Ancient arms race: Antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran: antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran : joint fieldwork project by the Iranian Center for Archaeological Research, theResearch Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism and the University of Edinburgh (2014-2016) 2
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Schriftenreihe: | Archaeological monographs series / British Institute of Persian Studies
7 British Institute of Persian Studies. Archaeological monograph series 7 |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | xviii Seiten, Seite 461-880 Illustrationen, Diagramme, Karten, Pläne (teilweise farbig) |
| ISBN: | 9781789254624 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | Contents Volume 1 Acknowledgements xvi Section A: Preliminaries Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1. An ancient arms race - shaping world history to the present day? 1.2. Scope and context of the project 3 3 5 Section B: Terrestrial excavations and survey Chapter 2. Sasanian landscapes of the Gorgan Plain: new insights from remote sensing and field survey Kristen Hopper, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi, Andrea Ricci, Lynn Welton, Dan Lawrence and Graham Philip 2.1. Introduction 2.2. The Gorgan Wall Survey 2014-2016 2.3. Sasanian site types: geometric fortified sites 2.3.1. Geometric fortified enclosures over 6 ha 2.3.2. Geometric fortified enclosures of 2-6 ha 2.3.3. Geometric enclosures of 1 ha or less 2.4. Sasanian rural settlements: intensive survey at GWS-79 2.5. Investigations of features in the vicinity of Gorgan Wall Forts 2.6. Hydrological features associated with the Gorgan Wall and geometric fortified sites 2.7. Conclusion 11 11 11 11 14 16 18 18 20 21 22 Chapter 3. The Gorgan Wall 3.1. Introduction 3.2. The Gorgan Wall Bridge and a Sasanian reservoir between Forts 2A and 2 3.2.1. Sasanian hydraulic installations in the Sari Su River Valley 3.2.2. A new section of the Gorgan Wall, discovered by geophysical and pedestrian survey, leading towards a bridge 3.2.3. The Gorgan Wall Bridge (Trench b) 3.2.4. Bridge design 3.2.5. Protecting the bridge from erosion 3.2.6. Alluvial deposits and circumstantial evidence for a Sasanian barrage and reservoir in the Sari Su River 3.2.7. Chronology 3.2.8. The purpose of the reservoir 3.2.9. Brick robbing and sedimentation in post-Sasanian times
3.3. Drone survey of the Gorgan Wall 55 63 66 68 70 Chapter 4. Forts on the Gorgan Wall 4.1. Fort 2 4.1.1. Introduction 4.1.2. Remote, pedestrian, magnetometer and topographical survey of Fort 2 75 75 75 76 27 27 29 29 30 34 49 52
Contents vi 4.1.2.1. The fort defences 4.1.2.2. Interior occupation 4.1.2.3. Results 4.1.3. Excavation of an interval tower of Fort 2 (Trench c) 4.1.4. The barracks in Fort 2 (Trench d) 4.1.4.1. Introduction 4.1.4.2. Construction and layout of the barracks, phase 1 (Trench d) 4.1.4.2.1. The original barracks 4.1.4.2.2. Attempted quantification of mud-bricks needed for barracks construction 4.1.4.2.3. Barracks extension via annexes 4.1.4.3. Chronology of barracks construction and occupation in Trench d 4.1.4.4. The history of occupation of the barrack rooms 4.1.4.4.1. The original barracks: rows 2 and 3 4.1.4.4.1.1. The western row of rooms (2) in the original barracks 4.1.4.4.1.2. The eastern row of rooms (3) in the original barracks 4.1.4.4.1.3. Characteristics of the original barracks (rows 2 and 3) 4.1.4.4.2. The western annexe: rows 0 and 1 4.1.4.4.2.1. The eastern row of rooms (1) in the western annexe 4.1.4.4.2.2. The western row of rooms (0) in the western annexe 4.1.4.4.3. The eastern annexe: rows 4 and 5 4.1.4.4.3.1. The western row of rooms (4) in the eastern annexe 4.1.4.4.3.2. The eastern row of rooms (5) in the eastern annexe 4.1.4.4.4. The area outdoors to the west of the barracks 4.1.4.4.5. The area outdoors to the east of the barracks 4.1.4.5. Life in Sasanian barracks on the Gorgan Wall 4.1.4.5.1. Heating and cooking in Sasanian barracks 4.1.4.5.2. Food storage 4.1.4.5.2.1. Storage pits 4.1.4.5.2.2. Storage vessels and possible reforms in provisioning the army 4.1.4.5.3. Finds distribution over space and time 4.1.4.6. The chronology of Fort 2’s occupation
(Trench d) 4.1.4.6.1. The start of occupation 4.1.4.6.2. The end of occupation 4.1.4.6.3. Occupation density over time 4.2. Barracks in Fort 15 4.3. Barracks in Fort 25 4.4. Barracks in Fort 26 4.5. Geophysical survey at a compound on the north side of the Great Wall: GWS-65 near Fort 28 4.6. Remote survey of forts along the Great Wall 4.6.1. Introduction 4.6.2. Satellite survey 4.6.3. Drone survey 76 80 82 82 84 84 85 85 88 89 99 106 106 106 111 116 116 116 129 136 136 141 152 153 155 155 161 161 163 165 167 167 170 172 173 173 175 178 178 178 179 179 Chapter 5. The Tammisheh Wall and associated forts 5.1. Introduction 5.2. Underwater survey of a submerged fort 5.3. Remote survey of the Tammisheh Wall 203 203 204 209 Chapter 6. Post-Sasanian barriers 6.1. The Jar-e Kulbad Earthwork: a basic clone of the Tammisheh Wall, decisive in modern warfare 6.2. The Forud Wall near Kalat in Khorasan Meysam Labbaf-Khaniki, Eberhard W Sauer, Kristen Hopper, Davit Naskidashvili, Bardia Shabani and David Gagoshidze 6.2.1. The Forud Wall 6.2.2. The Arg-e Forud 211 211 214 214 216
Contents vii 6.2.3. Pedestrian and aerial survey of the Forud Wall 6.2.4. A sondage within the Arg-e Forud (Trench j) 6.2.5. A sondage within a watchtower on the Forud Wall (Trench k) 6.2.6. The date, historical context and function of the barriersaround Kalat 6.3. The valley of bandar Meysam Labbaf-Khaniki and Kristen Hopper 6.4. Walls, towers and a fort or caravanserai at Mozdouran Meysam Labbaf-Khaniki, Kristen Hopper and Eberhard W. Sauer 219 225 231 234 237 242 Chapter 7. Hinterland forts 7.1. Forts on the Gorgan Plain 7.2. Buraq Tappeh 7.2.1. Buraq Tappeh: siting and research potential of a strategic guard-post 7.2.2. Geophysical survey 7.2.3. Aerial and pedestrian survey 7.2.4. A sondage at Buraq Tappeh (Trench g) 7.2.4.1. Introduction 7.2.4.2. Fort construction and the architecture of interior buildings 7.2.4.3. Early occupation withinthe fort 7.2.4.4. Levelling and living on higher ground 7.2.4.5. Oven construction 7.2.4.6. A new fireplace as a focus for domestic activities 7.2.4.7. Temporary site abandonment and decay? 7.2.4.8. Reoccupation with a reduced garrison living nearby? 7.2.4.9. Latest occupation and renewed oven construction 7.2.4.10. Disturbed horizons above the abandoned fort 7.2.4.11. Garrison size 7.2.4.12. History and chronology of Buraq Tappeh’s occupation 7.3. Habib Ishan: a hinterland fortification with a corner citadel? 7.4. Forts on the Old Gorgan River: parts of a Sasanian defensive network? The purpose of the Sasanian forts south of the Great Wall 249 249 253 253 255 258 260 260 261 268 269 269 270 271 271 272 272 273 277 278 Chapter 8.
