Verfügbarkeit: Empires of Eurasia

Empires of Eurasia: how imperial legacies shape international security

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Bibliographische Detailangaben
1. Verfasser:	Mankoff, Jeffrey 1977- (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	English
Veröffentlicht:	New Haven ; London Yale University Press ; CSIS [2022]
Schlagworte:	Geschichte Internationale Politik Sicherheitspolitik Imperialismus China Iran Türkei Russland
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltsverzeichnis Register // Gemischte Register
Beschreibung:	xi, 371 Seiten Karten
ISBN:	9780300248258

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Datensatz im Suchindex

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adam_text	Contents Acknowledgments ix A Note on Transliteration Introduction i l6 RUSSIA i. 2. 3. Russian Identity Between Empire and Nation 2 3 Russia’s Borderlands and the Territorialization of Identity 44 Russia’s Near Abroad and the Geopolitics of Empire 60 TURKEY 4. 5. 6. 8l Those Who Call Themselves Turks: Empire, Islam, and Nation 89 On the Margins of the Nation and the State: Turkey’s Kurdish Borderland 107 The Geopolitics of the Post-Ottoman Space 123 IRAN 7. 8. 9. xi 145 Iranian Identity and Iran’s “Empire of the Mind” 153 Iran’s Borderlands: The Non-Persian Periphery 169 Greater Iran (Iranzamin) and Iran’s Imperial Imagination 189 Contents viii CHINA 207 10. Civilization and Imperial Identity in China 213 11. China’s Inner Asian Borderlands 231 12. Sinocentrism and the Geopolitics of Tianxia 251 Conclusim: A World Safe for Empire? Notes 277 Index 343 2 69 Index Page numbers followed by letter m refer to maps. Abbas I (Safavid ruler), 171,195,19Ճ Abdali Pashtuns, rebellion of, 163 Abdülhamid II (Ottoman Sultan), 82, 86, 94, 95, 112-13; and Sunni caliphate, Bi, 134 Abdullah, Abdullah, 203 Abdülmecid I (Ottoman Sultan), 111, 112 Abkhazia: Russian occupation of, 19, 40; struggle for independence from Georgia, 66, 67, 68; Turkey’s ap proach to conflict in, 97; after World War 1,65 Absolute Guardianship, doctrine of, 161, 163; opposition to, 176-77,179 Achaemenid dynasty: legacy of, Mohámmad Reza Shah’s appeal to, 146, 147; : and origins of Iran, 155 Adygea, Republic of, tqm, 45, 52, 57 Aegean islands, Turkish claims on, 126, Afghanistan: British policies in, 201; and China, security mechanism with, 266; Greater Iran concept and, 192, 200; imperial rivalries in, 9, 270; Iranian imperial heritage and, 194; Iran’s involvement in, 149,155,191,199, 200-204, 205; Persian component of identity of, 158,160, 202; Shi’as in, 168; Soviet-backed government in, 202; Soviet invasion of, 191,199; Taliban in, 203; U.S.-led invasion of, and opportunities for Iran, 191; U.S. presence in, opposition to, 203 Afsharid dynasty: capital of, 170; and Persianate world, 150 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 160, 204 Ahund, Osman, 183-84 Aigun, Treaty of, 259, 261 Ajaría: special status after World War I, 65; Turkey’s claims regarding, 126, Ј38 1Akçura, Yusuf, 90, 94,101,103 Akhbari school of Shi’ism, 179 :Akhondzadeh (Akhundov), Mirza Fath Ali, 157 1АКР (Justice and Development Party), Turkey: antimigrant backlash and, too; emergence of, 99; foreign policy vision of, 123-28,133,135-3Ճ; and imperial articulation of nation, 91, 92; Islam and nationalism embraced by, 91-92, 105; and Kurdish borderlands, strategy for integrating, 86,109,113, 343 344 Index АКР (continued) 115,116-17,122; Middle East poli cies of, 133, 135-37; minority