion of Soviet repatriation teams from Western zones of control, 196,201; forced repatria tion
of, 3, 7, 190, 194, 195,198, 213, 27Խ18; identity fluidity postwar and, 96-99; Jews as, 102, 192; late returners, 191, 206-13; letters to and from, 206-7; after liberation, 7, 96-101; mixed marriages and, 99-101; non-Russian ethnicity, Soviet recognition of, 198-99; persuasion and provocation, Soviet use of, 12,197-202; presumed dead,
288 INDEX nonreturners (continued) 241ո2; reprisals, fear of, 206, 207, 210; Soviet repatriation missions in Germany, 191-97,199, 209-13; violently resisting repatriation, 109-10, 194, 199-200; Western attitudes toward, 190,192, 194-96, 198, 205; Western resettlement policy and, 202. See also Return to the Motherland campaign Novyi Mir, 101, 188 NTS (National Alliance of Russian Solidarists), 223 Nuremberg Trials, 17, 209 occupation police, 150, 163 October Revolution (1917), 10,38,94, 166, 173, 225 “Of Life and Death” (pamphlet), 235 Oleksandr I., 19,43, 44,122, 136-37 Olga D„ 47 Olga G„ 121 Operation Barbarossa, 16 Operation Bingo, 195 Operation Swan-Song, 201, 203 Oreshkin, Colonel, 204 Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, 71,147 Orientalist prejudices of Nazis, 52,60 orphan children, 191, 202-5 Orthodox Church, 35, 38, 131, 195, 225-26 Osipovich, Evgenia, 93,182, 186 Osoaviakhim, 74,166 OST badge, 15, 23-24,84-85, 85 Ostarbeiter. See Eastern Workers Otto L. Schmidt firm, 22 Palagniuk, Anatolii (Vladimir Andreev), 179-80 Paraskeva, Polina, 210-11, 213 partisans. See collaboration, resistance, and agency; returnee-resisters Patorzhinskii, Fedor, 225-26 Patorzhinskii, Ivan, 225-26 Patton, George S„ 192-93 Pavel (Paul) O„ 26-27 Pavliuk, Alberto, 226, 230, 231 Pecherskii, Aleksandr, 188 Peron, Juan, 222 Petr A., 122 Petr P., 41 Petrenko, Anna, 148-49 Petrov, Ivan, 128-29 Petrushel, Roman, 77-78, 171 Petta, Rosario, 232 Piatokha (re-émigré), 231 Pietropaolo (Argentine consular official), 228-29 Piskarevskoe Memorial Cemetery, 235 Polian, Pavel, 3-4, 239 police in Soviet
Union: German occupation police, 150, 163; labor battalions and, 137; treatment of repatriates by, 117-18,120, 124-25. See also secret police Polina E., 19,30, 31,112 political verification. See filtration Popov, Anatolil, 84, 149, 182-83 Popov, Leonid, 149 Potykalova, Liubov, 89 POWs. See prisoners of war Pravda, 168, 223 Primak, Pavel, 174, 175 prisoners of war (POWs), 56-63, 236; ambivalence/suspicion regarding, 128, 134; army, reintegration into, 128-29,130,131, 132; Brodskii on, 169,172,189; BSV (Brotherly Union of Prisoners of War), 77-78; collaboration, resistance, and agency of, 54, 55,56-63, 69, 73, 78, 79, 80; as death camp guards, 5, 55, 60, 83, 90; after death of Stalin, 188; as displaced persons, 2; as DP camp leaders, 88; as Eastern Workers, 17, 59-60; escapes by, 58-59; executions of, 56-57, 91; filtration of, 128, 132; forced repatriation of, 195; in German auxiliary units, 7,52, 54, 56, 60, 78, 86, 109,127,128, 145; German treatment of, 15, 57-58; Hiwis (in noncombat military roles), 60; interpreters and translators for, 41; Italians as, 42,43; in labor battalions, 132, 134, 136; mortality rates of, 24, 57-58, 59; release program, 59; restrictions on mobility of, 52; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 219, 221; as returnee-resisters, 182-83,184; as returnees, 106,128; Soviet partisans, members of German formations redefecting to, 264n2, 264n7; in special camps/ settlements, 128-31; Western POWs and Soviet repatriation, 87; Wustrau propagan dist training camp, recruitment to, 61-63 Prokofev, Volodia (Vladimir), 204-5 propaganda: antisemitic propaganda
and Wustrau men, 63, 64, 67,69; on Eastern Workers, 17,18, 50,51; Gulags, anti-Soviet propaganda about, 208; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 217, 219-20, 223; Soviet women trained in, 62; Wustrau men recruited to spread, 61
INDEX prostitution, 48-49 Protsenko, Vladimir, 100-101 Putin, Vladimir, 239 racial ideology of Nazis: concerns about racial mixing, 23, 49-50, 251n98; Orientalist prejudices, 52,60; POW release program and, 59; Slavic inferiority, German notions of, 15, 16,22, 31-32, 33, 34, 53, 83; Westarbeiter (Western Europeans), 33, 42 racism against Black Allied soldiers, 91 Raisa B., 121 rape and sexual violence, 48,49, 52,112-13, 209 Ravensbrück, 39, 121 Razumov, A. A., 106,107,113 Red Army: E. Brodskii in, 169; collaboration/ resistance and, 68, 69, 70, 71,72,74, 76, 78; Eastern Workers joining, post-WWII, 131-32; film treatments of, 118,119; former German auxiliary troops joining, 145; Krasnala Zvezda, 67,170; liberation and DPs, 86,87, 89, 91, 92-93, 95, 98,102; management of repatriation by, 9, 102, 105, 106; partisan operations dovetailing with, 175; rape and sexual predation by, 1, 8,49, 92-93; reintegration of POWs into, 128-29, 130, 131, 132; retribution following arrival of, 144-45; violence against/exploitation of DPs, 111-14; inWWII, 15, 16, 19, 37,71,72. See also prisoners of war re-émigrés, concept of, 215. See also Return to the Motherland campaign refugees, UN resolution on (1946), 195, 198 registration records, 146,148-49 religion: Eastern Workers and, 34-35, 38; Orthodox Church, 35, 38, 131,195, 225-26 repatriation, 2-4, 7-11, 236-37; agreements to repatriate all Soviet subjects, 3,81, 86-87, 256n22; arrests of repatriates, 110,143, 147-48, 158,159, 229, 230, 265nl8; circumvention of official means of, 108; desire of most displaced persons to return, 7, 96,103,
237-38; end of, 219; family, desire to reunite with, 101-2; forced, 3,7, 190, 194, 195, 198, 206, 213,27Խ18; Geneva Convention of 1929 on, 86; of Jews, 102; late returners, 191, 206-13; mixed marriages and, 99-100; numbers of people seeking, 106-7, 206; post-filtration outcomes, 3-4, 5, 110; process of, 105; Western attitudes toward, 12, 81, 86-87,97,98-100, 103, 190, 192,194-96,198; Western POWs and, 87. 289 See also Return to the Motherland campaign; social tensions in repatriation Repatriation Administration, 8-9, 104-5; abuses of repatriates, investigating, 104, 116; on Brodskii, 171; closing of, 13; closure of (1953), 219; collaboration, report on post-liberation vigilante trials for, 90; establishment of, 106; labor battalion members, petitions from, 133; nonreturn ers, on detentions of, 195, 196; petitions to, 101; repurposed as recruiting office for Soviet diaspora, 217, 218; source documents from, 242nll; Soviet repatriation missions in Germany, 191-97,199,209-13; Soviet-occupied Europe, labor demand in, 138-41; suspicion of repatriates from, 118; on war orphans, 203 Repshis, Captain, 199 resistance. See collaboration, resistance, and agency; returnee-resisters Return to the Motherland campaign (1950s), 13, 215-34, 237; affinity between diaspora and motherland, morphing into promotion of, 233-34; arrests/interrogations of re-émigrés, 229, 230; children returning under, 224-25; émigré community and, 216, 217-18, 220-21, 223-24; exiting the USSR from, 228-34; KGB and, 215,220-21, 224, 225, 228-34; lives/living conditions of re-émigrés, 222-28,231, 232, 233; reasons
for appeal to Soviet diaspora, 215-16; reasons of re-émigrés for returning, 223-26; recruitment techniques and goals, 216-22 returnee-resisters, 166-89; after death of Stalin, 188; exaggerated or falsified claims of, 168, 172-82; P. Lesnichenko as, 166,167, 176,179, 182-87,189; POWs as, 182-83,184; RROK, postwar suspicions about, 166,182-88; writing history of, 166-67,168-72,188-89 returnees. See filtration; repatriation ROA (Russian Liberation Army/Vlasovites), 22, 55, 56, 57,60, 67, 79, 111, 126,130,131, 139,157,169 Romanov, Mikhail, 150 Romm, Mikhail, 118,184 Roosevelt, Franklin, 3, 86 Rosenberg, Alfred, 56,61 RROK (Russian Workers Liberation Committee): Dzadzamia’s RROK card, 185-, Kiselev and, 94-95, 176, 179, 181; in Leipzig, 75, 94-96; Lesnichenko and, 94-96,166, 176,179,182-87,189; postwar suspicions about, 166, 182-88