Campaign bases 8.1. Introduction 8.2. QaTeh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus: the largest Sasanian fortress on the Gorgan Plain 8.2.1. Introduction and comparative analysis of Qal eh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus and other campaign bases 8.2.2. The towered and gated walls 8.2.3. The moat 8.2.4. Surface scatter of finds 8.2.5. Geophysical survey 8.2.6. A section through the defences (Trench a) 8.2.7. The stratigraphy of the ditch system 8.2.8. The earliest ditches (1-4) 8.2.9. The fifth ditch 8.2.10. The sixth ditch 8.2.11. The seventh ditch 8.2.12. The Sasanian-era topsoil and land surface 8.2.13. The wall 8.2.14. Dimensions of the defences in phase 1 8.2.15. The modern field boundary ditches 8.2.16. The date of QaTeh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus 8.3. Gabri QaTeh: from Sasanian campaign base to Ilkhanid town 8.3.1. Introduction and topographical survey 8.3.2. Geophysical survey 8.3.3. A busy bazaar street in a medieval town (Trench e) 8.3.4. The causewayed access to Sasanian and medievalGabri QaTeh (Trench 1) 287 287 287 280 287 292 294 295 296 297 298 299 304 308 311 311 312 315 320 320 325 325 333 334 338
viii Contents 8.3.5. Gabri Qal‘eh’s origins and significance 8.4. Qal‘eh Kharabeh 8.4.1. Geophysical survey 8.4.2. Drone survey 8.4.3. Recalibration of radiocarbon samples 8.5. Campaign bases on the Gorgan Plain 343 345 345 345 345 346 Chapter 9. Qal‘eh Iraj: a campaign base/command centre of the army’s northern division? Mahdi Mousavinia, Mohammadreza Nemati and Eberhard W. Sauer 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Excavations within the south-eastern gate 9.2.1. The first field seasons 9.2.2. Dating the fortress: excavations within the south-eastern gateway in 2016 9.2.2.1. Excavations in the gateway (Trench h) 9.2.2.2. A side chamber of the south-eastern gate (Trench i) 9.3. Geophysical survey 9.3.1. Introduction 9.3.2. Site A 9.3.3. Sites B-D 9.4. New insights into the fortress’s history of occupation: excavations on the southern fortress walls in 2017 9.4.1. Introduction 9.4.2. Trench F128 9.4.3. Trench F129 9.4.4. Trench G129 9.4.5. Discussion 9.5. The chronology of Qal‘eh Iraj 9.6. Qal‘eh Iraj: nerve centre of northern Persia’s defensive network? 377 377 377 378 379 379 381 382 Chapter 10. A Sasanian city: fire temple, brick pillar avenues and residential quarters: geophysical and aerial surveys at Dasht Qal eh 10.1. Introduction 10.2. Remote surveys 10.3. A fire temple 10.4. Roads and residential quarters 10.5. The region’s capital? 387 387 388 389 392 398 357 357 359 359 361 361 367 373 373 373 374 Section C: Marine survey Chapter 11. Discovering unknown sections of the Great Wall of Gorgan near the shores of the Caspian Sea C. Richard Bates, Martin R. Bates and Hamid Omrani
Rekavandi 11.1. Introduction 11.2. Aims of the survey 11.3. Methodology 11.4. Results 11.4.1. Survey results near the westernmost known location of the Gorgan Wall and the associated ditch (section 1) 11.4.2. Geophysical survey of remains of the Gorgan Wall and its associated ditch exposed in an irrigation trench 11.4.3. Survey results (section 2) ■ 11.4.4. Survey results (section 3) 11.5. A bathymetric and sub-bottom investigation in the Caspian Sea across the alignment of the Gorgan Wall 11.5.1. Introduction 11.5.2. Sidescan sonar 11.5.3. Sub-bottom profiling 11.5.4. Results 11.6. Discussion 405 405 405 405 406 406 409 410 410 411 411 412 412 413 413
Contents Chapter 12. A bathymetric and sub-bottom investigation of the Tammisheh Wall’s northernmost section submerged in the Caspian Sea 415 C. Richard Bates, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi and Hossein Tofighian 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Aims of the survey 12.3. Methodology 12.4. Results 12.4.1. The site 12.4.2. Seafloor bathymetry 12.4.3. Sidescan sonar 12.4.4. Sub-bottom profiling 12.5. Discussion ix 415 416 416 417 417 417 417 417 423 Chapter 13. Palaeoenvironments at the Caspian terminals of the Gorgan and the Tammisheh Walls Suzanne A. G. Leroy, François Demory, Françoise Chalié, Martin Bates, C. Richard Bates, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi, Eberhard IT Sauer and Paula J. Reimer 13.1. Setting and aims 13.2. Previous palynological studies 13.3. Material and methods 13.3.1. Fieldwork and core description 13.3.2. Magnetic susceptibility 13.3.3. Palynology 13.3.4. Radiocarbon dating 13.4. Results 13.4.1. Western end of the Gorgan Wall 13.4.2. The vicinity of the northern end of the Tammisheh Wall 13.5. Interpretation 13.5.1. Western terminal of the Gorgan Wall 13.5.2. The vicinity of the northern terminal of the Tammisheh Wall 13.6. Caspian Sea level changes from pre-Sasanian to early modern times 13.6.1. The era preceding wall construction 13.6.2. Sasanian-period walls and the lowstand of the Caspian Sea 13.6.3. From the late Sasanian era to the Early Middle Ages 13.6.4. Medieval and Little Ice Age flooding 13.7. The coastal environment in Sasanian times 13.7.1. The Gorgan Wall west of the S2-V3 sequence 13.7.2. Vegetation at the time of the walls and later 13.8. Conclusion 425 425 425
425 426 427 427 428 428 432 436 436 437 438 438 438 438 439 439 439 439 440 Title, Contents and Dedication in Persian 458 425
X Contents Volume 2 Acknowledgements xvi Section D: Specialist contributions: written documents, finds, building materials, biological and environmental evidence and scientific dating Chapter 14. Ostraca and bullae from QaTeh Iraj Carlo G. Cereti, Mohammadreza Nemati and Mahdi Mousavinia 14.1. Introduction 14.2. Catalogue 14.3. Conclusion Chapter 15. Comparative studies of the Sasanian ceramics from forts on the Great Wall of Gorgan and fortifications in its hinterland Maria Daghmehchi, Seth M.N. Priestman, Gabriele Puschnigg, Jebrael Nokandeh, Emanuele E. Intagliata, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi and Eberhard W. Sauer 15.1. Preliminaries 15.1.1. Abstract 15.1.2. Introduction 15.2. Material and methods 15.3. Classification 15.3.1. Physical characterisation of the Sasanian period ceramics 15.3.2. Firing groups of the ceramics 15.3.3. Petrographic characterisation of the ceramics 15.3.3.1. Coarse wares (western part of the Gorgan Wall and Buraq Tappeh) 15.3.3.2. Coarse wares (eastern part of the Gorgan Wall, Fort 2) 15.3.4. Typological characterisation of the ceramics 15.3.4.1. Medium closed form 15.3.4.1.1. Neckless jars 15.3.4.1.2. Coarse fabric neckless jars 15.3.4.1.3. Trefoil-mouthed jugs 15.3.4.2. Large closed forms 15.3.4.2.1. One-handled jars with narrow tall straight necks 15.3.4.2.2. Storage jars 15.3.4.2.3. Cooking pots 15.3.4.3. Small open forms 15.3.4.3.1. Bowls 15.3.5. Alternative quantitative method 15.4. Sites explored 15.4.1. Sari Su Bridge (Trench b) Emanuele E. Intagliata 15.4.2. Fort 2 (Trenches c and d; eastern part of the Great Wall of Gorgan) 15.4.2.1.