policies of, 96; Naqshbandi Sufi order and, 97; and new Turkic-centric order, vision of, 137,142,143; and Ottoman revivalism, 82, 85-86, 90-91, 113, 123, 124, 142, 143; post-Ottoman vi sion of, dilemma in, 101,142; protests against, 82; and Turkic organizations in Eurasia and Middle East, 103-4; on Turkish identity, 85, 90; uneasy balance of democracy and Islamism in, 142; uniform of, 132 Albania: in Ottoman Empire, 128; Tur key’s relations with, 131-32 Aleksandra Fedorovna (Empress of Rus sia), 28 Aleksey Mikhailovich (Tsar of Muscovy), 33 Aleppo: in Ottoman Empire, 133; Turk ish claims on, 126,135 Alevis, Turkish, 93,101, no, 117; Soviet influence among, 115 Alexander I (Emperor of Russia), 1,64 Alexander ЛІ (Emperor of Russia), 24, 27 Ճ5 Alexandretta (Hatay), Turkish claims on, 126, 135 Aliyev, Heydar, 104 Allahverdi Khan (Safavid governor), 196 All Under Heaven. See tianxia, concept of Alqas Mirza, 196 Altai, Republic of, 45 Altishahr (“six cities”), 245, 246 Amanat, Abbas, 178 Amasya, Peace of, no, 138, 195 Anatolia, eastern: Armenian minor ity in, 112; ethnic cleansing in, 65, 102, 112, 113, 121; in Greater Iran, 189; interimperial “shatter zone” in, 9; Islamization in, 92; Kurds of, 84, 110; “politics of difference” in, 111, 114-15; as postimperial borderland, 84,121; Russian objectives in, 62; in Turkish Republic, efforts to integrate, 121-22. See also Caucasus; Kurds Anderson, Benedict, 10 Andrussovo, Peace of, 32, 33 Aneran (Aneranshahr), concept of, 193 Anglo-Persian Oil Company, 178 Aqa Mohammad Shah (Qajar ruler), 175, 195, 197, 200 Aq Qoyunlu dynasty, 175 Arabestan. See Khuzestan Arabian Peninsula: Iran’s borderlands in, 178-80; Islam in, vs. Turkish Islam, 105; Ottoman legacy in, 124,133, 134. See also specific countries Arab Spring: in Syria, suppression of, 120; Turkey’s response to, 86, too, ւշ4,136-37 Aral Sea, 71 Ardashir I Papağan (Sasanian ruler), 156 ariya (term), 155-56 Armenia: in CSTO, 76; in EAEU, 74; Iran’s support for, 177, 194,195,197; Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and, 66, 67, 76,138; in Ottoman Empire, 138; revolution of 2018 in, 63; in Russian Empire, 64,197; Russia’s support for, 67,140,142; territorial expansion of, Soviet policies on, 62; territorialization of ethnicity in, 64, 66; Turkey’s relations with, 140; after World War 1,65-66 Armenians: and Kurds, conflicts be tween, in, 112; massacres of, 65, 94, 96, 112,113, 138; in Turkey, 96 Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), 256 al-Assad, Bashar, 109; Hezbollah’s sup port for, 166; Russian support for, 137; suppression of Arab Spring uprisings by, 120 al-Assad, Hafez, 118 Index Astrakhan khanate, Russian conquest of, 25,46 Atabald, Touraj, 177 Atabat, Shi’ite center in, 163,179, 273 Atatürk (Mustafa Kemal), 82-83; adop tion of one-party rule, 13,102; civic nation envisioned by, 89; conservative opposition to, 91, 97-98,106; foreign policy of, 84; and Kurdish tribal elites, 113,115; vs. pan-Turkic orga nizations, 102; secularization under, 83, 85, 97; and territorial integrity of Republic, 124,125,138-39; threat of Kurdish separatism and, 13,108, 113-14, 181; on Turkish identity, 83, 89, 95-96 Atsız, Nihal, 102,103 Austria-Hungary, imperial legacy and, 11 authoritarianism: postimperial states and, 5, 275; struggle to assimilate borderlands and, 13-14, 45 Avesta, 156,157,192 Axworthy, Michael, 154 Azerbaijan, Iranian, 174-78; historical importance of, 170,174-75; opposi tion to Doctrine of Absolute Guard ianship, 176-77; Qajar rule in, 172, 