Communication research: asking questions, finding answers
Gespeichert in:
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
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New York
McGraw Hill
2023
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| Ausgabe: | Sixth edition |
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| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | International student edition for use outside of the U.S. |
| Beschreibung: | xxv, 361, G-12, I-14 Seiten |
| ISBN: | 9781265240714 |
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| adam_text | CONTENTS Preface xx¡ SECTION 1: RESEARCH BASICS Introduction to Communication Research CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 1 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH? 2 Your Relationship with Research SCHOLARLY RESEARCH Goals ofResearch 5 Research and Theory 6 3 4 COMMUNICATION AS A SOCIAL SCIENCE The Scientific Approach 8 Characteristics of Science 10 Methodological Extremes 11 6 WHAT KINDS OF QUESTIONS DO COMMUNICATION SCHOLARS ASK? The Nature of the Questions 12 SUMMARY 12 15 KEY TERMS 15 REFERENCES 16 BOXED FEATURES Communication Public or Private? Evaluating Communication Questions 14 an ethical issue: Is try this! CHAPTER 2 4 The Research Process: Getting Started CHAPTER CHECKLIST 18 18 CONSIDERING THEORY IN RESEARCH Developing Theory 19 Utility of Theory-Research Link 21 19 v
vi CONTENTS THE RESEARCH PROCESS MODEL Deductive Research Model 22 Inductive Research Model 23 Research as a Process 24 22 IDENTIFYING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 24 Formulating Research Ideas 24 Turning Communication Problems into Preliminary Questions Evaluating Your Questions 25 USING LIBRARY AND DATABASE RESOURCES Scholarly Journals 26 Books 28 Online Resources 28 Analyzing Your Resources 28 Adjusting the Question 29 26 USING AND ORGANIZING YOUR RESOURCES Tracking Others’ References 30 Organizing What You Have Found 30 Summarizing What You Have Found 31 30 24 WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW 32 Introduction to the Literature Review 32 Body of the Literature Review 33 Organizing the Literature Review 33 Concluding the Literature Review 34 SUMMARY 35 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 35 36 BOXED FEATURES Finding Theory in Journal Articles 21 Developing Initial Questions to Guide the Research Process try this! Searching for Sources 29 an ethical issue: Using the Ideas of Others 31 design check: Evaluating the Literature You Found 32 try this! Analyzing What You Have Found 35 try this! try this! CHAPTER 3 Research Ethics CHAPTER CHECKLIST 37 37 ETHICAL QUESTIONS IN PLANNING RESEARCH Institutional Review Board 42 Informed Consent 44 39 26
CONTENTS Informed Consent and Quantitative Research 48 Informed Consent and Qualitative Research 48 ETHICAL ISSUES IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH 49 Intentional Deception 49 Using Confederates 51 Physical and Psychological Harm 52 Upholding Anonymity and Confidentiality 52 Collecting Data Online 54 Videorecording and Audiorecording Participants 55 Debriefing Participants 55 ETHICAL ISSUES IN REPORTING RESEARCH Ensuring Accuracy 56 Avoiding Plagiarism 56 Protecting the Identities ofParticipants 5 7 SUMMARY 56 58 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 58 59 BOXED FEATURES Professional Association Guidelines for Conducting Research 42 Research Ethics for Collecting Online Data 45 design check: Do You Need Informed Consent for Your Research Project? 47 an ethical issue: Would You Participate? 48 design check: Private or Public? 50 try this! What Would You Include? 55 an ethical issue: Ethics in Proprietary Research 57 an ethical issue: an ethical issue: SECTION 2: QUANTITATIVE COMMUNICATION RESEARCH CHAPTER 4 Introduction to Quantitative Research CHAPTER CHECKLIST 62 62 WHAT IS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH? 63 Examples of Quantitative Research 63 Deductive Reasoning 64 A Modelfor Conceptualizing Quantitative Research 64 CREATING THE FOUNDATION FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH RESEARCH HYPOTHESES FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Directional Hypotheses 69 Nondirectional Hypotheses 69 Assessing Hypotheses 69 69 67 vii
viii CONTENTS Null Hypotheses 70 Research Traditions in the Use ofHypotheses 70 RESEARCH QUESTIONS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 70 TYPES OF VARIABLES 71 Independent Variables 72 Dependent Variables 73 The Relationship Between Independent and Dependent Variables OPERATIONALIZING VARIABLES 74 MAKING THE CASE FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Advantages of Quantitative Research 77 Limitations of Quantitative Research 78 ISSUES OF RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY Threats to Reliability and Validity 78 SUMMARY 74 76 78 80 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 80 81 BOXED FEATURES Giving Your Children Permission to Participate In a Research Study What Is Sex? What Is Gender? 72 try this: Identifying Independent and Dependent Variables 76 try this! Operationalizing Variables 77 an ethical issue: design check: Measurement CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 83 83 MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 84 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT IN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH Discrete Data 86 Continuous Level Data 88 Ordinal Data 89 Interval Data 89 Likert-Type Scales 90 Semantic Differential Scales Ratio Data 91 90 ISSUES OF VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Validity 92 Face Validity 93 Content Validity 93 Criterion-Related Validity Construct Validity 94 Reliability 95 Internal Reliability 95 94 92 86 64