Materials and methods 15.4.2.2. Ceramic assemblages from the barrack rooms (Trench d): a clue to their function over space and time 15.4.2.3. Changes in the ceramic assemblage from the barrack rooms (Trench d) over time 15.4.2.4. Results and discussion 15.4.3. Buraq Tappeh (Trench g) 15.4.4. Qa‘leh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus (Trench a) Emanuele E. Intagliata 15.4.5. Gabri QaTeh(Trenches e and f) 15.4.6. QaTeh Iraj 15.5. Comparative studies 15.5.1. Contemporary ceramics from forts on the Gorgan Wall and the fortifications in its hinterland 15.5.2. Contemporary ceramics fromneighbouring regions 461 461 462 472 475 475 475 475 476 478 478 479 480 481 487 497 497 497 499 500 501 501 501 503 505 505 506 507 507 508 508 510 515 518 534 539 540 542 542 542 548
Contents 15.6. Conclusion 15.7. Chemical and vibrational spectroscopic analyses of similar types of vessels from forts on the Great Wall of Gorgan and fortifications in its hinterland Maria Daghmehchi, Behrouz Karimi Shahraki, Hadi Omrani, Masumeh Madanipour, Arianit A. Reka, Jebrael Nokandeh, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi, Mohammadamin Emami and Eberhard W. Sauer 15.7.1. Introduction 15.7.1.1. Outline 15.7.1.2. Background 15.7.2. Materials and methods 15.7.3. Petrographic characterisation 15.7.4. Chemical compositionsof mineral grains and clayey paste 15.7.4.1. Chemical analysis 15.7.4.2. FTIR analysis 15.7.4.3. TGA-DTA and XRD analyses 15.7.5. Conclusion 15.8. Appendix: pottery from the 2017 season at Qal’eh Iraj Mohammadreza Nemati and Mahdi Mousavinia xi 549 551 551 551 551 552 553 554 559 559 563 570 570 Chapter 16. Glass Fiona Anne Mowat and Tim Penn 16.1. Introduction 16.2. Assemblage overview 16.3. Fabric classes 16.3.1. Blue-green 16.3.2. Blue 16.3.3. Green 16.3.4. Yellow, amber and brown 16.3.5. Opaque fabrics 16.3.6. Colourless fabrics 16.3.7. Indeterminate fabrics 16.4. Securely dated vessels 16.5. Findspots anddistribution 577 Chapter 17. Vessel glass: an archaeometric approach Mohammadamin Emami and Farahnaz Bayat Nejad 17.1. Introduction 17.2. Materials and methods 17.2.1. Analytical methods 17.2.1.1. Wavelength X-ray fluorescence (WXRF) 17.2.1.2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 17.2.1.3. Simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) 17.2.2. The sample 17.3. Results and discussion 17.3.1. WXRF analysis of bulk chemical composition 17.3.2. Microstructural analysis through
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 17.3.3. Simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) 17.4. Conclusion 591 Chapter 18. Small objects and other finds Eberhard W. Sauer, St John Simpson, Mahdi Jahed, Mohaddeseh Mansouri Razi, Marzieh Moslehi, Mohammadreza Nemati, Jebrael Nokandeh, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi, Tim Penn and Alireza Salari 18.1. Introduction 18.2. Weapons 18.3. Tools 18.3.1. Knives and other personal implements 18.3.2. Whetstones 577 577 577 577 582 583 583 584 584 585 586 587 591 591 591 591 592 592 592 592 592 593 596 598 601 601 601 605 605 607
xii Contents 18.3.3. Grinding stones 18.3.4. Metal vessels 18.3.5. Textile production 18.4. Beads Tim Penn 18.4.1. Introduction, materials, style and chronology 18.4.2. Spatial distribution, chronology and significance 18.5. Other items of personal adornment, dress andfurniture fittings 18.6. Building materials 18.7. Coins 18.8. Miscellaneous objects, slag and metal debris 18.9. Prehistoric stone tools Chapter 19. Lime mortars from the Gorgan Wall Bridge over the Sari Su River Martina Astolfi and Riley Snyder 19.1. Introduction 19.2. Materials and methods 19.2.1. The samples 19.2.2. Petrographic analyses of polished sections 19.2.3. XRF analysis 19.3. Discussion 19.4. Conclusion Chapter 20. Archaeozoology of Sasanian and Islamic sites from the Gorgan Wall to the Tehran Plain Marjan Mashkour, Roya Khazaeli, Solmaz Amiri, Homa Fathi, Sanaz Beizaee Doost, Azadeh Mohaseb, Karyne Debue, Valentin Radu, Hossein Davoudi, Antoine Ruchonnet, Haeedeh Laleh, Jebrael Nokandeh, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi, Mohammadreza Nemati and Eberhard W. Sauer 20.1. Introduction 20.2. Material and methods 20.2.1. Quantificationand taphonomy 20.2.2. Biometry 20.2.3. Demographic analysis 20.3. Consumption practices and animal use at Sasanian and later sites from the Gorgan to the Tehran Plain 20.3.1. Fort 2 20.3.2. The Gorgan Wall Bridge over the Sari Su River 20.3.3. Gabri QaPeh 20.3.4. Qal‘eh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus 20.3.5. Buraq Tappeh 20.3.6. QaTeh Iraj 20.4. Species represented 20.4.1. The morphology of sheep,goat and cattle populations 20.4.1.1. Introduction 20.4.1.2. Sheep 20.4.1.3. Goats 20.4.1.4. Cattle
20.4.2. Suids and their status at Fort 2 20.4.3. Equid remains 20.4.3.1. Teeth 20.4.3.2. Metacarpals andradius 20.4.3.3. Horse remains: potential evidence for cavalry at Fort 2? 20.4.4. Bird remains 20.4.5. Fish remains Valentin Radu, Marjan Mashkour and Eberhard W Sauer 20.5. The age at death of sheep and goats 20.6. Craft activities 608 608 609 615 615 617 619 624 625 628 634 641 641 641 641 643 644 644 645 647 647 647 647 648 650 650 650 658 658 659 661 661 661 661 661 664 665 665 665 668 668 669 670 671 672 675 676