175; and Republic of Azerbaijan, 175, 176,177,187,195,198-99; Russian and Ottoman influences in, 175; Soviet claims on, 61, 66,176; volatil ity in, 169-70,171,176-77; during World War 1,172,180 Azerbaijan, Republic of: closure of Soviet-Iranian border and, 197; cross-border linkages with Iranian Azerbaijan, 175, 176,177,187,195, 198-99; Iran’s relations with, 195, 197-99; Israel’s relations with, 177; Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and, 66, 67, 76,138; Persian language in, 158; in Russian Empire, 64,197; Russian influence in, 55, 66, 142; Turkey’s relations with, 12, 103,104,137, 345 138,139, 140,142; Western energy companies in, 67 Azeris: in Iran’s ruling elite, 9, 170, 174; Islamic Revolution and, 154, 174; separatist movements of, 10, 138, 149, 174, 175 al-Azm family (Damascus), 133 Babacan, Ali, 140 Badr Organization (Iraq), 164,168 Bahrain: Greater Iran concept and, 189, 192; Hezbollah-style militias in, 166 Bakhtiyaris, in Iran, 171, 173,174, 178 Bakiyev, Kurmanbek, 75 Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) oil pipeline, 67, 139, 141 Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum gas pipeline, 67 Balkans: Chinese investment in, 267, 270; Christian nationalist move ments in, 39, 93,94, 96,129; imperial rivalries in, 9, 270; Islamization of, 92; Muslim refugees from, 93, 96-97,129; in Ottoman Empire, 39, 92,128-29; post-Ottoman, nation building projects in, 106; Russian ex pansion in, 38-39, 61; Russo-Turkish tensions over, 270; strategic competi tion between EUZNATO and Russia in, 132,141; Turkey’s interests/influence in, 85, 91, 99,105-6, 128-32, 141-42. See also specific countries Balkan Wars (1912-13), 95, 96 Balkh, Iranian control over, 200, 202 Balochistan, Pakistan, 185 Baltic states: in Russian Empire, 61; separatist movements in, 29, 36 Baluch: in Iranian borderlands, 170,173, 174, 185, 200; Islamic Revolution and, 154 Baluchistan, Iran, 185-87; national ist movement in, 173; in Qajar era, 185-86, 201; volatility in, 169, 17г, 185-86,187 Bandera, Stepan, 35 Յ46 Index Banner system, in Qing China, 217, 221, 236 Banu K’ab tribal confederacy, 178, 179 Banu Tarf tribal confederacy, 178,179 Barkey, Karen, 7 Barzani, Masoud, 118, 119,120 Barzani, Mustafa, 117,118, 182 Basayev, Shamil, 55, 56 Bashkir revolts, 47 Bashkortostan, 45, 51 Bashneft oil company, 51 Basmachi rebellion, 70 Basra province, Iraq, 179 Batumi, Turkish claims on, 126,138, 139-40 Beijing, Treaty of, 259, 261 Bektashis, 92, 97 Belarus: contested identity of, 19, 36; in CSTO, 76; in EAEU, 74; East Slav unity and, 19, 31, 36; PolishLithuanian partitions and, 33; in Russian Empire, 33, 34; in Soviet Union, 34, 35-36; statehood of, 36; as successor state to Kyivan Rus, 31-32; ties with Russia, 24-25, 36-37, 61 Belarusian language, restrictions on use of, 36 Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), China, 14, 68, 78, 208, 251, 263-68; con straints on, 268; EAEU compared to, 75; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76, 79; investments associated with, 265-66; lack of democratic account ability in, 266, 267; and new regional order, pursuit of, 211-12, 252-53, 263-64, 267-68, 272; security role of, 266, 267; tianxia paradigm and, 253, 267-68; UN’s Millennium Develop ment Goals and, 256 Bender, Moldova, 1-2; Russian peace keeping force in, i, 2,4; as transition zone, 15 Bhutan, China’s territorial disputes with, 258,263 Bismarck, Otto von, 11 Bitlisi, Idris-i, in Blue Homeland, Turkey’s concept of, 127 Bolsheviks, minority