CONTENTS Test-Retest Reliability 97 Improving Reliability 97 The Relationship Between Validity and Reliability Threats to Validity and Reliability 98 Issues of Data Collection 98 Issues of Sample Representativeness Summary of Threats 100 99 ISSUES OF DATA INTERPRETATION SUMMARY 97 101 102 KEY TERMS 103 REFERENCES 103 BOXED FEATURES What Am I Willing to Reveal About Myself? Changing Levels of Measurement 91 design check: Questioning Measurement Techniques 92 design check: Will These Results Apply to Me? 99 an ethical issue: 88 try this! Populations, Samples, and Sample Size CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 106 POPULATION AND SAMPLE 107 Identify the Population 108 Addressing Generalizability 108 Probability Sampling 110 Simple Random Sampling 111 Systematic Sampling 112 Stratified Random Sampling 112 Cluster Sampling 113 Nonprobability Sampling 114 Convenience Sampling 114 Volunteer Sampling 114 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Snowball Sampling 116 Purposive Sampling 116 Quota Sampling 116 Sample Size 116 A Final Word on Sampling SUMMARY 115 119 119 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 119 120 BOXED FEATURES Participant Selection Can Make a Difference 113 Justifying NonprobabHity Sampling 115 try this.՛ Identifying Populations, Generating Samples 117 an ethical issue: Selected, But Not Required to Participate 118 an ethical issue: design check: 106 ix
x CONTENTS CHAPTER 7 Quantitative Research Designs CHAPTER CHECKLIST 122 122 THE EXPERIMENTAL FRAMEWORK The Classical Experiment 125 123 Random Assignment of Participants 126 Creating Treatment and Control Groups 126 Manipulation Checks 128 Types ofExperimental Design 128 Posttest Only 128 Pretest-Posttest 129 Factorial Design 131 Longitudinal Designs 132 Strengths of Experimentation 133 Limitations ofExperimentation 133 QUASI-EXPERIMENTS 134 Field Experiments 137 Strengths and Limitations of Quasi-Experimental Research Designs DESCRIPTIVE DESIGNS 138 Strengths and Limitations ofDescriptive Research Designs ONLINE EXPERIMENTS 139 RESEARCHER EFFECTS AND PROCEDURAL BIAS COMPARING RESEARCH DESIGNS SUMMARY 139 140 141 142 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 143 143 BOXED FEATURES Would You Ask Participants To ... ? Designing an Experiment 134 design check: Is One Study Ever Enough? 136 an ethical issue: 127 try this! CHAPTER 8 Surveys and Questionnaires CHAPTER CHECKLIST 145 WHAT IS A SURVEY? 146 Types of Surveys 146 Self-Reports 146 Face-to-Face Interviews 146 Phone Surveys 147 Online Surveys 147 Comparing Survey Types 149 DESIGNING A SURVEY 150 Evaluating Existing Questionnaires or Surveys 151 145 138
CONTENTS Writing Your Own Questionnaire Designing Survey Items 152 Closed Questions 153 Response Sets for Closed Questions Likert-Type Scales 154 Semantic Differential Scales 156 152 153 Open Questions 157 Choosing Between Open and Closed Questions DESIGNING THE FLOW OF THE SURVEY How the Survey Looks 159 158 159 PRETESTING THE SURVEY OR QUESTIONNAIRE SAMPLING ISSUES FOR SURVEYS Response Rate 162 SURVEY RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 162 163 ANALYZING AND REPORTING SURVEY DATA SUMMARY 159 163 164 165 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 165 BOXED FEATURES Are All Polls the Same? 149 Survey Design 151 design check: Racial and Ethnic Group Identification 155 try this! How Different Are Usually, Sometimes, and Seldom? an ethical issue: Would You Participate? 161 design check: try this! CHAPTER 9 Testing Descriptive Statistics, Significance Levels, and Hypothesis 168 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 168 NUMBERS INTO STATISTICS 169 NORMAL CURVE 170 Skewed Distributions 171 Distributions ofData 171 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 173 Number of Cases 173 Measures of Central Tendency 173 Mean 173 Median 174 Mode 174 158 xi