290 INDEX Rudolph Sack company, 74 Rumiantsev, Nikolai, 76-77 Russian All-Military Union, 98 Russian anti-Soviet nationalists, German recruitment of, 60 Russian Civil War, 11,13, 98, 168 Russian émigré community. See émigré community Russian Orthodox Church, 35, 38, 131, 195, 225-26 Ryb, Isak, 211 Saakov, Captain, 197 same-sex relationships, 26, 52,25ІПІ01 “Sashko” (MGB agent), 186-87 Sauckel, Fritz, 17, 19-20,24 Saulitis, Bronius, 207 Savchenko, Sergei, 145,159, 163 Savchuk, Petr, 231 secret police, postwar investigations by, 14, 143-65,236; Article 58 and, 151-52; case studies, 151-58,154, 155; Cold War and power of police, 144; Eastern Workers in Germany and, 17,43; émigré community, 152-53,159; identity fluidity, problem of, 97; informants, 149-50; investigative tech niques, 143-51; number of arrests, 265nl8; registration records, use of, 146,148-49; repatriates, treatment of, 1, 3, 9, 97,120, 124-25; resistance groups/returnee-resisters and, 74,75, 167-68,185-86, 187,189; source materials from, 5,13; spies and, 9,10, 14, 143-45, 149,150,151,158-65; survival based cooperation versus active collabora tion, distinguishing, 152, 157,267n62. See also KGB; MGB; MVD; NKGB; NKVD Selivanovskii, Nikolai, 195 Semin, Vitalii, 40-41 Senger, Valentin, 25,44,50 Severilova, Nadezhda (Nella Antilucci), xvii, 96-101, 103, 109,117 sex, 6; cohabitation and “marriage” between Soviet DPs, 92-94, 93, 177,178; Eastern Workers and, 33-34, 45-53,51; female sexual bartering, 34,46, 47,49, 91, 112; German police using sexual humiliation, 156; homosexuality and same-sex relationships, 26, 52,
251Ո101; miscegena tion, gender-based differentiated treatment of, 50-52; mixed marriages (between Soviets and non-Soviets) banned in Soviet Union, 99; nonreturners in mixed marriages, 99-101; OST badge as prevention of racial mixing, 23; post-liberation retaliation against Soviet women in relationships with non-Soviet men, 91-92, 119; post-repatriation romantic relation ships, 123-24; pregnancy, abortion, and motherhood, 47,48,49, 50,51; prostitution, 48-49; rape and sexual violence, 48,49, 52, 112-13, 209; Red Army, rape and sexual predation by, 1,8,49, 92-93; as retribution, 112; returnees, violence and sexual predation against, 104,105,107,112-13; Soviet repatriation missions in Germany and, 197,209-10; Soviet-occupied Europe, repatriate laborers in, 139; Stalinist/ Wustrau social conservatism, 66 Shakhovskii, Ioann, 35 Shapovalov, Lieutenant Colonel, 197 Shcherbak, Vera, 76 Shcherbakov, Aleksandr N. 170 Sherstiuk, Ilia, xvii, 66, 69-71,109,153 Shevchenko, Nikolai (“Zheleznov”), 168, 173-76,181-82,188 Shevchenko, Vladimir, 181 Shiian, Vasilii, 131 Shirokaia, Anna, 115-16 Shmushkevich, Rakhmil, 94 Shubovich, Antonina, 101 Siegelbaum, Lewis, 8, 26Խ88 Siemens factory, Berlin, 35 Sigodinov (informant), 150 Silich, Vasilii (“Chaikovskii”), 230-31 Sinitsyn, Mikhail, xvii, 45, 84,174-76 Sinkevich, Viktor, 177 Skidin, Captain, 184-85, 186 Skrynnik, Fedor, 193-94, 197,210 Slavic inferiority, German notions of, 15, 16, 22, 31-32, 33, 34, 53, 83 Slepov, L. A., 170 Slepukhin, Iurii, 223,224, 225 Slesarev, A., 209-10 Smaglov, Major, 157 SMERSH (Death to Spies), 111, 131,132, 160,
273n81 Smeshnov, Nikolai, 220 Sobibor, 146 social tensions in repatriation, 9-10,104-25; ambivalence about/suspicion of returnees, 104-5, 111, 114-20,119,124-25,159,194, 235; education, difficulties returning to, 116, 117; fears of repatriates about reception in Soviet Union, 95; film portrayals of repatriates/Red Army and, 118-20; foreignness, DPs accused of, 116-17;
INDEX government ambivalence about returnees, 104-5,118, 120,124-25,128; in home territories, 114-20; housing shortages and, 115-16; marginalization, professional and political, 120-25; process of return, 105-10; reintegration assistance, awareness/ availability of, 108,115; survivor guilt and, 119-20; violence, exploitation, and sexual predation against returnees, 104,105,111-14; wealth of returnees, beliefs about, 114-15 Sokolovskii, Vasilii, 201 Soviet Union: annexations 1939-45 by, xviii, 2, 7-8,12, 36, 87,97,103 (See also specific states'); autobiographical commemoration in, 94; ethnic homogenization of Republics, 13,216-17, 227; famines of 1932-33 and 1946-47,140; foundation of Israel and views on Jews in, 172; German invasion of, 16-17, 54; Great Break (1928-29), 166; Great Terror (1937-38), 10, 118, 130,143,151, 163-64,236; holidays in, 38; infiltration of, 8, 106, 128, 137,168; Jewish repatriation, indifference toward, 102; Jewish WWII victimhood merged into Soviet suffering by, 136; mixed marriages (between Soviets and non-Soviets) banned in, 99; mobilized workers compared to German forced labor, 31-32; nationalist state, emergence as, 11-12, 191; October Revolution (1917), 10, 38, 94, 166, 173, 225; returnees, government ambivalence about/suspicion of, 104-5,118, 120, 124-25, 128; Russian Civil War, 11, 13, 98, 168; WWII, framing narrative of, 168, 188; Yalta conference and global status of, 87. See also displaced Soviets in WWII and Cold War; Eastern Workers; nonreturners; prisoners of war; Red Army; repatriation; Return to the Motherland campaign special
settlements/camps, 9, 110,128-31, 135 spies and spying: collaboration/resistance/ agency and, 73,254n85; forced laborers in Soviet Union and, 128,133,136,139,268n94; nonreturners and, 209,210,213; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 218,229,233, 235, 236; returnee-resisters and, 168,172, 183, 184,185,186; secret police and, 9,10,14, 143-45,149,150,151,158-65; N. Severilova accused of, 97,100,101,109; Soviet repatriation officers, intelligence activities of, 191-92; suspicions about repatriates and, 10, 106,109, 111, 113,122 Stalin, Iosif: collaboration/resistance/agency and, 55, 64, 67-68, 79; death of, 122, 151, 291 153,161,164,172,188, 214, 215,219, 280; displaced persons and, 3,4, 11, 16; forced labor in Soviet Union and, 128,130, 132, 141; liberation and, 86, 256n22; postwar reconstruction efforts, 222; secret police and, 143,144, 147,151, 153, 158-59,161, 164; social tensions in repatriation and, 105, 106,118,122,124; Western Allies and, 158, 190, 193; in WWII Soviet historical narrative, 171 Stalingrad, Battle of (1943), 19, 40,72, 79,169 Stauffenberg, Claus von, 170 Storozhenko, Vladimir, 123,150 Streibel, Karl, 62 Streit, Christian, 5 Stubendienst, 82, 94-95 suicides, 7, 79, 104,110, 175-76, 210, 230 Surov-Kurov-Kin, Boris, 84, 90, 93, 180 Suslov, Mikhail, 121, 170 suspicion of DPs and repatriates. See ambivalence/suspicion Taisa T., 22 Tatars, 58,78, 109,110 Tetiana B., 47 Tetri Giorgi, 68,152 “That Name Is Our Great Stalin,” 173-74 theater troupe in DP camp, Leipzig, 193 They Have a Motherland (film, 1948), 204, 212 Timko, Lieutenant, 157 Timokhin, Vasilii, 58
Timoshenko, Ekaterina, 62, 156,157, 158 Tolstoy, Nikolai, 3 transit camps for returnees, 9,105-6, 107, 111-14 translators and interpreters, 39, 40,41, 42, 43, 47,60, 63, 74, 78, 97,98, 112,149, 171,194, 196,210 transnational relationships of Eastern Workers, 33, 34, 42-44 Trawniki training camp, 55,60,62,63,69, 145-46 Treblinka, 146 Truman, Harry, 158,195 Truscott, Lucian, 195 Tsibrenko, Lieutenant Colonel, 134-35 Tsyganenko, V, 182 Tvardovskii, Aleksandr, 101 Tvardovskii, Ivan, 101-2 Twelve Responses to Tragedy (Conner, 1986; sculpture, London), 3, 4 typhus, 58
292 INDEX Ugo (Italian boyfriend of Aleksandra Mikhaleva), 1, 92, 99, 101, 123 Ukraina, 71 Ukraine, 13; Argentina, re-émigrés from, 221-22; conflict between anti-Soviet nationalists and Soviet forces in, 114; Eastern Workers from, 30, 31, 114; ethnic homogenization, Soviet attempts at, 13; ethnic Ukrainians, 13, 217, 229; labor battalions in, 133,134; nationalism in, 60, 67,71,114,147,158; nonreturners from, 190; Poland, ethnic exchange with, 217; postwar collaboration arrests and investigations in, 147-48, 265nl8; spying, arrests for, 158, 159; volunteers for labor in Germany from, 17; Western recognition of Soviet control of, 87; Wustrau trainees, Ukrainians as, 61, 66, 67, 71 Union of Soviet Patriots, 208 United Nations: creation of, 87; resolution on refugees (1946), 195, 198 United States: American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 102; CIC (American Counter Intelligence Corps), 191, 193,195, 196; émigré community working with Anglo-American intelligence in Cold War, 216; Μ. Gritsai’s praise of Americans, and spying charges, 160-63; postwar concerns about spies from, 158-65 UNRRA (United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration), 85-88, 95, 192, 194, 198-200, 202, 209, 242nl9 UPVI (Administration for Prisoners of War and Internees), 128-29 Usenko, Efrosinia, xvii, 76, 95,183, 185 Vadim N. 22, 36 Valentina G„ 100 Valentina S„ 31 Valeria F„ 22, 24 Valia, kidnapping of, 196-97 verification, political. See filtration Vershinin, Sergei, 138-39,196-97, 201-2, 203, 210 Victims of Two Dictatorships (Polian), 3-4 Vikhorev, Aleksandr, 90 Viktor Sh„ 88 Vlasov, Andrei,