Contents 20.7. Conclusion 20.8. Appendices 20.8.1. Appendix 1: Measurements 20.8.1.1. Appendix 1.1: Measurements for Ovis (sheep) 20.8.1.2. Appendix 1.2: Measurements for Capra (goat) 20.8.1.3. Appendix 1.3: Measurements for Caprini (sheep/goat) 20.8.1.4. Appendix 1.4: Measurements for Bos (cattle) 20.8.1.5. Appendix 1.5: Measurements for Sus scrofa (pig/boar) 20.8.1.6. Appendix 1.6: Measurements for Equidae (equids) 20.8.2. Appendix 2: Comparative sites 20.8.3. Appendix 3: Statistical test for suid teeth 20.8.4. Appendix 4: Caprini (sheep/goat) tooth age attribution Chapter 21. Palaeoenvironment Lyudmila Shumilovskikh, Felix Bittmann, Brigitte Talon, Daniela Paetzold and Catriona Pickard 21.1. Woodland use: the evidence from anthracological analysis Lyudmila Shumilovskikh and Brigitte Talon 21.1.1. Introduction 21.1.2. Materials and methods 21.1.3. Results 21.1.3.1. Introduction 21.1.3.2. Fort 2 (Trench d) 21.1.3.3. Buraq Tappeh (Trench g) 21.1.3.4. QaTeh Iraj (Trench i) 21.1.3.5. Forud Wall (Trench k) 21.1.4. Discussion 21.1.5. Conclusion 21.2. Archaeobotanical studies on the Gorgan Plain Lyudmila Shumilovskikh, Felix Bittmann and Daniela Paetzold 21.2.1. Introduction 21.2.2. Materials and methods 21.2.3. Results and discussion 21.2.3.1. Qal’eh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus (Trench a) 21.2.3.2. Gorgan Wall Bridge over the Sari Su River (Trench b) 21.2.3.3. Fort 2 (Trench d) 21.2.3.4. Gabri Qal’eh (Trench e) 21.2.3.5. Gabri QaTeh (Trench I) 21.2.3.6. Buraq Tappeh (Trench g) 21.2.3.7. QaTeh Iraj (Trench i) 21.2.3.8. Forud Wall (Trench k) 21.3. Vegetation history of the Gorgan Plain:
the evidence from palynological analysis at Lake Kongor Lyudmila Shumilovskikh 21.3.1. Introduction 21.3.2. Geographical setting 21.3.3. Palaeoecological records from Kongor 21.3.4. Human impact, climate andlandscape change 21.3.4.1. Climate 21.3.4.2. Forest cover 21.3.4.3. Agriculture and arboriculture 21.3.4.4. Pasture 21.3.4.5. Fire 21.4. Molluscs Catriona Pickard and Lyudmila Shumilovskikh Chapter 22. Archaeomagnetic studies of features excavated along the Gorgan Wall Cathy M. Batt, David P. Greenwood and Tehreem Kainaat 22.1. Abstract 22.2. Introduction xiii 676 678 678 678 681 684 684 688 690 691 694 694 699 699 699 699 699 699 700 700 700 703 703 705 705 705 705 713 713 713 716 718 718 718 718 719 719 719 720 720 721 721 722 723 723 724 725 727 727 727
xiv Contents 22.3. Background 22.4. Archaeomagnetic sampling in the field 22.4.1. Qal‘eh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus 22.4.2. Sari Su Valley: alluvial deposits 22.4.3. Sari Su Valley: stream channels 22.4.4. Fort 2 : oven d.010 22.4.5. Fort 2: oven d.114 22.4.6. Fort 2: oven d.169 22.5. Archaeomagnetic measurements 22.5.1. Sample preparation 22.5.2. Measurement procedures 22.6. Results 22.6.1. Sediments 22.6.2. Fired materials 22.7. Interpretation of the archaeomagnetic results and comparison with the global geomagnetic field model 22.8. Previous archaeomagnetic studies in the region 22.9. Summary and conclusion 22.10. Further work 728 729 729 729 730 730 730 731 731 731 732 732 732 733 733 735 736 737 Chapter 23. Luminescence dating and micromorphological assessment Lisa Snape and Ian Bailiff 23.1. Introduction 23.1.1. Samples 23.1.2. OSL background 23.2. Methodology 23.2.1. Field sampling 23.2.2. OSL measurements 23.2.3. Micromorphology 23.3. Results 23.3.1. OSLAge 23.3.2. Micromorphology 23.4. Discussion 739 739 739 740 740 740 741 741 741 741 742 742 Section E: History Chapter 24. New light on Sasanian military infrastructure 747 24.1. Introduction 747 24.2. Flexible strategies: distribution of different types of defences 747 24.3. Learning from the past, adopting provincial traditions: the ancient world’s largest fortresses, inspired by Central Asian architecture 752 24.4. Evolution of the ancient world’s grandest fortification programme 755 24.5. Sasanian and Roman troop numbers and capabilities 760 24.6. An ancient arms race 765 24.7. Royal control of imperial defence 768
24.8. Purpose and effectiveness of fortifying the empire 770 24.9. The Sasanian army’s legacy 780 24.10. Pax Sasanica 781 Section F: Conclusion and bibliography Conclusion Acknowledgements Preliminaries Terrestrial excavations and survey Marine survey Written documents, finds, building materials, biological and environmental evidence and scientific dating History Bibliography Title, Contents, Dedication, Acknowledgements and Conclusion in Persian 793 793 793 793 796 796 799 803 880
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Contents Volume 1 Acknowledgements xvi Section A: Preliminaries Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1. An ancient arms race - shaping world history to the present day? 1.2. Scope and context of the project 3 3 5 Section B: Terrestrial excavations and survey Chapter 2. Sasanian landscapes of the Gorgan Plain: new insights from remote sensing and field survey Kristen Hopper, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi, Andrea Ricci, Lynn Welton, Dan Lawrence and Graham Philip 2.1. Introduction 2.2. The Gorgan Wall Survey 2014-2016 2.3. Sasanian site types: geometric fortified sites 2.3.1. Geometric fortified enclosures over 6 ha 2.3.2. Geometric fortified enclosures of 2-6 ha 2.3.3. Geometric enclosures of 1 ha or less 2.4. Sasanian rural settlements: intensive survey at GWS-79 