xii CONTENTS Measures ofDispersion Range 175 Standard Deviation 175 176 APPLICATION OF DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Frequencies Percentages CRUNCHING THE NUMBERS SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS 180 HYPOTHESIS TESTING 181 A FINAL WORD SUMMARY 177 178 178 179 183 184 KEY TERMS 184 REFERENCES 184 BOXED FEATURES Are the Data Normal or Skewed? 174 Mistakes In Calculations 177 design check: Describing Variables 179 try this! an ethical issue: Testing for Differences CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 186 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 187 Alternative and Null Hypotheses Degrees ofFreedom 188 Four Analytical Steps 188 CHI-SQUARE 188 189 One-Dimensional Chi-Square 190 Contingency Analysis 191 Limitations of Chi-Square 192 THE ř-TEST 193 Common Forms of Z-Test 193 Two-Tailed Z-Test 195 One-Tailed Z-Test 195 Limitations of the Z-Test 195 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE ANOVA Basics 196 One-Way ANOVA 198 Two-Way ANOVA 199 195 186
ONTENTS Factorial ANOVA 200 Limitations ofANOVA 201 201 ASKING FOR STATISTICAL HELP SUMMARY 202 KEY TERMS 203 REFERENCES 203 BOXED FEATURES Interpreting Chi-Squares 192 Interpreting t-Tests 194 an ethical issue: Are Two Categories Fully Representative? 196 try this! Should Differences Be Significant or Practical? 200 design check: Interpreting F 201 design check: design check: CHAPTER 11 Testing for Relationships CHAPTER CHECKLIST 205 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS 207 Alternative and Null Hypotheses Degrees ofFreedom 207 Four Analytical Steps 208 CORRELATION 208 Interpreting the Coefficient Amount of Shared Variance Plotting the Data 210 207 209 210 Examples of Correlation 211 Limitations of Correlation 213 REGRESSION 213 Linear Regression 214 Multiple Regression 215 Interpreting Multiple Regressions Regression Examples 215 217 Other Forms of Multiple Regression Limitations ofRegression 218 ; 221 STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING SEM Example 221 Other Forms of SEM 223 CAUTIONS IN USING STATISTICS SUMMARY 224 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 225 225 223 221 205 xiii
xiv CONTENTS BOXED FEATURES Paying Attention to Details 207 Interpreting Correlations 213 design check: Interpreting Multiple Regression 218 try this: Identifying Independent Variables for Multiple Regression design check: design check: Quantitative Analysis of Text CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 219 227 227 CONTENT ANALYSIS 228 The Content Analysis Process Selecting What to Code 231 Developing Content Categories Units of Analysis 233 Training Coders 234 Coding Reliability 234 Validity 238 230 232 Interpreting the Coding Results 238 Computers and Content Analysis 239 Strengths of Content Analysis Research 240 Limitations of Content Analysis Research 240 INTERACTION ANALYSIS 240 Gathering and Preparing the Interaction for Coding Coding the Interaction 242 Analyzing and Interpreting the Coding 242 Strengths of Interaction Analysis 243 Limitations ofInteraction Analysis 243 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS SUMMARY 241 243 244 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 244 245 BOXED FEATURES Content Analyzing Big Data 229 What Content Can Be Analyzed? 230 try this! Identifying Themes of Freshman Socialization 236 design check: How Did the Researcher Perform the Content Analysis? an ethical issue: Taking Content Out of Context 239 design check: design check: CHAPTER 13 237 Reading and Writing the Quantitative Research Report CHAPTER CHECKLIST 248 THE LITERATURE REVIEW 249 Reviewing the Research Questions and Hypotheses 249 248
CONTENTS THE METHOD SECTION 249 Describing Participants 250 Describing the Research Procedure Describing the Variables 251 250 THE RESULTS SECTION 252 Using Tables and Graphs 252 THE DISCUSSION SECTION 252 Developing Interpretations from Results Manner ofPresentation 253 Presenting the Limitations 254 Recommending Future Research 255 253 FINISHING THE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH REPORT Title 255 Title Page 256 Abstract 256 References 256 USING APA STYLE 256 Citing Others’Work 256 Creating the Reference List 255 25 7 ISSUES IN WRITING 257 The Revision Process 259 SUMMARY 259 KEY TERMS 259 REFERENCES 260 BOXED FEATURES You Have the Basic Information? 251 The Ethics of Digital Data 254 try this! How to Read a Research Report 255 try this! Submit Your Research Paper to a Communication Convention 258 design check: Do an ethical issue: SECTION 3: QUALITATIVE COMMUNICATION RESEARCH CHAPTER 14 Introduction to Qualitative Research CHAPTER CHECKLIST 261 WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? 262 Examples of Qualitative Research 263 Inductive Analysis 264 261 xv
xvi CONTENTS A Model for Qualitative Research 266 Issues of Credibility in Qualitative Research 268 CONCEPTUALIZING RESEARCH QUESTIONS FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Assessing Research Questions 271 WHAT COUNTS AS DATA IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? Interpreting Meaning 271 Level ofEvidence 2 72 MAKING THE CASE FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Advantages of Qualitative Research 272 Limitations of Qualitative Research 2 73 Threats to Credibility in Qualitative Research 273 ONE LAST THOUGHT SUMMARY 271 272 274 274 KEY TERMS 275 REFERENCES 275 BOXED FEATURES Identifying Contexts for Qualitative Research 265 What If Research Questions Are Not Presented? 270 an ethical issue: Is Anything Off-Limits? 274 try this! design check: CHAPTER 15 Designing Qualitative Research CHAPTER CHECKLIST 277 277 RESEARCHER SKILLS FOR QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGIES 278 THE RESEARCHER’S ROLE IN QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGIES Forms of Participant Observation 279 Complete Participant 279 Participant as Observer 280 Observer as Participant 280 Complete Observer 281 Committed Membership 282 Researcher as Interviewer 282 Moving Between Researcher Roles 282 IDENTIFYING THE RESEARCH FOCUS 283 Consulting the Literature 284 Concept Map 284 Research Questions and Objectives 284 SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE DESIGNS 286 Sample Size 287 Special Considerations for Sampling in Qualitative Research 287 278 270