22, 55, 56,57,60,67, 79, 126 Vlasovites. See ROA Voice ofAmerica, 233 volunteers for labor in Germany, 17-19 Voprosy istorii, 188 Voznesenskii, Nikolai, 139 Vyshinskii, Andrei, 195, 203 Wachowiak, Alexander, 196 Wagener, Wendula and Otto, 30-31 war orphans, 191,202-5 Werner Werks, Berlin, 25 World War II: Holocaust, 6, 48,63, 135-36, 145, 192,227; Japan, defeat of, 132; Soviet narrative of, 168, 188. See also displaced Soviets in WWII and Cold War; Germany; specific battles Wrangel, Petr, 225 Wustrau men, 56-57,61-73; antisemitic propaganda and, 63, 64, 67,69; defections by, 72-73; dismantling of training camp, 73; educational background of, 56,62, 80; food rations and housing conditions, 66-67; Georgian ethnographic choir, 67-68,69, 71-72, 74,79-80,153; holding camps, testing at, 63; postwar prosecutions for collabora tion, 152-53,156, 164, 183; propaganda, recruitment to spread, 61; recruitment of, 61-63; resistance, claims of involvement in, 72,73,74,80, 153; training and lifestyle of, 63-70,64; work conducted by, 70-72 Yalta Conference (1945), 3, 86-87,98 youth of DPs, 37,90,116,117 Za vozvrashchenie na Rodinu, 219-20, 221, 223,233 Zahra, Tara, 12 Zemskov, Viktor, 3 Zhdanov, Andrei, 159 zhdanovshchina, 159 Zhidkovskaia-Patsukevich, Zinaida, 156-58 Zhukov, Georgii, 188 “Zhukov” (KGB agent), 221 Zinaida B., 30,114,123 Zoshchenko, Mikhail, 159 Zverev, I. Μ., 98 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München |
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Contents Acknowledgments Note on Transliteration and Conventions Archival Abbreviations Terms and Abbreviations Recurring Personages Map of Soviet annexations, 1939-45 Map of the division of postwar Germany vii xi xiii xv xvii xviii xix Introduction: Displaced in War and Peace 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Workers from the East: Deportation and Conditions of Labor among Eastern Workers 1 15 Forced Labor Empire: Community, Transnational Contact, and Sex 33 Collaboration and Resistance: Wartime Agency and Its Limits in Wustrau and Leipzig 54 Liberated in a Foreign Land: Wild Re-Sovietization and the Choice to Return in Allied-Occupied Europe, 1945 81 Ambiguous Homecoming: Social Tensions in Repatriation to the USSR 104 Repatriation and the Economics of Coerced Labor: Between Punishment and Pragmatism 126 A Return to Policing: Collaborators, Spies, and the Cold War under Late Stalinism 143 Unheroic Returns: Returnee-Resisters, Historians, and Police 166 Wayward Children of the Motherland: The Soviet Fight for Nonreturners in Western-Occupied Europe 190 Return after Stalin: The Return to the Motherland Campaign in the 1950s 215 Conclusion: No One Is Forgotten, No One Is Forgiven 235 10.
vi CONTENTS Notes Note on Sources Index 241 279 281
Index Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations. Abakumov, Viktor, 131 agricultural and domestic labor, 27-31,29 Akhmatova, Anna, 159 alcohol and drunkenness, 24, 39,63,67, 90, 209,211,212,257n43 Aleksandra A., 38 Alexopoulos, Golfo, 10 Aliferenko, Vasilii, 89, 95 Altshuler, Isaak, 185-86 ambivalence/suspicion: of late returners and repatriation mission members, 191,212-13; ofPOWs, 128, 134; remembrance/ forgiveness and, 235-39; of repatriates, 104-5, 111, 114-20,119, 124-25, 159, 194, 235 America. See United States American Jewish Joint Distribution Commit tee, 102 Anatolii A., 20, 83-84, 91 Andreichuk, Khariton, 224 Anna Μ., 36 Anna P., 35 Anna Sh., 41 annexations 1939-45 by Soviets, xviii, 2, 7-8, 12,36, 87,97,103, 190. See also specific states anticommunism, 3, 6, 11,12, 69 Antilucci, Brosildo, 96, 97 antisemitism. See Jews Antonina Μ., 119 Antonina S., xvii, 42-43,46-47,99,124 Antonina V., 45,101,123 Archer, Ernest, 86 Argentina, re-émigrés from, 215, 220-26, 228-33 arrests of repatriates, 110,143,147-48,158, 159,229,230, 265Ո18 Arteniuk, Aleksei (“Dmitruk”), 230, 233 Article 58, 151-52 Astakhov, Petr, xvii, 61-62, 69, 72-73, 80,164 Astashina, Klavdia, 177 Auschwitz-Birkenau, 58,102 auxiliaries, 7, 52,54,56,60,78, 86,109, 127, 128,145 Baltic republics, 2, 12, 59, 61, 102, 108,137, 190,194, 199,208. See also Estonia/ Estonians; Latvia/Latvians; Lithuania/ Lithuanians Baron, Nick, 10 Basilov, Iakov, 212 Belarus/Belarusians, 2,30,36, 38,47,56, 59, 61,93, 102, 108, 115, 118, 121,148,190, 197, 199,217,218 Belashov, Anatolil, 210 Belikov, Vitalii, 35, 131-32 Belov,
Senior Lieutenant, 139 Berggolts, Olga, 235 Beria, Lavrentii, 130,134, 137,181 Berkun, Natalia, xvii, 77, 183, 186-87 Beznos, Leonid/Lev, 150 Bishop, Alec, 201 Black Allied soldiers, racism against, 91 Blonskii (repatriate and labor battalion member), 136 Bondarenko, Vsevolod, 180 Bormatov (peat processing plant dispatcher), 119-20 Breisler (Alimov), Mikhail, 58 Britain: émigré community working with Anglo-American intelligence in Cold War, 216; monument to displaced in, 3,4; postwar concerns about spies from, 158-65 Briukhanov, Aleksei, 197-202,207,210-13, 274nll2 Brodskii, Efim, xvii, 78, 167, 169-72, 188-89, 238 Bronislava A., 117 BSV (Brotherly Union of Prisoners of War), 77-78 Buchenwald, 82-83, 84, 89,176,179,180,182 Bulganin, Nikolai, 138, 140,217 Canada, emigration to/re-émigrés from, 100, 227-29,231-33 capitalism, 100,114,143, 158,164, 191,193, 203,204,208, 214,216,222, 228,230, 232, 234,237 281
282 INDEX Carthew, Brigadier General, 198,201 Central Committee for Struggle, xvii, 168, 173-76 Chegeleshvili, Konstantin, 88 Chekmazov, Vitalii, 204-5, 212 Chernov, Major, 204 Chernyshev, Vasilii, 106, 145 children: Return to the Motherland campaign (1950s) and, 224-25; war orphans of disputed origin, 191, 202-5 Chuiko, Vasilii-Jose (Khose), 230-31, 232 Chuliak, Valentina, 101 Churchill, Winston, 3,86,158, 159 CIC (American Counter Intelligence Corps), 191, 193, 195, 196 city/factory workers, Eastern Workers as, 20-27 civilian forced labor. See Eastern Workers Claude (French boyfriend/husband of Antonina S.), 47, 99, 124 coerced labor. See specific entries at forced labor Cold War: emergence of, 158-59; foreigners and foreignness, Soviet attacks on, 159; late returnees and, 207-8; nonreturners and, 190-91, 202; postwar reconstruction efforts and, 222; power of Soviet secret police and, 144; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 216,223. See also displaced Soviets in WWII and Cold War collaboration, resistance, and agency, 6-7, 54-80; auxiliary units, 7,52, 54, 56, 60, 78, 86, 109,127,128,145; Brodskii’s treatment of actors as autonomous historical agents, 171; difficulties quantifying or categorizing, 54-56,62-63,79-80,152,157, 239, 267n62; DP camp leaders claiming involvement in resistance, 88; formation of resistance committees after liberation, 94-96; German occupation police, service in, 150,163; in Girl 217 (Chelovek [Person] No. 217; film, 1944), 118-19; Leipzig resistance groups, 56, 73-79, 75; limits of resistance within Germany, 73-74; medical workers and
clinics, resistance groups organizing through, 77; nationalists, Slavic, German recruitment of, 60; popular image of resistance fighters, in postwar USSR, 184; postwar investigations of, 143-51; of POWs, 54, 55, 56-63,69, 73, 78, 79, 80; retaliation against collaborators after liberation, 89-91; sexualized retribution, 112; Soviet partisans, members of German formations redefecting to, 264n2, 264n7; Soviet rule, resistance reflecting preference for, 79; Trawniki training camp for death camp guards, 55,60, 62,63, 69,145-56; treatment of returnees and, 10-11. See also returnee resisters; ROA; RROK; secret police, postwar investigations by; Wustrau men “Commissar Order,” 56-57 Committee for Return to the Motherland, 13, 219-20, 233. See also Return to the Motherland campaign Communist Party, 56, 74,75, 78, 80, 95,118, 122,150,170,174, 220, 224, 232 Communist Youth League. See Komsomol communists, German, 76-77, 95 communities of Eastern Workers, 33-42 Conner, Angela, 4 criminality of Eastern Workers, German fears of, 25-27, 40 Dachau, 27, 77, 109 Daimler-Benz factory, 24 David-Fox, Michael, 11 Davydov, General, 192-93, 194 de Gaulle, Charles, 256n22 death camps: Eastern Workers incarcerated in, 27, 39; guards, displaced persons as, 5,6, 55, 56,60, 83, 90; Soviets placed in camp system for illegal activities, 82,176; Trawniki training camp for guards at, 55, 60,62,63,69, 145-46. See also specific camps Delakova, Maria, 224 Demianenko (investigator), 163 Demjanjuk, John, 5,146 deportation to Germany, 16-20 Derevenets, Anatolii, 41 de-Stalinization, 153 Deviataev, Mikhail, 188