2.5. Investigations of features in the vicinity of Gorgan Wall Forts 2.6. Hydrological features associated with the Gorgan Wall and geometric fortified sites 2.7. Conclusion 11 11 11 11 14 16 18 18 20 21 22 Chapter 3. The Gorgan Wall 3.1. Introduction 3.2. The Gorgan Wall Bridge and a Sasanian reservoir between Forts 2A and 2 3.2.1. Sasanian hydraulic installations in the Sari Su River Valley 3.2.2. A new section of the Gorgan Wall, discovered by geophysical and pedestrian survey, leading towards a bridge 3.2.3. The Gorgan Wall Bridge (Trench b) 3.2.4. Bridge design 3.2.5. Protecting the bridge from erosion 3.2.6. Alluvial deposits and circumstantial evidence for a Sasanian barrage and reservoir in the Sari Su River 3.2.7. Chronology 3.2.8. The purpose of the reservoir 3.2.9. Brick robbing and sedimentation in post-Sasanian times
3.3. Drone survey of the Gorgan Wall 55 63 66 68 70 Chapter 4. Forts on the Gorgan Wall 4.1. Fort 2 4.1.1. Introduction 4.1.2. Remote, pedestrian, magnetometer and topographical survey of Fort 2 75 75 75 76 27 27 29 29 30 34 49 52
Contents vi 4.1.2.1. The fort defences 4.1.2.2. Interior occupation 4.1.2.3. Results 4.1.3. Excavation of an interval tower of Fort 2 (Trench c) 4.1.4. The barracks in Fort 2 (Trench d) 4.1.4.1. Introduction 4.1.4.2. Construction and layout of the barracks, phase 1 (Trench d) 4.1.4.2.1. The original barracks 4.1.4.2.2. Attempted quantification of mud-bricks needed for barracks construction 4.1.4.2.3. Barracks extension via annexes 4.1.4.3. Chronology of barracks construction and occupation in Trench d 4.1.4.4. The history of occupation of the barrack rooms 4.1.4.4.1. The original barracks: rows 2 and 3 4.1.4.4.1.1. The western row of rooms (2) in the original barracks 4.1.4.4.1.2. The eastern row of rooms (3) in the original barracks 4.1.4.4.1.3. Characteristics of the original barracks (rows 2 and 3) 4.1.4.4.2. The western annexe: rows 0 and 1 4.1.4.4.2.1. The eastern row of rooms (1) in the western annexe 4.1.4.4.2.2. The western row of rooms (0) in the western annexe 4.1.4.4.3. The eastern annexe: rows 4 and 5 4.1.4.4.3.1. The western row of rooms (4) in the eastern annexe 4.1.4.4.3.2. The eastern row of rooms (5) in the eastern annexe 4.1.4.4.4. The area outdoors to the west of the barracks 4.1.4.4.5. The area outdoors to the east of the barracks 4.1.4.5. Life in Sasanian barracks on the Gorgan Wall 4.1.4.5.1. Heating and cooking in Sasanian barracks 4.1.4.5.2. Food storage 4.1.4.5.2.1. Storage pits 4.1.4.5.2.2. Storage vessels and possible reforms in provisioning the army 4.1.4.5.3. Finds distribution over space and time 4.1.4.6. The chronology of Fort 2’s occupation
(Trench d) 4.1.4.6.1. The start of occupation 4.1.4.6.2. The end of occupation 4.1.4.6.3. Occupation density over time 4.2. Barracks in Fort 15 4.3. Barracks in Fort 25 4.4. Barracks in Fort 26 4.5. Geophysical survey at a compound on the north side of the Great Wall: GWS-65 near Fort 28 4.6. Remote survey of forts along the Great Wall 4.6.1. Introduction 4.6.2. Satellite survey 4.6.3. Drone survey 76 80 82 82 84 84 85 85 88 89 99 106 106 106 111 116 116 116 129 136 136 141 152 153 155 155 161 161 163 165 167 167 170 172 173 173 175 178 178 178 179 179 Chapter 5. The Tammisheh Wall and associated forts 5.1. Introduction 5.2. Underwater survey of a submerged fort 5.3. Remote survey of the Tammisheh Wall 203 203 204 209 Chapter 6. Post-Sasanian barriers 6.1. The Jar-e Kulbad Earthwork: a basic clone of the Tammisheh Wall, decisive in modern warfare 6.2. The Forud Wall near Kalat in Khorasan Meysam Labbaf-Khaniki, Eberhard W Sauer, Kristen Hopper, Davit Naskidashvili, Bardia Shabani and David Gagoshidze 6.2.1. The Forud Wall 6.2.2. The Arg-e Forud 211 211 214 214 216
Contents vii 6.2.3. Pedestrian and aerial survey of the Forud Wall 6.2.4. A sondage within the Arg-e Forud (Trench j) 6.2.5. A sondage within a watchtower on the Forud Wall (Trench k) 6.2.6. The date, historical context and function of the barriersaround Kalat 6.3. The valley of bandar Meysam Labbaf-Khaniki and Kristen Hopper 6.4. Walls, towers and a fort or caravanserai at Mozdouran Meysam Labbaf-Khaniki, Kristen Hopper and Eberhard W. Sauer 219 225 231 234 237 242 Chapter 7. Hinterland forts 7.1. Forts on the Gorgan Plain 7.2. Buraq Tappeh 7.2.1. Buraq Tappeh: siting and research potential of a strategic guard-post 7.2.2. Geophysical survey 7.2.3. Aerial and pedestrian survey 7.2.4. A sondage at Buraq Tappeh (Trench g) 7.2.4.1. Introduction 7.2.4.2. Fort construction and the architecture of interior buildings 7.2.4.3. Early occupation withinthe fort 7.2.4.4. Levelling and living on higher ground 7.2.4.5. Oven construction 7.2.4.6. A new fireplace as a focus for domestic activities 7.2.4.7. Temporary site abandonment and decay? 7.2.4.8. Reoccupation with a reduced garrison living nearby? 7.2.4.9. Latest occupation and renewed oven construction 7.2.4.10. Disturbed horizons above the abandoned fort 7.2.4.11. Garrison size 7.2.4.12. History and chronology of Buraq Tappeh’s occupation 7.3. Habib Ishan: a hinterland fortification with a corner citadel? 7.4. Forts on the Old Gorgan River: parts of a Sasanian defensive network? The purpose of the Sasanian forts south of the Great Wall 249 249 253 253 255 258 260 260 261 268 269 269 270 271 271 272 272 273 277 278 Chapter 8.