CONTENTS GAINING ACCESS 289 Becoming Familiar with People and Places Developing Trust 290 290 Developing Rapport 290 Locating Key Informants 291 Stumbling Onto Something Interesting 291 DESIGNING A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROJECT What Constitutes Data in Qualitative Research? 293 Your Impact as a Researcher 293 FINALIZING THE RESEARCH DESIGN SUMMARY 292 295 295 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 296 296 BOXED FEATURES One Role? Or Two? 281 Assuming Researcher Roles 282 design check: Why Was the Researcher There? design check: Are the Data Credible? 294 an ethical issue: try this! CHAPTER 16 288 Qualitative Methods of Data Collection CHAPTER CHECKLIST 299 COLLECTING QUALITATIVE DATA Observation Strategies 300 The Seamless Container 300 Ask Questions to Aid Observation 300 300 Taking Notes 301 Describing versus Analyzing in Field Notes Digital Note Taking 303 Transcribing Field Notes 303 What If You Cannot Take Notes? 303 305 FIELD INTERVIEWING 305 Online Interviewing 307 The Interview Process 307 Conceptualizing the Interview Study Designing the Interview 308 Conducting the Interview 307 308 Asking Questions 309 Interviewing Technique 311 Concluding the Interview 312 Transcribing the Interview 312 Strengths and Limitations ofInterview Research 313 299 xvii
xviii CONTENTS FOCUS GROUPS 313 Planning Focus Group Research The Focus Group Schedule Selecting Participants 316 315 315 Conducting Focus Group Research 317 Guiding and Maintaining the Conversation 317 Online Focus Groups 318 Data from Focus Group Discussions 318 Focus Group Strengths and Limitations 319 COLLECTING NARRATIVES Sources for Stories 321 Strengths and Limitations ofNarrative Research 322 320 ETHNOGRAPHY 322 Entering the Scene 324 Strengths and Limitations of Ethnographic Research SUMMARY 325 325 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 325 326 BOXED FEATURES Your Classroom as a Seamless Container 301 Where Did the Interviews Occur? 306 an ethical issue: Research or Selling? 314 try this! Motivating Attendance at Focus Groups 319 design check: The Difference Between the Research Question and Asking Questions design check: Reading Ethnography 324 try this! design check: CHAPTER 17 Analyzing Qualitative Data CHAPTER CHECKLIST 330 AN OVERVIEW 331 Choosing an Analytic Method THE PROCESS OF ANALYSIS Analytical Memos 333 Diagramming the Data 335 Coding and Categorizing Data GROUNDED THEORY 337 THEMATICANALYSIS 340 332 332 335 CODING AND ANALYZING WITH SOFTWARE 340 330 321
CONTENTS THE PROCESS OF INTERPRETATION Evaluating Interpretation 341 341 Participant Quotes 342 Credibility 342 Triangulation 342 A FINAL WORD SUMMARY 343 344 344 KEY TERMS 344 REFERENCES BOXED FEATURES Considering Relational Ethics with Participants During Data Analysis 338 design check: How Are Participant Quotes Used? 341 an ethical issue: Reading and Writing the Qualitative Research Report 347 CHAPTER 18 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 347 REPRESENTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Beginning the Research Report 348 The Literature Review 349 348 WRITING ABOUT THE METHOD 350 Revealing the Identity ofParticipants 350 PRESENTING THE DATA Authorial Voice 351 351 FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION 352 Balancing Description and Analysis 352 Strategies for Writing the Findings and Analyses Using Participants ’ Quoted Material 356 DRAWING AND SUPPORTING CONCLUSIONS Revisiting Your Analysis 356 353 356 FINISHING THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH REPORT Title 358 358 Abstract Using the АРА Style Manual SUMMARY 359 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 359 360 359 358 xix
xx CONTENTS BOXED FEATURES Creating Something from Nothing 352 Who Did What? How? When? 353 try this: Describe, Then Analyze 354 design check: Letting Participants Speak 355 try this! Submit Your Paper to a Communication Journal an ethical issue: design check: Glossary G-1 Name Index Subject Index 1-1 I-8 357