displaced Soviets in WWII and Cold War, 1-14, 235-39; annexations 1939-45 by Soviets and, xviii, 2, 7-8,12; collaboration/ resistance/agency and, 6-7, 54-80 (See also collaboration, resistance, and agency); Eastern Workers and POWs, 2, 15-53, 235-36 (See also Eastern Workers; prisoners of war); experience of displacement, 1,6-7; forced labor in Soviet Union and, 9, 126-42 (See also forced laborers in Soviet Union); gender and sexual behavior of, 6 (See also gender; sex); historiography of, 3-5,43; late returners, 191, 206-13; liberation and choice to return, 7, 81-103, 236 (See also
INDEX liberation); methodological approach, 5-6; nationalist state, emergence of Soviet Union as, 11-12; nonreturners, 2, 7, 10, 190-214, 237 (See also nonreturners); numbers, classification, and outcomes of, 2; remembering/forgiving, 235-39; repatria tion of, 2-4, 7-11, 236-37 (See also repatriation; social tensions in repatriation); Return to the Motherland campaign, 13, 215-34, 237 (See also Return to the Motherland campaign); secret police and, 14,143-65, 236 (See also secret police); source materials, 5, 279-80; Ukraine and, 13 (See also Ukraine); youth of, 37, 90, 116, 117 Doctors’ Plot, 219 DP camps: anti-Soviet activity, believed to be hotbeds of, 214; Leipzig theater troupe in, 193; Lesnichenko as camp coordinator after liberation, 89, 94; liberation and, 81, 85, 87-89; nonreturners remaining in (See nonreturners); POWs as leaders of, 88; resistance, leaders claiming involvement in, 88 DPs (displaced persons). See displaced Soviets inWWII and Cold War Dragun, Vasilit, 88, 89 Druz, Petr, 175 Dunchevskii, Aleksei, xvii, 63, 65, 66, 69-71, 73, 153 Dzadzamia, Aleksandr, xvii, 74, 77-79,94, 95, 183-84,185, 187-88 Dzhalil, Musa (Cälil), 77-78,188 Eastern Workers, 15-53, 235-36; adaptation to life in Germany, 37-38; agricultural and domestic labor, 27-31,29; alcohol and drunkenness, 24, 39; barracks/room supervisors (starosta), 41; bombing raids and, 22, 24-25; Brodskii on, 188-89; city/ factory work, 20-27; communities established by, 33-42; cooperation with mobilization, 19, 20; criminality, German fears of, 25-27, 40; deportation and displacement of, 2, 16-20; Eastern
Workers (Ostarbeiter), concept of, 15-16; executions of, near end of war, 83, 91; food rations, housing, and living conditions, 20-21, 23, 24, 27-28, 38, 39; German reparations for, 238-39; holidays, celebration of, 38-39; as informants, 40; as kitchen workers, 41-42; labor conditions and discipline, 22-23, 28; letters home, 17-19, 37; medical examina 283 tions and treatment, 20,24, 40-41; mortality rates of, 24, 246n33; numbers of, 244-45Ո1; OST badge, 15, 23-24, 84-85, 85; POWs as, 17, 59-60; propaganda about, 17, 18, 50, 51; protests by, 21, 26-27, 36,245n31; religion and, 34-35, 38; repatriation process for, 106,107; sex lives of, 33-34,45-53,51; Slavic inferiority, German notions of, 15, 16, 22, 31-32, 33, 34, 53; source materials for, 15-16; Soviet mobilized workers compared, 31-32,247n91; from Soviet-annexed regions, 36; time off, 21, 23, 28,37-38,39; translators and interpreters for, 41; transnational relationships of, 33, 34, 42-44; volunteers versus, 17-19; youth of, 37. See also collaboration, resistance, and agency; liberation; nonreturners; repatriation Eden, Anthony, 86, 87 education, efforts of repatriates to resume, 116,117 Eisenhower, Dwight, 83, 99 émigré community: Cold War, working with Anglo-American intelligence in, 216; collaboration/resistance/agency and, 61,63, 67, 68, 70, 71,72; early Soviet attitudes toward, 11; Eastern Workers and, 30, 34, 35, 41, 42; late returnees and, 208; liberation and, 98, 99,100,103; nonreturners in DP camps and, 207; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 216, 217-18, 220-21,223-24; secret police investigations and,
152-53, 159; Soviet repatriation mission and, 197; Union of Soviet Patriots, 208; war orphans from, 203 Emil (French boyfriend/husband of Galina G.), 47-48,124 Eremenko, Nikolai, 221 escapes: by labor battalion members, 135-37; by POWs, 58-59; self-liberations, 82-84, 176; from special camps/settlements, 129-30 Estonia/Estonians, 97, 99, 121,137, 199, 200. See also Baltic republics ethnic belonging, Soviet conceptions of, 102 ethnic Estonians, 99,199 ethnic exchanges/cleansing, 217, 227 ethnic Germans, 8,16, 50,53, 59,61,67,106, 111, 175,217,227 ethnic homogenization of Soviet Republics, 13,216-17,227 ethnic identities, beliefs about stability of, 229 ethnic Italians, 217
284 INDEX ethnie Poles, 217,229 ethnie Russians, 11, 13,63,198,217 ethnie Ukrainians, 13,217, 229 ethnonationalism, 11-12, 34, 53, 56, 57,191, 192,198,203 Evdokia P., 28 factory/city workers, Eastern Workers as, 20-27 The Fall ofBerlin (film, 1949), 118 famines of 1932-33 and 1946-47, 140-41, 217 Fedorov, Anatolii, 208 Feldman, Iosif (Georgii Fesenko), 78-79,171 filtration: arrests of repatriates and, 143; circumvention of, 108,110,139, 148; concept of, 1,105; current availability of files, 265nl5; home districts, registration in, 106, 146,148; interview/investigation process, 109; oflabor battalion members, 132,134; numbers of repatriates to be verified, 108-9; outcomes for repatriates following, 3-4,5; postwar collaboration investigations and, 146-48; of POWs prior to reenlistment, 128, 132; reintroducing returnees to political system, 10; at Soviet border, 107-8 food: balanda, 21, 58; Eastern Workers and, 20-21, 23, 24,27-28, 36, 38, 39,44; famines of 1932-33 and 1946-47, 140-41, 217; liberation and search for, 84, 85-86; POWs, intentional starvation of, 15, 58; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 217,226; Soviet-occupied Europe, repatriate laborers in, 141; Wustrau men and, 67 forced laborers, Italians as, 42,43 forced laborers in Germany. See Eastern Workers forced laborers in Gulags, 9. See also Gulags forced laborers in Soviet Union, 9, 126-42; in home territories, 115, 116; labor battalions, 3,105, 110,126-27,131-37,139,140, 141; labor shortage and need for, 126; in Soviet-occupied Europe, 138-41; special settlements/camps, 9,110,128-31, 135; suspicion of
repatriates and, 126-28 forced repatriation, 3, 7, 190,194,195,198, 206,213, 271Ո18 foreigners and foreignness: corrupting effects of Western life on late returnees, 212; DPs accused of, 116-17; Μ. Gritsai’s praise of Americans, and spying charges, 160-63; RROK members and, 182, 183,185; Soviet Cold War attacks on, 159 Fowler, R. H. C„ 210 Frenzel, Obersturmführer, 63,69,70,71,254ո53 Friends of the Soviet Union, 224 Fürth dynamite factory explosion (1943), 174 Galetskaia, Florisa, 173, 175 Galina G„ 47-48, 124 Gavrichkova, Maria, 177,178, 180-81 Gavrilov, V. N., 191-92, 193 Gavronskaia, Nadezhda, 71 Gehlbach, Willy, 95, 185,258nn56֊57 gender, 6; cohabitation and marriage between Soviet DPs, 92-94, 93; domestic help, women working as, 28-30; filtration process and, 109; food consumption and, 20; German police use of violence and sexual humiliation against prisoners, 156,157; labor discipline and, 22; miscegenation, treatment of men versus women for, 50-52; post-liberation treatment of women by Soviet men, 91-92,112; propaganda, Soviet women trained in, 62; prostitution of female Eastern Workers, 48-49; restrictions on mobility of foreign workers/POWs and, 52; sexual bartering by women, 34, 46,47,49, 91,112; unskilled female Eastern Workers, factory preferences for, 20 Geneva Conventions, 86 Georgian ethnographic choir, Wustrau, 67-68, 69, 71-72, 74, 79-80,153 Georgii T„ 59 Gerasimov, Sergei, 221 German occupation police in Soviet Union, 150,163 Germany: Eastern Workers, reparations for, 238-39; end of control by, 81, 82-89 (See also liberation); ethnic Germans,
8,16,50,53,59, 61,67,106, 111, 175,217,227;historiography of displacement in, 4-5; postwar division, map of, xix; Slavic inferiority, notions of, 15, 16, 22,31-32, 33, 34; Soviet repatriation officers in, 191-97; Soviet Union, invasion of, 16-17,54; Soviet-occupied Germany, Soviet workers in, 138-39. See also Eastern Workers; prisoners of war Giles, Julien (Zhile), 101 Girl 217 (Chelovek [Person] No. 217; film, 1944), 118-19, 184 “Girnyi” (re-émigré journalist), 220-21 Golik, Bill and Nadia, 227-29, 231-32 Golikov, Filipp, 9, 105, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 141,142,195, 197, 206,208, 217, 218 Golos Rodiny (radio program), 233 Golubev, Konstantin, 105, 140, 206, 212