Campaign bases 8.1. Introduction 8.2. QaTeh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus: the largest Sasanian fortress on the Gorgan Plain 8.2.1. Introduction and comparative analysis of Qal'eh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus and other campaign bases 8.2.2. The towered and gated walls 8.2.3. The moat 8.2.4. Surface scatter of finds 8.2.5. Geophysical survey 8.2.6. A section through the defences (Trench a) 8.2.7. The stratigraphy of the ditch system 8.2.8. The earliest ditches (1-4) 8.2.9. The fifth ditch 8.2.10. The sixth ditch 8.2.11. The seventh ditch 8.2.12. The Sasanian-era topsoil and land surface 8.2.13. The wall 8.2.14. Dimensions of the defences in phase 1 8.2.15. The modern field boundary ditches 8.2.16. The date of QaTeh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus 8.3. Gabri QaTeh: from Sasanian campaign base to Ilkhanid town 8.3.1. Introduction and topographical survey 8.3.2. Geophysical survey 8.3.3. A busy bazaar street in a medieval town (Trench e) 8.3.4. The causewayed access to Sasanian and medievalGabri QaTeh (Trench 1) 287 287 287 280 287 292 294 295 296 297 298 299 304 308 311 311 312 315 320 320 325 325 333 334 338
viii Contents 8.3.5. Gabri Qal‘eh’s origins and significance 8.4. Qal‘eh Kharabeh 8.4.1. Geophysical survey 8.4.2. Drone survey 8.4.3. Recalibration of radiocarbon samples 8.5. Campaign bases on the Gorgan Plain 343 345 345 345 345 346 Chapter 9. Qal‘eh Iraj: a campaign base/command centre of the army’s northern division? Mahdi Mousavinia, Mohammadreza Nemati and Eberhard W. Sauer 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Excavations within the south-eastern gate 9.2.1. The first field seasons 9.2.2. Dating the fortress: excavations within the south-eastern gateway in 2016 9.2.2.1. Excavations in the gateway (Trench h) 9.2.2.2. A side chamber of the south-eastern gate (Trench i) 9.3. Geophysical survey 9.3.1. Introduction 9.3.2. Site A 9.3.3. Sites B-D 9.4. New insights into the fortress’s history of occupation: excavations on the southern fortress walls in 2017 9.4.1. Introduction 9.4.2. Trench F128 9.4.3. Trench F129 9.4.4. Trench G129 9.4.5. Discussion 9.5. The chronology of Qal‘eh Iraj 9.6. Qal‘eh Iraj: nerve centre of northern Persia’s defensive network? 377 377 377 378 379 379 381 382 Chapter 10. A Sasanian city: fire temple, brick pillar avenues and residential quarters: geophysical and aerial surveys at Dasht Qal'eh 10.1. Introduction 10.2. Remote surveys 10.3. A fire temple 10.4. Roads and residential quarters 10.5. The region’s capital? 387 387 388 389 392 398 357 357 359 359 361 361 367 373 373 373 374 Section C: Marine survey Chapter 11. Discovering unknown sections of the Great Wall of Gorgan near the shores of the Caspian Sea C. Richard Bates, Martin R. Bates and Hamid Omrani
Rekavandi 11.1. Introduction 11.2. Aims of the survey 11.3. Methodology 11.4. Results 11.4.1. Survey results near the westernmost known location of the Gorgan Wall and the associated ditch (section 1) 11.4.2. Geophysical survey of remains of the Gorgan Wall and its associated ditch exposed in an irrigation trench 11.4.3. Survey results (section 2) ■ 11.4.4. Survey results (section 3) 11.5. A bathymetric and sub-bottom investigation in the Caspian Sea across the alignment of the Gorgan Wall 11.5.1. Introduction 11.5.2. Sidescan sonar 11.5.3. Sub-bottom profiling 11.5.4. Results 11.6. Discussion 405 405 405 405 406 406 409 410 410 411 411 412 412 413 413
Contents Chapter 12. A bathymetric and sub-bottom investigation of the Tammisheh Wall’s northernmost section submerged in the Caspian Sea 415 C. Richard Bates, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi and Hossein Tofighian 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Aims of the survey 12.3. Methodology 12.4. Results 12.4.1. The site 12.4.2. Seafloor bathymetry 12.4.3. Sidescan sonar 12.4.4. Sub-bottom profiling 12.5. Discussion ix 415 416 416 417 417 417 417 417 423 Chapter 13. Palaeoenvironments at the Caspian terminals of the Gorgan and the Tammisheh Walls Suzanne A. G. Leroy, François Demory, Françoise Chalié, Martin Bates, C. Richard Bates, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi, Eberhard IT Sauer and Paula J. Reimer 13.1. Setting and aims 13.2. Previous palynological studies 13.3. Material and methods 13.3.1. Fieldwork and core description 13.3.2. Magnetic susceptibility 13.3.3. Palynology 13.3.4. Radiocarbon dating 13.4. Results 13.4.1. Western end of the Gorgan Wall 13.4.2. The vicinity of the northern end of the Tammisheh Wall 13.5. Interpretation 13.5.1. Western terminal of the Gorgan Wall 13.5.2. The vicinity of the northern terminal of the Tammisheh Wall 13.6. Caspian Sea level changes from pre-Sasanian to early modern times 13.6.1. The era preceding wall construction 13.6.2. Sasanian-period walls and the lowstand of the Caspian Sea 13.6.3. From the late Sasanian era to the Early Middle Ages 13.6.4. Medieval and Little Ice Age flooding 13.7. The coastal environment in Sasanian times 13.7.1. The Gorgan Wall west of the S2-V3 sequence 13.7.2. Vegetation at the time of the walls and later 13.8. Conclusion 425 425 425
425 426 427 427 428 428 432 436 436 437 438 438 438 438 439 439 439 439 440 Title, Contents and Dedication in Persian 458 425
X Contents Volume 2 Acknowledgements xvi Section D: Specialist contributions: written documents, finds, building materials, biological and environmental evidence and scientific dating Chapter 14. Ostraca and bullae from QaTeh Iraj Carlo G. Cereti, Mohammadreza Nemati and Mahdi Mousavinia 14.1. Introduction 14.2. Catalogue 14.3. Conclusion Chapter 15. Comparative studies of the Sasanian ceramics from forts on the Great Wall of Gorgan and fortifications in its hinterland Maria Daghmehchi, Seth M.N. Priestman, Gabriele Puschnigg, Jebrael Nokandeh, Emanuele E. Intagliata, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi and Eberhard W. Sauer 15.1. Preliminaries 15.1.1. Abstract 15.1.2. Introduction 15.2. Material and methods 15.3. Classification 15.3.1. Physical characterisation of the Sasanian period ceramics 15.3.2. Firing groups of the ceramics 15.3.3. Petrographic characterisation of the ceramics 15.3.3.1. Coarse wares (western part of the Gorgan Wall and Buraq Tappeh) 15.3.3.2. Coarse wares (eastern part of the Gorgan Wall, Fort 2) 15.3.4. Typological characterisation of the ceramics 15.3.4.1. Medium closed form 15.3.4.1.1. Neckless jars 15.3.4.1.2. Coarse fabric neckless jars 15.3.4.1.3. Trefoil-mouthed jugs 15.3.4.2. Large closed forms 15.3.4.2.1. One-handled jars with narrow tall straight necks 15.3.4.2.2. Storage jars 15.3.4.2.3. Cooking pots 15.3.4.3. Small open forms 15.3.4.3.1. Bowls 15.3.5. Alternative quantitative method 15.4. Sites explored 15.4.1. Sari Su Bridge (Trench b) Emanuele E. Intagliata 15.4.2. Fort 2 (Trenches c and d; eastern part of the Great Wall of Gorgan) 15.4.2.1.