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CONTENTS Preface xx¡ SECTION 1: RESEARCH BASICS Introduction to Communication Research CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 1 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH? 2 Your Relationship with Research SCHOLARLY RESEARCH Goals ofResearch 5 Research and Theory 6 3 4 COMMUNICATION AS A SOCIAL SCIENCE The Scientific Approach 8 Characteristics of Science 10 Methodological Extremes 11 6 WHAT KINDS OF QUESTIONS DO COMMUNICATION SCHOLARS ASK? The Nature of the Questions 12 SUMMARY 12 15 KEY TERMS 15 REFERENCES 16 BOXED FEATURES Communication Public or Private? Evaluating Communication Questions 14 an ethical issue: Is try this! CHAPTER 2 4 The Research Process: Getting Started CHAPTER CHECKLIST 18 18 CONSIDERING THEORY IN RESEARCH Developing Theory 19 Utility of Theory-Research Link 21 19 v
vi CONTENTS THE RESEARCH PROCESS MODEL Deductive Research Model 22 Inductive Research Model 23 Research as a Process 24 22 IDENTIFYING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 24 Formulating Research Ideas 24 Turning Communication Problems into Preliminary Questions Evaluating Your Questions 25 USING LIBRARY AND DATABASE RESOURCES Scholarly Journals 26 Books 28 Online Resources 28 Analyzing Your Resources 28 Adjusting the Question 29 26 USING AND ORGANIZING YOUR RESOURCES Tracking Others’ References 30 Organizing What You Have Found 30 Summarizing What You Have Found 31 30 24 WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW 32 Introduction to the Literature Review 32 Body of the Literature Review 33 Organizing the Literature Review 33 Concluding the Literature Review 34 SUMMARY 35 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 35 36 BOXED FEATURES Finding Theory in Journal Articles 21 Developing Initial Questions to Guide the Research Process try this! Searching for Sources 29 an ethical issue: Using the Ideas of Others 31 design check: Evaluating the Literature You Found 32 try this! Analyzing What You Have Found 35 try this! try this! CHAPTER 3 Research Ethics CHAPTER CHECKLIST 37 37 ETHICAL QUESTIONS IN PLANNING RESEARCH Institutional Review Board 42 Informed Consent 44 39 26
CONTENTS Informed Consent and Quantitative Research 48 Informed Consent and Qualitative Research 48 ETHICAL ISSUES IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH 49 Intentional Deception 49 Using Confederates 51 Physical and Psychological Harm 52 Upholding Anonymity and Confidentiality 52 Collecting Data Online 54 Videorecording and Audiorecording Participants 55 Debriefing Participants 55 ETHICAL ISSUES IN REPORTING RESEARCH Ensuring Accuracy 56 Avoiding Plagiarism 56 Protecting the Identities ofParticipants 5 7 SUMMARY 56 58 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 58 59 BOXED FEATURES Professional Association Guidelines for Conducting Research 42 Research Ethics for Collecting Online Data 45 design check: Do You Need Informed Consent for Your Research Project? 47 an ethical issue: Would You Participate? 48 design check: Private or Public? 50 try this! What Would You Include? 55 an ethical issue: Ethics in Proprietary Research 57 an ethical issue: an ethical issue: SECTION 2: QUANTITATIVE COMMUNICATION RESEARCH CHAPTER 4 Introduction to Quantitative Research CHAPTER CHECKLIST 62 62 WHAT IS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH? 63 Examples of Quantitative Research 63 Deductive Reasoning 64 A Modelfor Conceptualizing Quantitative Research 64 CREATING THE FOUNDATION FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH RESEARCH HYPOTHESES FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Directional Hypotheses 69 Nondirectional Hypotheses 69 Assessing Hypotheses 69 69 67 vii
viii CONTENTS Null Hypotheses 70 Research Traditions in the Use ofHypotheses 70 RESEARCH QUESTIONS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 70 TYPES OF VARIABLES 71 Independent Variables 72 Dependent Variables 73 The Relationship Between Independent and Dependent Variables OPERATIONALIZING VARIABLES 74 MAKING THE CASE FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Advantages of Quantitative Research 77 Limitations of Quantitative Research 78 ISSUES OF RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY Threats to Reliability and Validity 78 SUMMARY 74 76 78 80 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 80 81 BOXED FEATURES Giving Your Children Permission to Participate In a Research Study What Is Sex? What Is Gender? 72 try this: Identifying Independent and Dependent Variables 76 try this! Operationalizing Variables 77 an ethical issue: design check: Measurement CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 83 83 MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES 84 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT IN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH Discrete Data 86 Continuous Level Data 88 Ordinal Data 89 Interval Data 89 Likert-Type Scales 90 Semantic Differential Scales Ratio Data 91 90 ISSUES OF VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Validity 92 Face Validity 93 Content Validity 93 Criterion-Related Validity Construct Validity 94 Reliability 95 Internal Reliability 95 94 92 86 64