INDEX 285 Goncharenko, Liudmila, 116 Göring, Hermann, 22 Great Break (1928-29), 166 Great Terror (1937-38), 10,118,130,143,151, 163-64, 236 Grinchenko, Gelinada, 239 Gritsai, Aleksandr, 160 Gritsai, Mefodii, 160-63 Guggenbichler family, 28,29 Gulag Museum, Moscow, 239 Gulags: anti-Soviet propaganda about, 208; death of Stalin, amnesty following, 151,153, 181, 219; dynamics of Eastern Worker camps compared to, 40; forced labor, providing, 9; labor battalion members and, 133, 136, 137; medical personnel in, 41; numbers of repatriates sent to, 72,103,105, 110; occupation police, service in, 150; postwar amnesty, 130; postwar convictions for collaboration, 153, 155,157, 179; re-émigrés sent to, 230; sexual behavior in, 33; Soviet repatriation mission members sent to, 212; special camps/settlements compared, 130; “spies” sentenced to, 164; suspicion of repatriates and fear of, 118; Wustrau men sentenced to, 153,155, 164 Gumych, Tamara, 18 IG Farben, 26-27 infiltration of Soviet Union, 8, 106,128,137,168 informants: Eastern Workers as, 40; late returners as, 207, 208, 273n81; Return to Motherland campaign and, 220,224,229, 230, 231,232; for secret police, 149-50 International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, 17,209 interpreters. See translators and interpreters Iosif A., 102, 135-36 “Iron Curtain” speech (Churchill), 158,159 Islam-Zade, Islam, 133-34 Israel, foundation of, 172 Italy/Italians: ethnic Italians, “repatriation” of, 217; as forced laborers and POWs, 42,43; Georgian ethnographic choir, Wustrau, obtaining certificates of partisan service from, 80; Mussolini, overthrow
of, 42; Severilova’s efforts to migrate to Italy and locate boyfriend, 96-97; Soviet-Italian couples, post-liberation aggression against, 91-92 lurkin, Mikhail, 203 luzhnyi krest (Southern cross; Slepukin), 223, 224,225 Ivan K„ 36-37, 98 Ivan S„ 21 Halyna Ia., 30-31 Halyna K„ 28,29 Herbert, Ulrich, 5 Hero of the Soviet Union awards, 188 Heydrich, Reinhard, 26 Himmler, Heinrich, 24,28-30 History of the Civil War in the USSR, 168 History of Ukraine-Rus' (Hrushevsky), 66 Hitler, Adolf, 3,8, 16-17, 38, 39, 55,57, 59-60, 79, 153, 170 Hittmanová, Libuše, 174 Hiwis, 60 Holocaust, 6, 48,63, 135-36,145,192,227. See also death camps homosexuality, 26, 52,25ІПІ01 housing situations: for Eastern Workers, 20-21,27-28; for repatriates, 115-16; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 226; for Wustrau men, 66-67 Hrushevsky, Mykhailo, 66 Huebner, Clarence, 196 Japan, WWII defeat of, 132 Jewish Antifascist Committee, 159,267n67 Jews: American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 102; contact with Eastern Workers, 42,44; “cosmopolitanism” as euphemism for Jews with connections outside USSR, 159; Doctors’ Plot, 219; as domestic workers, 30; Eastern Workers with Jewish backgrounds, 42-43; ethnic homogenization and, 227; Feldman/ Fesenko, resistance activities of, 78-79,171; final solution made possible by use of Eastern Workers, 19; foundation of Israel and Soviet views on, 172; Holocaust, 6,48, 63,135-36,145, 192, 227; as “infiltratees,” 8; Kiselev’s denunciation of cellmate as Jew, in German prison, 178; as nonreturners, 102, 192; Palestine, emigration to, 102; postwar antisemitism and anti-
Jewish violence, 8, 149, 159,172,219; repatriation of, 102, 136; Soviet merging of Jewish WWII victim hood into Soviet suffering, 136; Ukraine, genocide in, 13; Wustrau men and antisemitic propaganda, 63, 64, 66,69 Junkers factory, Magdeburg, 43 I Want to Go Home (Mikhalkov, 1948), 204 identity fluidity: ethnic identities, beliefs about stability of, 229; postwar, 96-99,255nl
286 INDEX Kalashnik, Valentina, 39 Kalyvas, Stathis, 6 Kaminskii, Bronislav, 253ո34 Kammler, Hans, 83 Kapanadze, lokim, 95, 183 Karpov, Nikolai, 108 Kashia, Aleksandr, xvii, 71-72, 152-58,154, 155, 266n41 Kavsadze, Davit, 67-68, 69, 71-72, 74, 79-80,153 Kavsadze, Sandro, 67-68 Kenchington, A. G„ 192 Kereselidze, Leo, 68 Kereselidze, Mariam, 68, 79 KGB (Committee for State Security), 13, 215, 220-21, 224, 225, 228-34. See also secret police Khrulev, Andrei, 105-6 Khrushchev, Nikita, 43,122, 124, 152,153, 181, 215, 216, 218, 222-23, 225, 233, 280 Kiselev, Evgenii, xvii; at Buchenwald, 82-83, 84; cohabitation and “marriage” between Soviet DPs, 92-93, 177,178; collaborators, post-liberation retaliation against, 89-91; on conflicts with non-Russian foreign laborers, 43; as DP camp leader, 89; Gulag, sentenced to, 179; repatriation of, 103; resistance/collaboration claims regarding, 82,94-95,176-82, 187-88; RROK and, 94-95,176,179, 181; self-liberation of, 82-83, 84, 89 kitchen workers, Eastern Workers as, 41-42 Klemmé, Marvin, 85-86, 88, 95 Klimenchenko, Lidia, 232 Kobulov, Bogdan, 145 Kogan, Μ. Ia., 168, 173,175 Kolomeets, Natalia, 175 Komsomol, 34, 49, 75, 76, 80,122, 149, 152, 169, 231 Konev, Ivan, 138 Konovalov, General, 201 KONR (Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia), 60,67 Korchagin, Lieutenant, 139 Korean War, 12 Koshechka, Valia, 85 Kosmodemianskaia, Zoia, 184 Kovalenko, Aleksandr, 163, 268n94 Kovalenko, Petr, 161,162-63 Kovkhaev, Andrei, 71 Krasnala Zvezda, 67,170 Kruglov, Sergei, 131 Krupp factory, Essen, 21 Kukh, Mikhail (G. L. Sigai), 211-12 Kulikov,
Captain, 89-90,176 Kuprii, Aleksandr, xvii, 77, 183, 186-87 Kursk, Battle of (1943), 19,72, 79 Kutuzov, Colonel, 199-200 Kvinska, Tosia, 18 labor battalions, repatriates sent to, 3,105,110, 126-27,131-37, 139,140,141 Lashkul, Raisa, 104 late returners, 191, 206-13. See also Return to the Motherland campaign Latvia/Latvians, 97, 143, 199, 200, 204. See also Baltic republics Leipzig: resistance groups working in, 56,74-79, 75, 180; theater troupe in DP camp, 193 Lenin, Vladimir, 11 Lesnichenko, Prokofii, xvii, 74; cohabitation and marriage between Soviet DPs, 93-94; as DP camp coordinator after liberation, 89, 94; Leipzig resistance group and, 75, 75-79; as postwar returnee-resister, 166,167, 176, 179,182-87, 189; RROK and, 94-96, 166, 176,179,182-87,189; as Pavel Shevchenko, 75, 89 liberation, 7,81-103,236; Allied troops, arrival of, 81,84-86; choice of return, 7, 96-103; cohabitation and marriage between Soviet DPs, 92-94, 93, 177,178; crime and looting during, 85-86; documentation of resistance activities, 94; DP camps, 81,85, 87-89; end of German control, 81,82-89; food, search for, 84, 85-86; “free-living” DPs, 88; guards, disappearance of, 81, 84; identity fluidity postwar and, 96-99, 255nl; nonreturners and, 96-101; pro-German formations, Soviets serving in, 86; repatriation agreements, 86-87; resistance committees, formation of, 94-96; re-Sovietization after, 89-96; retaliation against collaborators, 89-91; self-liberations and escapes, 82-84; women, post-liberation treatment of, 91-92 Lithuania/Lithuanians, 108,118, 199, 207. See also Baltic republics Liūdi i zveri
(People and Beasts; film, 1962), 221 Liudmila G., 44,121-22 Lobanov, S. E., 194, 195 Lohr, Eric, 12 Lokot Autonomy, 253n34 Magalashvili, Georgii, 71-72 Maidan Revolution (2014), 13
INDEX Maksimenko, Akulina, 28 Malenkov, Georgii, 170 Maliar, Grigoril, 150 marches of returnees, 107 Maria G., 49, 52,84-85 Maria K., 37 Maria Kh., 28 Maria S„ 149 marriage. See sex “Martianov” (informant), 186 Marxist-Leninist ideology: autobiographical commemoration in Soviet Union and, 94; nationalist state, emergence of Soviet Union as, 11, 191; war orphans, Soviets seeking return of, 203; Wustrau men’s training against, 64, 67 Maslova, Anna, 183,185 Max-Moor textile firm, Hamburg, 212 medical care and personnel: for Eastern Workers, 20,24, 40-41; in Gulags, 41; for labor battalions, 133; resistance groups and, 76 Melnichuk, Leonid, 230 Mendes (Argentinean consul), 231 MGB (Ministry for State Security), 130-31, 132, 133,146,149, 186,195, 265nl8. See also secret police Mikhail B.,24, 38, 120-21 Mikhailo K„ 238-39 Mikhailov, Nikolai Filippovich, 219 Mikhaleva, Aleksandra, xvii; community of, as Eastern Worker, 35, 36, 39, 40, 53; on conflicts with non-Russian foreign laborers, 43; diaries kept by, 40; displacement experience of, 1; on food rations, 21, 36; holidays celebrated by, as Eastern Worker, 39; on kitchen workers, 41-42; on labor discipline, 23; on liberation, 90-92,99,101; marriage of, 123-24; repatriation, desire for, 101; repatriation process experienced by, 107; on sex lives of Eastern Workers, 45,48; on Soviet male aggression, 91-92; Ugo (Italian boyfriend), 1, 92, 99,101,123 Mikhaleva, Galina, 1,35,48,92 Mikhalkov, Sergei, 204 Mints, Isaak, and Mints Commission, 168, 169,173 Mishakova, Olga, 152 Moch, Leslie Page, 8 Mokriakov, Major, 199 Molotov, Viacheslav,