Materials and methods 15.4.2.2. Ceramic assemblages from the barrack rooms (Trench d): a clue to their function over space and time 15.4.2.3. Changes in the ceramic assemblage from the barrack rooms (Trench d) over time 15.4.2.4. Results and discussion 15.4.3. Buraq Tappeh (Trench g) 15.4.4. Qa‘leh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus (Trench a) Emanuele E. Intagliata 15.4.5. Gabri QaTeh(Trenches e and f) 15.4.6. QaTeh Iraj 15.5. Comparative studies 15.5.1. Contemporary ceramics from forts on the Gorgan Wall and the fortifications in its hinterland 15.5.2. Contemporary ceramics fromneighbouring regions 461 461 462 472 475 475 475 475 476 478 478 479 480 481 487 497 497 497 499 500 501 501 501 503 505 505 506 507 507 508 508 510 515 518 534 539 540 542 542 542 548
Contents 15.6. Conclusion 15.7. Chemical and vibrational spectroscopic analyses of similar types of vessels from forts on the Great Wall of Gorgan and fortifications in its hinterland Maria Daghmehchi, Behrouz Karimi Shahraki, Hadi Omrani, Masumeh Madanipour, Arianit A. Reka, Jebrael Nokandeh, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi, Mohammadamin Emami and Eberhard W. Sauer 15.7.1. Introduction 15.7.1.1. Outline 15.7.1.2. Background 15.7.2. Materials and methods 15.7.3. Petrographic characterisation 15.7.4. Chemical compositionsof mineral grains and clayey paste 15.7.4.1. Chemical analysis 15.7.4.2. FTIR analysis 15.7.4.3. TGA-DTA and XRD analyses 15.7.5. Conclusion 15.8. Appendix: pottery from the 2017 season at Qal’eh Iraj Mohammadreza Nemati and Mahdi Mousavinia xi 549 551 551 551 551 552 553 554 559 559 563 570 570 Chapter 16. Glass Fiona Anne Mowat and Tim Penn 16.1. Introduction 16.2. Assemblage overview 16.3. Fabric classes 16.3.1. Blue-green 16.3.2. Blue 16.3.3. Green 16.3.4. Yellow, amber and brown 16.3.5. Opaque fabrics 16.3.6. Colourless fabrics 16.3.7. Indeterminate fabrics 16.4. Securely dated vessels 16.5. Findspots anddistribution 577 Chapter 17. Vessel glass: an archaeometric approach Mohammadamin Emami and Farahnaz Bayat Nejad 17.1. Introduction 17.2. Materials and methods 17.2.1. Analytical methods 17.2.1.1. Wavelength X-ray fluorescence (WXRF) 17.2.1.2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 17.2.1.3. Simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) 17.2.2. The sample 17.3. Results and discussion 17.3.1. WXRF analysis of bulk chemical composition 17.3.2. Microstructural analysis through
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 17.3.3. Simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) 17.4. Conclusion 591 Chapter 18. Small objects and other finds Eberhard W. Sauer, St John Simpson, Mahdi Jahed, Mohaddeseh Mansouri Razi, Marzieh Moslehi, Mohammadreza Nemati, Jebrael Nokandeh, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi, Tim Penn and Alireza Salari 18.1. Introduction 18.2. Weapons 18.3. Tools 18.3.1. Knives and other personal implements 18.3.2. Whetstones 577 577 577 577 582 583 583 584 584 585 586 587 591 591 591 591 592 592 592 592 592 593 596 598 601 601 601 605 605 607
xii Contents 18.3.3. Grinding stones 18.3.4. Metal vessels 18.3.5. Textile production 18.4. Beads Tim Penn 18.4.1. Introduction, materials, style and chronology 18.4.2. Spatial distribution, chronology and significance 18.5. Other items of personal adornment, dress andfurniture fittings 18.6. Building materials 18.7. Coins 18.8. Miscellaneous objects, slag and metal debris 18.9. Prehistoric stone tools Chapter 19. Lime mortars from the Gorgan Wall Bridge over the Sari Su River Martina Astolfi and Riley Snyder 19.1. Introduction 19.2. Materials and methods 19.2.1. The samples 19.2.2. Petrographic analyses of polished sections 19.2.3. XRF analysis 19.3. Discussion 19.4. Conclusion Chapter 20. Archaeozoology of Sasanian and Islamic sites from the Gorgan Wall to the Tehran Plain Marjan Mashkour, Roya Khazaeli, Solmaz Amiri, Homa Fathi, Sanaz Beizaee Doost, Azadeh Mohaseb, Karyne Debue, Valentin Radu, Hossein Davoudi, Antoine Ruchonnet, Haeedeh Laleh, Jebrael Nokandeh, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi, Mohammadreza Nemati and Eberhard W. Sauer 20.1. Introduction 20.2. Material and methods 20.2.1. Quantificationand taphonomy 20.2.2. Biometry 20.2.3. Demographic analysis 20.3. Consumption practices and animal use at Sasanian and later sites from the Gorgan to the Tehran Plain 20.3.1. Fort 2 20.3.2. The Gorgan Wall Bridge over the Sari Su River 20.3.3. Gabri QaPeh 20.3.4. Qal‘eh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus 20.3.5. Buraq Tappeh 20.3.6. QaTeh Iraj 20.4. Species represented 20.4.1. The morphology of sheep,goat and cattle populations 20.4.1.1. Introduction 20.4.1.2. Sheep 20.4.1.3. Goats 20.4.1.4. Cattle
20.4.2. Suids and their status at Fort 2 20.4.3. Equid remains 20.4.3.1. Teeth 20.4.3.2. Metacarpals andradius 20.4.3.3. Horse remains: potential evidence for cavalry at Fort 2? 20.4.4. Bird remains 20.4.5. Fish remains Valentin Radu, Marjan Mashkour and Eberhard W Sauer 20.5. The age at death of sheep and goats 20.6. Craft activities 608 608 609 615 615 617 619 624 625 628 634 641 641 641 641 643 644 644 645 647 647 647 647 648 650 650 650 658 658 659 661 661 661 661 661 664 665 665 665 668 668 669 670 671 672 675 676
Contents 20.7. Conclusion 20.8. Appendices 20.8.1. Appendix 1: Measurements 20.8.1.1. Appendix 1.1: Measurements for Ovis (sheep) 20.8.1.2. Appendix 1.2: Measurements for Capra (goat) 20.8.1.3. Appendix 1.3: Measurements for Caprini (sheep/goat) 20.8.1.4. Appendix 1.4: Measurements for Bos (cattle) 20.8.1.5. Appendix 1.5: Measurements for Sus scrofa (pig/boar) 20.8.1.6. Appendix 1.6: Measurements for Equidae (equids) 20.8.2. Appendix 2: Comparative sites 20.8.3. Appendix 3: Statistical test for suid teeth 20.8.4. Appendix 4: Caprini (sheep/goat) tooth age attribution Chapter 21. Palaeoenvironment Lyudmila Shumilovskikh, Felix Bittmann, Brigitte Talon, Daniela Paetzold and Catriona Pickard 21.1. Woodland use: the evidence from anthracological analysis Lyudmila Shumilovskikh and Brigitte Talon 21.1.1. Introduction 21.1.2. Materials and methods 21.1.3. Results 21.1.3.1. Introduction 21.1.3.2. Fort 2 (Trench d) 21.1.3.3. Buraq Tappeh (Trench g) 21.1.3.4. QaTeh Iraj (Trench i) 21.1.3.5. Forud Wall (Trench k) 21.1.4. Discussion 21.1.5. Conclusion 21.2. Archaeobotanical studies on the Gorgan Plain Lyudmila Shumilovskikh, Felix Bittmann and Daniela Paetzold 21.2.1. Introduction 21.2.2. Materials and methods 21.2.3. Results and discussion 21.2.3.1. Qal’eh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus (Trench a) 21.2.3.2. Gorgan Wall Bridge over the Sari Su River (Trench b) 21.2.3.3. Fort 2 (Trench d) 21.2.3.4. Gabri Qal’eh (Trench e) 21.2.3.5. Gabri QaTeh (Trench I) 21.2.3.6. Buraq Tappeh (Trench g) 21.2.3.7. QaTeh Iraj (Trench i) 21.2.3.8. Forud Wall (Trench k) 21.3. Vegetation history of the Gorgan Plain:
the evidence from palynological analysis at Lake Kongor Lyudmila Shumilovskikh 21.3.1. Introduction 21.3.2. Geographical setting 21.3.3. Palaeoecological records from Kongor 21.3.4. Human impact, climate andlandscape change 21.3.4.1. Climate 21.3.4.2. Forest cover 21.3.4.3. Agriculture and arboriculture 21.3.4.4. Pasture 21.3.4.5. Fire 21.4. Molluscs Catriona Pickard and Lyudmila Shumilovskikh Chapter 22. Archaeomagnetic studies of features excavated along the Gorgan Wall Cathy M. Batt, David P. Greenwood and Tehreem Kainaat 22.1. Abstract 22.2. Introduction xiii 676 678 678 678 681 684 684 688 690 691 694 694 699 699 699 699 699 699 700 700 700 703 703 705 705 705 705 713 713 713 716 718 718 718 718 719 719 719 720 720 721 721 722 723 723 724 725 727 727 727