CONTENTS Test-Retest Reliability 97 Improving Reliability 97 The Relationship Between Validity and Reliability Threats to Validity and Reliability 98 Issues of Data Collection 98 Issues of Sample Representativeness Summary of Threats 100 99 ISSUES OF DATA INTERPRETATION SUMMARY 97 101 102 KEY TERMS 103 REFERENCES 103 BOXED FEATURES What Am I Willing to Reveal About Myself? Changing Levels of Measurement 91 design check: Questioning Measurement Techniques 92 design check: Will These Results Apply to Me? 99 an ethical issue: 88 try this! Populations, Samples, and Sample Size CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 106 POPULATION AND SAMPLE 107 Identify the Population 108 Addressing Generalizability 108 Probability Sampling 110 Simple Random Sampling 111 Systematic Sampling 112 Stratified Random Sampling 112 Cluster Sampling 113 Nonprobability Sampling 114 Convenience Sampling 114 Volunteer Sampling 114 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Snowball Sampling 116 Purposive Sampling 116 Quota Sampling 116 Sample Size 116 A Final Word on Sampling SUMMARY 115 119 119 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 119 120 BOXED FEATURES Participant Selection Can Make a Difference 113 Justifying NonprobabHity Sampling 115 try this.՛ Identifying Populations, Generating Samples 117 an ethical issue: Selected, But Not Required to Participate 118 an ethical issue: design check: 106 ix
x CONTENTS CHAPTER 7 Quantitative Research Designs CHAPTER CHECKLIST 122 122 THE EXPERIMENTAL FRAMEWORK The Classical Experiment 125 123 Random Assignment of Participants 126 Creating Treatment and Control Groups 126 Manipulation Checks 128 Types ofExperimental Design 128 Posttest Only 128 Pretest-Posttest 129 Factorial Design 131 Longitudinal Designs 132 Strengths of Experimentation 133 Limitations ofExperimentation 133 QUASI-EXPERIMENTS 134 Field Experiments 137 Strengths and Limitations of Quasi-Experimental Research Designs DESCRIPTIVE DESIGNS 138 Strengths and Limitations ofDescriptive Research Designs ONLINE EXPERIMENTS 139 RESEARCHER EFFECTS AND PROCEDURAL BIAS COMPARING RESEARCH DESIGNS SUMMARY 139 140 141 142 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 143 143 BOXED FEATURES Would You Ask Participants To . ? Designing an Experiment 134 design check: Is One Study Ever Enough? 136 an ethical issue: 127 try this! CHAPTER 8 Surveys and Questionnaires CHAPTER CHECKLIST 145 WHAT IS A SURVEY? 146 Types of Surveys 146 Self-Reports 146 Face-to-Face Interviews 146 Phone Surveys 147 Online Surveys 147 Comparing Survey Types 149 DESIGNING A SURVEY 150 Evaluating Existing Questionnaires or Surveys 151 145 138
CONTENTS Writing Your Own Questionnaire Designing Survey Items 152 Closed Questions 153 Response Sets for Closed Questions Likert-Type Scales 154 Semantic Differential Scales 156 152 153 Open Questions 157 Choosing Between Open and Closed Questions DESIGNING THE FLOW OF THE SURVEY How the Survey Looks 159 158 159 PRETESTING THE SURVEY OR QUESTIONNAIRE SAMPLING ISSUES FOR SURVEYS Response Rate 162 SURVEY RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 162 163 ANALYZING AND REPORTING SURVEY DATA SUMMARY 159 163 164 165 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 165 BOXED FEATURES Are All Polls the Same? 149 Survey Design 151 design check: Racial and Ethnic Group Identification 155 try this! How Different Are Usually, Sometimes, and Seldom? an ethical issue: Would You Participate? 161 design check: try this! CHAPTER 9 Testing Descriptive Statistics, Significance Levels, and Hypothesis 168 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 168 NUMBERS INTO STATISTICS 169 NORMAL CURVE 170 Skewed Distributions 171 Distributions ofData 171 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 173 Number of Cases 173 Measures of Central Tendency 173 Mean 173 Median 174 Mode 174 158 xi
xii CONTENTS Measures ofDispersion Range 175 Standard Deviation 175 176 APPLICATION OF DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Frequencies Percentages CRUNCHING THE NUMBERS SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS 180 HYPOTHESIS TESTING 181 A FINAL WORD SUMMARY 177 178 178 179 183 184 KEY TERMS 184 REFERENCES 184 BOXED FEATURES Are the Data Normal or Skewed? 174 Mistakes In Calculations 177 design check: Describing Variables 179 try this! an ethical issue: Testing for Differences CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 186 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 187 Alternative and Null Hypotheses Degrees ofFreedom 188 Four Analytical Steps 188 CHI-SQUARE 188 189 One-Dimensional Chi-Square 190 Contingency Analysis 191 Limitations of Chi-Square 192 THE ř-TEST 193 Common Forms of Z-Test 193 Two-Tailed Z-Test 195 One-Tailed Z-Test 195 Limitations of the Z-Test 195 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE ANOVA Basics 196 One-Way ANOVA 198 Two-Way ANOVA 199 195 186