105-6,131, 208 Moscow, Battle of (1942), 168 Motherland Association, 233-34 287 Mussolini, Benito, 42 Muza L, 49 MVD (Ministry for Internal Affairs), 131, 132, 265nl8. See also secret police Napoleon, Patriotic War against, 168 National Committee for a Free Germany, 169 nationalism: ethnonationalism, 11-12,34, 53, 56, 57, 191, 192, 198, 203; German recruitment of Slavic nationalists, 60; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 217; Soviet Union’s emergence as nationalist state, 11-12,198; Ukrainian, 60, 66, 71,114, 147,158; Wustrau men trained in, 67, 69 Nazis. See collaboration, resistance, and agency; Eastern Workers; prisoners of war; racial ideology of Nazis; specific Nazis by name Nechiporenko, Colonel, 138 Nekrasova, Zhenia, 85 Netto, Igor, 99 Netto, Lev, 99-100 New York Times, 220 Nikolai (Orthodox Archbishop of Germany), 195 Nikolai G„ 27-28, 122 “Nina” (KGB agent), 228-29 Nina Μ., 44 NKGB (People’s Commissariat for State Security), 145. See also secret police NKVD (People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs): counterinsurgency efforts, 147; exploitation of repatriates and, 111, 113; Feldman/Fesenko and, 78-79; labor battalions, sending repatriates to, 110; POWs, filtration and reintegration into army of, 132; repatriation process and, 106, 107-8, 121; special camps/settlements, 128-29,130. See also secret police nonreturners, 190-214, 237; child war orphans of disputed origin, 191,202-5; Cold War and, 190-91,202; defined, 2; detentions and kidnappings of, 195,196-97; expulsion of Soviet repatriation teams from Western zones of control, 196,201; forced repatria tion
of, 3, 7, 190, 194, 195,198, 213, 27Խ18; identity fluidity postwar and, 96-99; Jews as, 102, 192; late returners, 191, 206-13; letters to and from, 206-7; after liberation, 7, 96-101; mixed marriages and, 99-101; non-Russian ethnicity, Soviet recognition of, 198-99; persuasion and provocation, Soviet use of, 12,197-202; presumed dead,
288 INDEX nonreturners (continued) 241ո2; reprisals, fear of, 206, 207, 210; Soviet repatriation missions in Germany, 191-97,199, 209-13; violently resisting repatriation, 109-10, 194, 199-200; Western attitudes toward, 190,192, 194-96, 198, 205; Western resettlement policy and, 202. See also Return to the Motherland campaign Novyi Mir, 101, 188 NTS (National Alliance of Russian Solidarists), 223 Nuremberg Trials, 17, 209 occupation police, 150, 163 October Revolution (1917), 10,38,94, 166, 173, 225 “Of Life and Death” (pamphlet), 235 Oleksandr I., 19,43, 44,122, 136-37 Olga D„ 47 Olga G„ 121 Operation Barbarossa, 16 Operation Bingo, 195 Operation Swan-Song, 201, 203 Oreshkin, Colonel, 204 Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, 71,147 Orientalist prejudices of Nazis, 52,60 orphan children, 191, 202-5 Orthodox Church, 35, 38, 131, 195, 225-26 Osipovich, Evgenia, 93,182, 186 Osoaviakhim, 74,166 OST badge, 15, 23-24,84-85, 85 Ostarbeiter. See Eastern Workers Otto L. Schmidt firm, 22 Palagniuk, Anatolii (Vladimir Andreev), 179-80 Paraskeva, Polina, 210-11, 213 partisans. See collaboration, resistance, and agency; returnee-resisters Patorzhinskii, Fedor, 225-26 Patorzhinskii, Ivan, 225-26 Patton, George S„ 192-93 Pavel (Paul) O„ 26-27 Pavliuk, Alberto, 226, 230, 231 Pecherskii, Aleksandr, 188 Peron, Juan, 222 Petr A., 122 Petr P., 41 Petrenko, Anna, 148-49 Petrov, Ivan, 128-29 Petrushel, Roman, 77-78, 171 Petta, Rosario, 232 Piatokha (re-émigré), 231 Pietropaolo (Argentine consular official), 228-29 Piskarevskoe Memorial Cemetery, 235 Polian, Pavel, 3-4, 239 police in Soviet
Union: German occupation police, 150, 163; labor battalions and, 137; treatment of repatriates by, 117-18,120, 124-25. See also secret police Polina E., 19,30, 31,112 political verification. See filtration Popov, Anatolil, 84, 149, 182-83 Popov, Leonid, 149 Potykalova, Liubov, 89 POWs. See prisoners of war Pravda, 168, 223 Primak, Pavel, 174, 175 prisoners of war (POWs), 56-63, 236; ambivalence/suspicion regarding, 128, 134; army, reintegration into, 128-29,130,131, 132; Brodskii on, 169,172,189; BSV (Brotherly Union of Prisoners of War), 77-78; collaboration, resistance, and agency of, 54, 55,56-63, 69, 73, 78, 79, 80; as death camp guards, 5, 55, 60, 83, 90; after death of Stalin, 188; as displaced persons, 2; as DP camp leaders, 88; as Eastern Workers, 17, 59-60; escapes by, 58-59; executions of, 56-57, 91; filtration of, 128, 132; forced repatriation of, 195; in German auxiliary units, 7,52, 54, 56, 60, 78, 86, 109,127,128, 145; German treatment of, 15, 57-58; Hiwis (in noncombat military roles), 60; interpreters and translators for, 41; Italians as, 42,43; in labor battalions, 132, 134, 136; mortality rates of, 24, 57-58, 59; release program, 59; restrictions on mobility of, 52; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 219, 221; as returnee-resisters, 182-83,184; as returnees, 106,128; Soviet partisans, members of German formations redefecting to, 264n2, 264n7; in special camps/ settlements, 128-31; Western POWs and Soviet repatriation, 87; Wustrau propagan dist training camp, recruitment to, 61-63 Prokofev, Volodia (Vladimir), 204-5 propaganda: antisemitic propaganda
and Wustrau men, 63, 64, 67,69; on Eastern Workers, 17,18, 50,51; Gulags, anti-Soviet propaganda about, 208; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 217, 219-20, 223; Soviet women trained in, 62; Wustrau men recruited to spread, 61
INDEX prostitution, 48-49 Protsenko, Vladimir, 100-101 Putin, Vladimir, 239 racial ideology of Nazis: concerns about racial mixing, 23, 49-50, 251n98; Orientalist prejudices, 52,60; POW release program and, 59; Slavic inferiority, German notions of, 15, 16,22, 31-32, 33, 34, 53, 83; Westarbeiter (Western Europeans), 33, 42 racism against Black Allied soldiers, 91 Raisa B., 121 rape and sexual violence, 48,49, 52,112-13, 209 Ravensbrück, 39, 121 Razumov, A. A., 106,107,113 Red Army: E. Brodskii in, 169; collaboration/ resistance and, 68, 69, 70, 71,72,74, 76, 78; Eastern Workers joining, post-WWII, 131-32; film treatments of, 118,119; former German auxiliary troops joining, 145; Krasnala Zvezda, 67,170; liberation and DPs, 86,87, 89, 91, 92-93, 95, 98,102; management of repatriation by, 9, 102, 105, 106; partisan operations dovetailing with, 175; rape and sexual predation by, 1, 8,49, 92-93; reintegration of POWs into, 128-29, 130, 131, 132; retribution following arrival of, 144-45; violence against/exploitation of DPs, 111-14; inWWII, 15, 16, 19, 37,71,72. See also prisoners of war re-émigrés, concept of, 215. See also Return to the Motherland campaign refugees, UN resolution on (1946), 195, 198 registration records, 146,148-49 religion: Eastern Workers and, 34-35, 38; Orthodox Church, 35, 38, 131,195, 225-26 repatriation, 2-4, 7-11, 236-37; agreements to repatriate all Soviet subjects, 3,81, 86-87, 256n22; arrests of repatriates, 110,143, 147-48, 158,159, 229, 230, 265nl8; circumvention of official means of, 108; desire of most displaced persons to return, 7, 96,103,
237-38; end of, 219; family, desire to reunite with, 101-2; forced, 3,7, 190, 194, 195, 198, 206, 213,27Խ18; Geneva Convention of 1929 on, 86; of Jews, 102; late returners, 191, 206-13; mixed marriages and, 99-100; numbers of people seeking, 106-7, 206; post-filtration outcomes, 3-4, 5, 110; process of, 105; Western attitudes toward, 12, 81, 86-87,97,98-100, 103, 190, 192,194-96,198; Western POWs and, 87. 289 See also Return to the Motherland campaign; social tensions in repatriation Repatriation Administration, 8-9, 104-5; abuses of repatriates, investigating, 104, 116; on Brodskii, 171; closing of, 13; closure of (1953), 219; collaboration, report on post-liberation vigilante trials for, 90; establishment of, 106; labor battalion members, petitions from, 133; nonreturn ers, on detentions of, 195, 196; petitions to, 101; repurposed as recruiting office for Soviet diaspora, 217, 218; source documents from, 242nll; Soviet repatriation missions in Germany, 191-97,199,209-13; Soviet-occupied Europe, labor demand in, 138-41; suspicion of repatriates from, 118; on war orphans, 203 Repshis, Captain, 199 resistance. See collaboration, resistance, and agency; returnee-resisters Return to the Motherland campaign (1950s), 13, 215-34, 237; affinity between diaspora and motherland, morphing into promotion of, 233-34; arrests/interrogations of re-émigrés, 229, 230; children returning under, 224-25; émigré community and, 216, 217-18, 220-21, 223-24; exiting the USSR from, 228-34; KGB and, 215,220-21, 224, 225, 228-34; lives/living conditions of re-émigrés, 222-28,231, 232, 233; reasons