xiv Contents 22.3. Background 22.4. Archaeomagnetic sampling in the field 22.4.1. Qal‘eh Pol Gonbad-e Kavus 22.4.2. Sari Su Valley: alluvial deposits 22.4.3. Sari Su Valley: stream channels 22.4.4. Fort 2 : oven d.010 22.4.5. Fort 2: oven d.114 22.4.6. Fort 2: oven d.169 22.5. Archaeomagnetic measurements 22.5.1. Sample preparation 22.5.2. Measurement procedures 22.6. Results 22.6.1. Sediments 22.6.2. Fired materials 22.7. Interpretation of the archaeomagnetic results and comparison with the global geomagnetic field model 22.8. Previous archaeomagnetic studies in the region 22.9. Summary and conclusion 22.10. Further work 728 729 729 729 730 730 730 731 731 731 732 732 732 733 733 735 736 737 Chapter 23. Luminescence dating and micromorphological assessment Lisa Snape and Ian Bailiff 23.1. Introduction 23.1.1. Samples 23.1.2. OSL background 23.2. Methodology 23.2.1. Field sampling 23.2.2. OSL measurements 23.2.3. Micromorphology 23.3. Results 23.3.1. OSLAge 23.3.2. Micromorphology 23.4. Discussion 739 739 739 740 740 740 741 741 741 741 742 742 Section E: History Chapter 24. New light on Sasanian military infrastructure 747 24.1. Introduction 747 24.2. Flexible strategies: distribution of different types of defences 747 24.3. Learning from the past, adopting provincial traditions: the ancient world’s largest fortresses, inspired by Central Asian architecture 752 24.4. Evolution of the ancient world’s grandest fortification programme 755 24.5. Sasanian and Roman troop numbers and capabilities 760 24.6. An ancient arms race 765 24.7. Royal control of imperial defence 768
24.8. Purpose and effectiveness of fortifying the empire 770 24.9. The Sasanian army’s legacy 780 24.10. Pax Sasanica 781 Section F: Conclusion and bibliography Conclusion Acknowledgements Preliminaries Terrestrial excavations and survey Marine survey Written documents, finds, building materials, biological and environmental evidence and scientific dating History Bibliography Title, Contents, Dedication, Acknowledgements and Conclusion in Persian 793 793 793 793 796 796 799 803 880 |
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| index_date | 2024-07-03T20:47:09Z |
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| isbn | 9781789254624 |
| language | English |
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| spelling | Sauer, Eberhard W. 1970- Verfasser (DE-588)173727115 aut Ancient arms race: Antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran : joint fieldwork project by the Iranian Center for Archaeological Research, theResearch Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism and the University of Edinburgh (2014-2016) 2 Eberhard W. Sauer, Jebrael Nokandeh, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi ; with contributions by C. Richard Bates ... Oxford Oxbow Books 2022 2022 xviii Seiten, Seite 461-880 Illustrationen, Diagramme, Karten, Pläne (teilweise farbig) txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Archaeological monographs series / British Institute of Persian Studies 7 British Institute of Persian Studies. Archaeological monograph series 7 Militärwesen des Alten Orients (DE-2581)TH000007242 gbd Sassaniden, Randkulturen (DE-2581)TH000003484 gbd Omrani Rekavandi, Hamid Verfasser (DE-588)1281742104 aut Nokandeh, Jebrael 1972- Verfasser (DE-588)1201390664 aut (DE-604)BV048509271 2 British Institute of Persian Studies Archaeological monographs series 7 (DE-604)BV036070338 7,2 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033886389&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Sauer, Eberhard W. 1970- Omrani Rekavandi, Hamid Nokandeh, Jebrael 1972- Ancient arms race: Antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran : joint fieldwork project by the Iranian Center for Archaeological Research, theResearch Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism and the University of Edinburgh (2014-2016) |
| title | Ancient arms race: Antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran : joint fieldwork project by the Iranian Center for Archaeological Research, theResearch Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism and the University of Edinburgh (2014-2016) |
| title_auth | Ancient arms race: Antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran : joint fieldwork project by the Iranian Center for Archaeological Research, theResearch Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism and the University of Edinburgh (2014-2016) |
| title_exact_search | Ancient arms race: Antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran : joint fieldwork project by the Iranian Center for Archaeological Research, theResearch Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism and the University of Edinburgh (2014-2016) |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Ancient arms race: Antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran : joint fieldwork project by the Iranian Center for Archaeological Research, theResearch Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism and the University of Edinburgh (2014-2016) |
| title_full | Ancient arms race: Antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran : joint fieldwork project by the Iranian Center for Archaeological Research, theResearch Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism and the University of Edinburgh (2014-2016) 2 Eberhard W. Sauer, Jebrael Nokandeh, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi ; with contributions by C. Richard Bates ... |
| title_fullStr | Ancient arms race: Antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran : joint fieldwork project by the Iranian Center for Archaeological Research, theResearch Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism and the University of Edinburgh (2014-2016) 2 Eberhard W. Sauer, Jebrael Nokandeh, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi ; with contributions by C. Richard Bates ... |
| title_full_unstemmed | Ancient arms race: Antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran : joint fieldwork project by the Iranian Center for Archaeological Research, theResearch Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism and the University of Edinburgh (2014-2016) 2 Eberhard W. Sauer, Jebrael Nokandeh, Hamid Omrani Rekavandi ; with contributions by C. Richard Bates ... |
| title_short | Ancient arms race: Antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran |
| title_sort | ancient arms race antiquity s largest fortresses and sasanian military networks of northern iran antiquity s largest fortresses and sasanian military networks of northern iran joint fieldwork project by the iranian center for archaeological research theresearch institute of cultural heritage and tourism and the university of edinburgh 2014 2016 |
| title_sub | antiquity's largest fortresses and Sasanian military networks of northern Iran : joint fieldwork project by the Iranian Center for Archaeological Research, theResearch Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism and the University of Edinburgh (2014-2016) |
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