policies of, 28,47. See also Soviet Union borderlands: Chinese, 210-11, 231-50; Iranian, 150,167,169-88; Russian, 34,44-52, 58-59; Turkish, 84, 86, 107-22; volatility of, ii, 13-14. See also specific regions Bosnia, Turkey’s relations with, 131,132 Bosnian War: refugees from, 127,129; Turkey’s involvement in, 106,129, 13^31 Brest, Union of, 3 2 Brezhnev, Leonid, 35 Britain: departure from EU, 11; Eur asian postimperial states compared to, 3-4,11; and Hong Kong, 4, 213; and Inner Asia, 233; and Khorasan, 2OO-2OI; and Khuzestan, 178 British India, Tibet and, 242-43 Brook, Timothy, 241 Bukhara, Emirate of, 69, 70,183,194, 201 Bulgaria: independence movement in, 38-39; Muslim refugees from, 129; in Ottoman Empire, 128; Turkey’s policies in, 105 Burbank, Jane, 8 Burma, relations with China, 261 Bush, George W., 37 Çakmak, Fevzi, 114 Candar, Cengiz, 126 Catherine II (Empress of Russia): poli cies in Georgia, 64, 197; policies in Ukraine, 3 3 Caucasus: China’s engagement in, 76, 267; elites in, post-Soviet heritage and, 63, 77-78; imperial rivalries in, 9, 63,64, 77,138,191, 270; Iranian cultural influence in, 200; Iranie Index languages spoken in, 158; Iran’s engagement in, 150, 170,190,19499, 205; Kurdish population in, 110; Ottoman Empire and, 93, 96-97,137, 138,196-97; pan-Turkic propaganda in, 102; during Russian Civil War, 54; Russian conquests in, 196,197, 201; Russo-Iranian cooperation in, 205; Russo-Turkish competition in, 138-41, 270; Safavid rule in, 171, 195-96; Turkey’s interests/influence in, 91, 98, 99, 103, 105, 137-41. See also Anatolia, eastern; North Caucasus; South Caucasus; specific countries Caucasus Cooperation and Stability Pact, 140 Caucasus Emirate, 56 Çavuroğlu, Mevlut, 141 CCP. See Chinese Communist Party Cem, Ismail, 126 Central Asia: China’s dominant eco nomic position in, 68, 72, 76, 78-79, 250, 263, 266, 270; China’s engage ment in, 78, 208, 211, 252, 262, 265, 266, 270; cotton production in, 69, 71; elites in, Soviet heritage and, 63, 77-78; Eurasian integration schemes and, 73-76; Greater Iran and, 189; imperial rivalries in, 9, 63, 77, 246, 270; Iran’s involvement in, 150, 190, 191,199-204, 205; post-Soviet states in, 71-72; in Russian Empire, 47, 61, 68-70,183, 201, 259; Russia’s interests/influence in, 20-21, 46, 60, 72-73, 77-78, 270; Soviet rule in, 70-71; Turkey’s interests/influence in, 78, 91, 98, 99, 103,106, 139; U.S. forces deployed in, 72, 75-76. See also specific countries Cevdet Paşa, Ahmed, 93 Chabahar port, Iran, 186; connection to Afghanistan, 203, 204 Charles XII (King of Sweden), 1 347 Chechnya, tqm, 45, 52; declaration of independence, 55-56; imperial forms of rule in, 20; Iran’s relations with, 199; Islamist influences in, 56, 57; in North Caucasus Imamate, 53; and Putin’s rise and legitimation of power, 13, 56; refugees from, in Turkey, 127; resistance to Russian rule, 45, 51, 52; in Russian Empire, 197; Russia’s poli cies regarding, 8, 20, 45, 56, 57-58, 59, 275; subsidies for reconstruction of, 56, 57; Turkey’s approach to con flict in, 97,140-41; wars in, 13, 20, 45, 55-56, 66 Chiang Kai-shek, 221 China: autonomous regions in, 234-35; Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) of, 14, 68, 78, 208, 2II-I2, 251, 252-53, 263-68; “century of humiliation” narrative, 209, 211; civilizational distinctiveness of, belief in, 6, 213; classic imperial model and, 263; and Community of Common Destiny, 212, 251, 256, 257, 265, 267; Cultural Revolution in, frontier regions dur ing, 224, 238, 244, 248, 250; exclusion from