ONTENTS Factorial ANOVA 200 Limitations ofANOVA 201 201 ASKING FOR STATISTICAL HELP SUMMARY 202 KEY TERMS 203 REFERENCES 203 BOXED FEATURES Interpreting Chi-Squares 192 Interpreting t-Tests 194 an ethical issue: Are Two Categories Fully Representative? 196 try this! Should Differences Be Significant or Practical? 200 design check: Interpreting F 201 design check: design check: CHAPTER 11 Testing for Relationships CHAPTER CHECKLIST 205 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS 207 Alternative and Null Hypotheses Degrees ofFreedom 207 Four Analytical Steps 208 CORRELATION 208 Interpreting the Coefficient Amount of Shared Variance Plotting the Data 210 207 209 210 Examples of Correlation 211 Limitations of Correlation 213 REGRESSION 213 Linear Regression 214 Multiple Regression 215 Interpreting Multiple Regressions Regression Examples 215 217 Other Forms of Multiple Regression Limitations ofRegression 218 ; 221 STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING SEM Example 221 Other Forms of SEM 223 CAUTIONS IN USING STATISTICS SUMMARY 224 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 225 225 223 221 205 xiii
xiv CONTENTS BOXED FEATURES Paying Attention to Details 207 Interpreting Correlations 213 design check: Interpreting Multiple Regression 218 try this: Identifying Independent Variables for Multiple Regression design check: design check: Quantitative Analysis of Text CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 219 227 227 CONTENT ANALYSIS 228 The Content Analysis Process Selecting What to Code 231 Developing Content Categories Units of Analysis 233 Training Coders 234 Coding Reliability 234 Validity 238 230 232 Interpreting the Coding Results 238 Computers and Content Analysis 239 Strengths of Content Analysis Research 240 Limitations of Content Analysis Research 240 INTERACTION ANALYSIS 240 Gathering and Preparing the Interaction for Coding Coding the Interaction 242 Analyzing and Interpreting the Coding 242 Strengths of Interaction Analysis 243 Limitations ofInteraction Analysis 243 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS SUMMARY 241 243 244 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 244 245 BOXED FEATURES Content Analyzing Big Data 229 What Content Can Be Analyzed? 230 try this! Identifying Themes of Freshman Socialization 236 design check: How Did the Researcher Perform the Content Analysis? an ethical issue: Taking Content Out of Context 239 design check: design check: CHAPTER 13 237 Reading and Writing the Quantitative Research Report CHAPTER CHECKLIST 248 THE LITERATURE REVIEW 249 Reviewing the Research Questions and Hypotheses 249 248
CONTENTS THE METHOD SECTION 249 Describing Participants 250 Describing the Research Procedure Describing the Variables 251 250 THE RESULTS SECTION 252 Using Tables and Graphs 252 THE DISCUSSION SECTION 252 Developing Interpretations from Results Manner ofPresentation 253 Presenting the Limitations 254 Recommending Future Research 255 253 FINISHING THE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH REPORT Title 255 Title Page 256 Abstract 256 References 256 USING APA STYLE 256 Citing Others’Work 256 Creating the Reference List 255 25 7 ISSUES IN WRITING 257 The Revision Process 259 SUMMARY 259 KEY TERMS 259 REFERENCES 260 BOXED FEATURES You Have the Basic Information? 251 The Ethics of Digital Data 254 try this! How to Read a Research Report 255 try this! Submit Your Research Paper to a Communication Convention 258 design check: Do an ethical issue: SECTION 3: QUALITATIVE COMMUNICATION RESEARCH CHAPTER 14 Introduction to Qualitative Research CHAPTER CHECKLIST 261 WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? 262 Examples of Qualitative Research 263 Inductive Analysis 264 261 xv
xvi CONTENTS A Model for Qualitative Research 266 Issues of Credibility in Qualitative Research 268 CONCEPTUALIZING RESEARCH QUESTIONS FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Assessing Research Questions 271 WHAT COUNTS AS DATA IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? Interpreting Meaning 271 Level ofEvidence 2 72 MAKING THE CASE FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Advantages of Qualitative Research 272 Limitations of Qualitative Research 2 73 Threats to Credibility in Qualitative Research 273 ONE LAST THOUGHT SUMMARY 271 272 274 274 KEY TERMS 275 REFERENCES 275 BOXED FEATURES Identifying Contexts for Qualitative Research 265 What If Research Questions Are Not Presented? 270 an ethical issue: Is Anything Off-Limits? 274 try this! design check: CHAPTER 15 Designing Qualitative Research CHAPTER CHECKLIST 277 277 RESEARCHER SKILLS FOR QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGIES 278 THE RESEARCHER’S ROLE IN QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGIES Forms of Participant Observation 279 Complete Participant 279 Participant as Observer 280 Observer as Participant 280 Complete Observer 281 Committed Membership 282 Researcher as Interviewer 282 Moving Between Researcher Roles 282 IDENTIFYING THE RESEARCH FOCUS 283 Consulting the Literature 284 Concept Map 284 Research Questions and Objectives 284 SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE DESIGNS 286 Sample Size 287 Special Considerations for Sampling in Qualitative Research 287 278 270