for appeal to Soviet diaspora, 215-16; reasons of re-émigrés for returning, 223-26; recruitment techniques and goals, 216-22 returnee-resisters, 166-89; after death of Stalin, 188; exaggerated or falsified claims of, 168, 172-82; P. Lesnichenko as, 166,167, 176,179, 182-87,189; POWs as, 182-83,184; RROK, postwar suspicions about, 166,182-88; writing history of, 166-67,168-72,188-89 returnees. See filtration; repatriation ROA (Russian Liberation Army/Vlasovites), 22, 55, 56, 57,60, 67, 79, 111, 126,130,131, 139,157,169 Romanov, Mikhail, 150 Romm, Mikhail, 118,184 Roosevelt, Franklin, 3, 86 Rosenberg, Alfred, 56,61 RROK (Russian Workers Liberation Committee): Dzadzamia’s RROK card, 185-, Kiselev and, 94-95, 176, 179, 181; in Leipzig, 75, 94-96; Lesnichenko and, 94-96,166, 176,179,182-87,189; postwar suspicions about, 166, 182-88
290 INDEX Rudolph Sack company, 74 Rumiantsev, Nikolai, 76-77 Russian All-Military Union, 98 Russian anti-Soviet nationalists, German recruitment of, 60 Russian Civil War, 11,13, 98, 168 Russian émigré community. See émigré community Russian Orthodox Church, 35, 38, 131, 195, 225-26 Ryb, Isak, 211 Saakov, Captain, 197 same-sex relationships, 26, 52,25ІПІ01 “Sashko” (MGB agent), 186-87 Sauckel, Fritz, 17, 19-20,24 Saulitis, Bronius, 207 Savchenko, Sergei, 145,159, 163 Savchuk, Petr, 231 secret police, postwar investigations by, 14, 143-65,236; Article 58 and, 151-52; case studies, 151-58,154, 155; Cold War and power of police, 144; Eastern Workers in Germany and, 17,43; émigré community, 152-53,159; identity fluidity, problem of, 97; informants, 149-50; investigative tech niques, 143-51; number of arrests, 265nl8; registration records, use of, 146,148-49; repatriates, treatment of, 1, 3, 9, 97,120, 124-25; resistance groups/returnee-resisters and, 74,75, 167-68,185-86, 187,189; source materials from, 5,13; spies and, 9,10, 14, 143-45, 149,150,151,158-65; survival based cooperation versus active collabora tion, distinguishing, 152, 157,267n62. See also KGB; MGB; MVD; NKGB; NKVD Selivanovskii, Nikolai, 195 Semin, Vitalii, 40-41 Senger, Valentin, 25,44,50 Severilova, Nadezhda (Nella Antilucci), xvii, 96-101, 103, 109,117 sex, 6; cohabitation and “marriage” between Soviet DPs, 92-94, 93, 177,178; Eastern Workers and, 33-34, 45-53,51; female sexual bartering, 34,46, 47,49, 91, 112; German police using sexual humiliation, 156; homosexuality and same-sex relationships, 26, 52,
251Ո101; miscegena tion, gender-based differentiated treatment of, 50-52; mixed marriages (between Soviets and non-Soviets) banned in Soviet Union, 99; nonreturners in mixed marriages, 99-101; OST badge as prevention of racial mixing, 23; post-liberation retaliation against Soviet women in relationships with non-Soviet men, 91-92, 119; post-repatriation romantic relation ships, 123-24; pregnancy, abortion, and motherhood, 47,48,49, 50,51; prostitution, 48-49; rape and sexual violence, 48,49, 52, 112-13, 209; Red Army, rape and sexual predation by, 1,8,49, 92-93; as retribution, 112; returnees, violence and sexual predation against, 104,105,107,112-13; Soviet repatriation missions in Germany and, 197,209-10; Soviet-occupied Europe, repatriate laborers in, 139; Stalinist/ Wustrau social conservatism, 66 Shakhovskii, Ioann, 35 Shapovalov, Lieutenant Colonel, 197 Shcherbak, Vera, 76 Shcherbakov, Aleksandr N. 170 Sherstiuk, Ilia, xvii, 66, 69-71,109,153 Shevchenko, Nikolai (“Zheleznov”), 168, 173-76,181-82,188 Shevchenko, Vladimir, 181 Shiian, Vasilii, 131 Shirokaia, Anna, 115-16 Shmushkevich, Rakhmil, 94 Shubovich, Antonina, 101 Siegelbaum, Lewis, 8, 26Խ88 Siemens factory, Berlin, 35 Sigodinov (informant), 150 Silich, Vasilii (“Chaikovskii”), 230-31 Sinitsyn, Mikhail, xvii, 45, 84,174-76 Sinkevich, Viktor, 177 Skidin, Captain, 184-85, 186 Skrynnik, Fedor, 193-94, 197,210 Slavic inferiority, German notions of, 15, 16, 22, 31-32, 33, 34, 53, 83 Slepov, L. A., 170 Slepukhin, Iurii, 223,224, 225 Slesarev, A., 209-10 Smaglov, Major, 157 SMERSH (Death to Spies), 111, 131,132, 160,
273n81 Smeshnov, Nikolai, 220 Sobibor, 146 social tensions in repatriation, 9-10,104-25; ambivalence about/suspicion of returnees, 104-5, 111, 114-20,119,124-25,159,194, 235; education, difficulties returning to, 116, 117; fears of repatriates about reception in Soviet Union, 95; film portrayals of repatriates/Red Army and, 118-20; foreignness, DPs accused of, 116-17;
INDEX government ambivalence about returnees, 104-5,118, 120,124-25,128; in home territories, 114-20; housing shortages and, 115-16; marginalization, professional and political, 120-25; process of return, 105-10; reintegration assistance, awareness/ availability of, 108,115; survivor guilt and, 119-20; violence, exploitation, and sexual predation against returnees, 104,105,111-14; wealth of returnees, beliefs about, 114-15 Sokolovskii, Vasilii, 201 Soviet Union: annexations 1939-45 by, xviii, 2, 7-8,12, 36, 87,97,103 (See also specific states'); autobiographical commemoration in, 94; ethnic homogenization of Republics, 13,216-17, 227; famines of 1932-33 and 1946-47,140; foundation of Israel and views on Jews in, 172; German invasion of, 16-17, 54; Great Break (1928-29), 166; Great Terror (1937-38), 10, 118, 130,143,151, 163-64,236; holidays in, 38; infiltration of, 8, 106, 128, 137,168; Jewish repatriation, indifference toward, 102; Jewish WWII victimhood merged into Soviet suffering by, 136; mixed marriages (between Soviets and non-Soviets) banned in, 99; mobilized workers compared to German forced labor, 31-32; nationalist state, emergence as, 11-12, 191; October Revolution (1917), 10, 38, 94, 166, 173, 225; returnees, government ambivalence about/suspicion of, 104-5,118, 120, 124-25, 128; Russian Civil War, 11, 13, 98, 168; WWII, framing narrative of, 168, 188; Yalta conference and global status of, 87. See also displaced Soviets in WWII and Cold War; Eastern Workers; nonreturners; prisoners of war; Red Army; repatriation; Return to the Motherland campaign special
settlements/camps, 9, 110,128-31, 135 spies and spying: collaboration/resistance/ agency and, 73,254n85; forced laborers in Soviet Union and, 128,133,136,139,268n94; nonreturners and, 209,210,213; Return to the Motherland campaign and, 218,229,233, 235, 236; returnee-resisters and, 168,172, 183, 184,185,186; secret police and, 9,10,14, 143-45,149,150,151,158-65; N. Severilova accused of, 97,100,101,109; Soviet repatriation officers, intelligence activities of, 191-92; suspicions about repatriates and, 10, 106,109, 111, 113,122 Stalin, Iosif: collaboration/resistance/agency and, 55, 64, 67-68, 79; death of, 122, 151, 291 153,161,164,172,188, 214, 215,219, 280; displaced persons and, 3,4, 11, 16; forced labor in Soviet Union and, 128,130, 132, 141; liberation and, 86, 256n22; postwar reconstruction efforts, 222; secret police and, 143,144, 147,151, 153, 158-59,161, 164; social tensions in repatriation and, 105, 106,118,122,124; Western Allies and, 158, 190, 193; in WWII Soviet historical narrative, 171 Stalingrad, Battle of (1943), 19, 40,72, 79,169 Stauffenberg, Claus von, 170 Storozhenko, Vladimir, 123,150 Streibel, Karl, 62 Streit, Christian, 5 Stubendienst, 82, 94-95 suicides, 7, 79, 104,110, 175-76, 210, 230 Surov-Kurov-Kin, Boris, 84, 90, 93, 180 Suslov, Mikhail, 121, 170 suspicion of DPs and repatriates. See ambivalence/suspicion Taisa T., 22 Tatars, 58,78, 109,110 Tetiana B., 47 Tetri Giorgi, 68,152 “That Name Is Our Great Stalin,” 173-74 theater troupe in DP camp, Leipzig, 193 They Have a Motherland (film, 1948), 204, 212 Timko, Lieutenant, 157 Timokhin, Vasilii, 58