CONTENTS GAINING ACCESS 289 Becoming Familiar with People and Places Developing Trust 290 290 Developing Rapport 290 Locating Key Informants 291 Stumbling Onto Something Interesting 291 DESIGNING A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROJECT What Constitutes Data in Qualitative Research? 293 Your Impact as a Researcher 293 FINALIZING THE RESEARCH DESIGN SUMMARY 292 295 295 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 296 296 BOXED FEATURES One Role? Or Two? 281 Assuming Researcher Roles 282 design check: Why Was the Researcher There? design check: Are the Data Credible? 294 an ethical issue: try this! CHAPTER 16 288 Qualitative Methods of Data Collection CHAPTER CHECKLIST 299 COLLECTING QUALITATIVE DATA Observation Strategies 300 The Seamless Container 300 Ask Questions to Aid Observation 300 300 Taking Notes 301 Describing versus Analyzing in Field Notes Digital Note Taking 303 Transcribing Field Notes 303 What If You Cannot Take Notes? 303 305 FIELD INTERVIEWING 305 Online Interviewing 307 The Interview Process 307 Conceptualizing the Interview Study Designing the Interview 308 Conducting the Interview 307 308 Asking Questions 309 Interviewing Technique 311 Concluding the Interview 312 Transcribing the Interview 312 Strengths and Limitations ofInterview Research 313 299 xvii
xviii CONTENTS FOCUS GROUPS 313 Planning Focus Group Research The Focus Group Schedule Selecting Participants 316 315 315 Conducting Focus Group Research 317 Guiding and Maintaining the Conversation 317 Online Focus Groups 318 Data from Focus Group Discussions 318 Focus Group Strengths and Limitations 319 COLLECTING NARRATIVES Sources for Stories 321 Strengths and Limitations ofNarrative Research 322 320 ETHNOGRAPHY 322 Entering the Scene 324 Strengths and Limitations of Ethnographic Research SUMMARY 325 325 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 325 326 BOXED FEATURES Your Classroom as a Seamless Container 301 Where Did the Interviews Occur? 306 an ethical issue: Research or Selling? 314 try this! Motivating Attendance at Focus Groups 319 design check: The Difference Between the Research Question and Asking Questions design check: Reading Ethnography 324 try this! design check: CHAPTER 17 Analyzing Qualitative Data CHAPTER CHECKLIST 330 AN OVERVIEW 331 Choosing an Analytic Method THE PROCESS OF ANALYSIS Analytical Memos 333 Diagramming the Data 335 Coding and Categorizing Data GROUNDED THEORY 337 THEMATICANALYSIS 340 332 332 335 CODING AND ANALYZING WITH SOFTWARE 340 330 321
CONTENTS THE PROCESS OF INTERPRETATION Evaluating Interpretation 341 341 Participant Quotes 342 Credibility 342 Triangulation 342 A FINAL WORD SUMMARY 343 344 344 KEY TERMS 344 REFERENCES BOXED FEATURES Considering Relational Ethics with Participants During Data Analysis 338 design check: How Are Participant Quotes Used? 341 an ethical issue: Reading and Writing the Qualitative Research Report 347 CHAPTER 18 CHAPTER CHECKLIST 347 REPRESENTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Beginning the Research Report 348 The Literature Review 349 348 WRITING ABOUT THE METHOD 350 Revealing the Identity ofParticipants 350 PRESENTING THE DATA Authorial Voice 351 351 FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION 352 Balancing Description and Analysis 352 Strategies for Writing the Findings and Analyses Using Participants ’ Quoted Material 356 DRAWING AND SUPPORTING CONCLUSIONS Revisiting Your Analysis 356 353 356 FINISHING THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH REPORT Title 358 358 Abstract Using the АРА Style Manual SUMMARY 359 KEY TERMS REFERENCES 359 360 359 358 xix
xx CONTENTS BOXED FEATURES Creating Something from Nothing 352 Who Did What? How? When? 353 try this: Describe, Then Analyze 354 design check: Letting Participants Speak 355 try this! Submit Your Paper to a Communication Journal an ethical issue: design check: Glossary G-1 Name Index Subject Index 1-1 I-8 357 |
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| spelling | Keyton, Joann 1952- Verfasser (DE-588)173726798 aut Communication research asking questions, finding answers Joann Keyton Sixth edition New York McGraw Hill 2023 xxv, 361, G-12, I-14 Seiten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier International student edition for use outside of the U.S. Kommunikationsforschung (DE-588)4114259-7 gnd rswk-swf Kommunikationsforschung (DE-588)4114259-7 s DE-604 Digitalisierung UB Augsburg - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033839000&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
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| title | Communication research asking questions, finding answers |
| title_auth | Communication research asking questions, finding answers |
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| title_full | Communication research asking questions, finding answers Joann Keyton |
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| title_short | Communication research |
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| topic | Kommunikationsforschung (DE-588)4114259-7 gnd |
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