Timoshenko, Ekaterina, 62, 156,157, 158 Tolstoy, Nikolai, 3 transit camps for returnees, 9,105-6, 107, 111-14 translators and interpreters, 39, 40,41, 42, 43, 47,60, 63, 74, 78, 97,98, 112,149, 171,194, 196,210 transnational relationships of Eastern Workers, 33, 34, 42-44 Trawniki training camp, 55,60,62,63,69, 145-46 Treblinka, 146 Truman, Harry, 158,195 Truscott, Lucian, 195 Tsibrenko, Lieutenant Colonel, 134-35 Tsyganenko, V, 182 Tvardovskii, Aleksandr, 101 Tvardovskii, Ivan, 101-2 Twelve Responses to Tragedy (Conner, 1986; sculpture, London), 3, 4 typhus, 58
292 INDEX Ugo (Italian boyfriend of Aleksandra Mikhaleva), 1, 92, 99, 101, 123 Ukraina, 71 Ukraine, 13; Argentina, re-émigrés from, 221-22; conflict between anti-Soviet nationalists and Soviet forces in, 114; Eastern Workers from, 30, 31, 114; ethnic homogenization, Soviet attempts at, 13; ethnic Ukrainians, 13, 217, 229; labor battalions in, 133,134; nationalism in, 60, 67,71,114,147,158; nonreturners from, 190; Poland, ethnic exchange with, 217; postwar collaboration arrests and investigations in, 147-48, 265nl8; spying, arrests for, 158, 159; volunteers for labor in Germany from, 17; Western recognition of Soviet control of, 87; Wustrau trainees, Ukrainians as, 61, 66, 67, 71 Union of Soviet Patriots, 208 United Nations: creation of, 87; resolution on refugees (1946), 195, 198 United States: American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 102; CIC (American Counter Intelligence Corps), 191, 193,195, 196; émigré community working with Anglo-American intelligence in Cold War, 216; Μ. Gritsai’s praise of Americans, and spying charges, 160-63; postwar concerns about spies from, 158-65 UNRRA (United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration), 85-88, 95, 192, 194, 198-200, 202, 209, 242nl9 UPVI (Administration for Prisoners of War and Internees), 128-29 Usenko, Efrosinia, xvii, 76, 95,183, 185 Vadim N. 22, 36 Valentina G„ 100 Valentina S„ 31 Valeria F„ 22, 24 Valia, kidnapping of, 196-97 verification, political. See filtration Vershinin, Sergei, 138-39,196-97, 201-2, 203, 210 Victims of Two Dictatorships (Polian), 3-4 Vikhorev, Aleksandr, 90 Viktor Sh„ 88 Vlasov, Andrei,
22, 55, 56,57,60,67, 79, 126 Vlasovites. See ROA Voice ofAmerica, 233 volunteers for labor in Germany, 17-19 Voprosy istorii, 188 Voznesenskii, Nikolai, 139 Vyshinskii, Andrei, 195, 203 Wachowiak, Alexander, 196 Wagener, Wendula and Otto, 30-31 war orphans, 191,202-5 Werner Werks, Berlin, 25 World War II: Holocaust, 6, 48,63, 135-36, 145, 192,227; Japan, defeat of, 132; Soviet narrative of, 168, 188. See also displaced Soviets in WWII and Cold War; Germany; specific battles Wrangel, Petr, 225 Wustrau men, 56-57,61-73; antisemitic propaganda and, 63, 64, 67,69; defections by, 72-73; dismantling of training camp, 73; educational background of, 56,62, 80; food rations and housing conditions, 66-67; Georgian ethnographic choir, 67-68,69, 71-72, 74,79-80,153; holding camps, testing at, 63; postwar prosecutions for collabora tion, 152-53,156, 164, 183; propaganda, recruitment to spread, 61; recruitment of, 61-63; resistance, claims of involvement in, 72,73,74,80, 153; training and lifestyle of, 63-70,64; work conducted by, 70-72 Yalta Conference (1945), 3, 86-87,98 youth of DPs, 37,90,116,117 Za vozvrashchenie na Rodinu, 219-20, 221, 223,233 Zahra, Tara, 12 Zemskov, Viktor, 3 Zhdanov, Andrei, 159 zhdanovshchina, 159 Zhidkovskaia-Patsukevich, Zinaida, 156-58 Zhukov, Georgii, 188 “Zhukov” (KGB agent), 221 Zinaida B., 30,114,123 Zoshchenko, Mikhail, 159 Zverev, I. Μ., 98 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München |
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| author | Bernstein, Seth 1983- |
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| era_facet | Geschichte 1941-1960 |
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| geographic | Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Sowjetunion |
| id | DE-604.BV048613793 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T21:12:37Z |
| indexdate | 2025-01-15T13:01:18Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9781501767395 1501767399 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-033989114 |
| oclc_num | 1368280741 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-11 DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR DE-12 DE-521 DE-29 DE-188 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-M352 |
| owner_facet | DE-11 DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR DE-12 DE-521 DE-29 DE-188 DE-355 DE-BY-UBR DE-M352 |
| physical | xvii, 292 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten, Porträt |
| psigel | BSB_NED_20230426 DHB_BSB_FID DHB_IFZ |
| publishDate | 2023 |
| publishDateSearch | 2023 |
| publishDateSort | 2023 |
| publisher | Cornell University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| series2 | Battlegrounds: Cornell studies in military history |
| spelling | Bernstein, Seth 1983- Verfasser (DE-588)1122444532 aut Return to the motherland displaced Soviets in World War II and the Cold War Seth Bernstein Displaced Soviets in WWII and the Cold War Ithaca ; London Cornell University Press 2023 xvii, 292 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten, Porträt txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Battlegrounds: Cornell studies in military history Geschichte 1941-1960 gnd rswk-swf Rückkehr (DE-588)4125506-9 gnd rswk-swf Displaced Person (DE-588)4140484-1 gnd rswk-swf Stalinismus (DE-588)4056883-0 gnd rswk-swf Zwangsarbeiter (DE-588)4121950-8 gnd rswk-swf Drittes Reich (DE-588)4013021-6 gnd rswk-swf Rückwanderung (DE-588)4050863-8 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd rswk-swf Drittes Reich (DE-588)4013021-6 s Zwangsarbeiter (DE-588)4121950-8 s Displaced Person (DE-588)4140484-1 s Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 g Rückkehr (DE-588)4125506-9 s Rückwanderung (DE-588)4050863-8 s Stalinismus (DE-588)4056883-0 s Geschichte 1941-1960 z DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, PDF 978-1-5017-6741-8 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, EPUB 978-1-5017-6740-1 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033989114&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033989114&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Bernstein, Seth 1983- Return to the motherland displaced Soviets in World War II and the Cold War Rückkehr (DE-588)4125506-9 gnd Displaced Person (DE-588)4140484-1 gnd Stalinismus (DE-588)4056883-0 gnd Zwangsarbeiter (DE-588)4121950-8 gnd Drittes Reich (DE-588)4013021-6 gnd Rückwanderung (DE-588)4050863-8 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4125506-9 (DE-588)4140484-1 (DE-588)4056883-0 (DE-588)4121950-8 (DE-588)4013021-6 (DE-588)4050863-8 (DE-588)4077548-3 |
| title | Return to the motherland displaced Soviets in World War II and the Cold War |
| title_alt | Displaced Soviets in WWII and the Cold War |
| title_auth | Return to the motherland displaced Soviets in World War II and the Cold War |
| title_exact_search | Return to the motherland displaced Soviets in World War II and the Cold War |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Return to the motherland displaced Soviets in World War II and the Cold War |
| title_full | Return to the motherland displaced Soviets in World War II and the Cold War Seth Bernstein |
| title_fullStr | Return to the motherland displaced Soviets in World War II and the Cold War Seth Bernstein |
| title_full_unstemmed | Return to the motherland displaced Soviets in World War II and the Cold War Seth Bernstein |
| title_short | Return to the motherland |
| title_sort | return to the motherland displaced soviets in world war ii and the cold war |
| title_sub | displaced Soviets in World War II and the Cold War |
| topic | Rückkehr (DE-588)4125506-9 gnd Displaced Person (DE-588)4140484-1 gnd Stalinismus (DE-588)4056883-0 gnd Zwangsarbeiter (DE-588)4121950-8 gnd Drittes Reich (DE-588)4013021-6 gnd Rückwanderung (DE-588)4050863-8 gnd |
| topic_facet | Rückkehr Displaced Person Stalinismus Zwangsarbeiter Drittes Reich Rückwanderung Sowjetunion |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033989114&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033989114&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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