current world order, 5; foreign policy of, 251-52; as global power, emergence of, 252-53, 268; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76-77; grow ing economic and military might of, 270-71; imperial legacy and, 2, 3, 8, 208-9, շ67, 269-75; Inner Asian borderlands of, 210-11, 231-50; and international cooperation, alterna tive vision of, 212, 215, 251-52, 255, 256-57; Japanese invasion of, 236; nation-building in, 214, 215, 219-20; and new regional order, aspirations regarding, 123, 205, 21Ī-12, 220, 252-53, 257, 263-64, 267-68; and overseas Chinese (huaqiao huaren), mobilization of, 12-13, 2I5 226-30; Persian language in, 158; 348 Index China (continued) and “politics of difference,” 214, 221; revisionism of, 5-6; and Russia, boundary negotiations with, 211, 258-59, 261, 262; and Russia, chang ing power balance between, 262; and Russia, strategic rapprochement with, 72, 78, 261, 272; security forces in neighboring states, 72, 266; as territorially bounded state, 252, 258; tianxia concept and, 212, 213, 214, 251, 253-57; and Turkey, strategic cooperation with, 104; and U.S., competition with, 274; and “win-win” cooperation, rhetoric of, 209, 212, 264; in World Trade Organization, 5. See also People’s Republic of China (PRC); Republic of China (ROC); specific dynasties and regions Chinese Communist Party (CCP): chal lenges to, and outward pressures, 274; Confucian ideals embraced by, 212, 220, 224, 252, 274; Han-centrism of, 222, 224, 225, 235; minority policies of, 221-25, 234; post-Tiananmen nationalism of, 224; Qing legacy embraced by, 10-11 Chinese identity: ambiguous framing of, 227; concept of zhonghua minzu and, 12, 214, 219, 225, 226-27; Confucian culture and, 213-14, 215, 220; Han centric dimension of, 210, 214-15, 218, 220, 225; imperial elements in, 215, 226, 230, 249; state as arbiter of, 225; territorial conception of, 2 31 ; xuetong zhuyi (principle of blood lineage) and, 227-28 Chinggis Khan, 238; in Chinese national history, 239 CHP (Republican People’s Party), Turkey, 97,102; threat of Kurdish separatism and, 113-14 Christians: in Islamic Republic of Iran, 174; in Ottoman Empire, nationalist movements of, 39, 93, 94, 96,129; Ottoman levy of children (devşirme), 92 Chubais, Anatoly, 61 CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States), 73 civilizational distinctiveness: of China, 6, 213; of Iran, 6,148,160; of postimpe rial Eurasian states, claims regarding, 6, 271, 275; of Russia, 6,40,41-42; of Turkey, 6, 99 Cold War: imperial legacies disguised by, 269-70; Soviet domination of Eastern Europe in, 39; Turkey during, 134 Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), 72, 75-76 Committee of Union and Progress, Turkey. See CUP Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), 73 Community of Common Destiny, China and, 212, 251, 256, 257, 265, 267 compatriots: concept of, imperial legacy and, 25,40,42; Russian irredentism and claims of supporting, 12,40; Russia’s demands for loyalty of, 19; Turkish references to idea of, 90-91 Confucian culture/ideals: and ap proaches to “barbarians,” 215-16, 219; as basis for unification, 214; CCP’s/PRC’s embrace of, 212, 215, 220, 224, 252, 255, 274; and Chinese identity, 213-14, 215, 220; and new international norms, calls for, 256; and political legitimacy, 213-14; spread in Central Asia, 78; and tianxia concept, 213, 214, 251, 255 Cooper, Frederick, 8 Cooperation Council of TurkicSpeaking States (lurkkon), 103 Cossacks: Don, 34; Pugachev uprising, 47; during Russian Civil War, 54; Zaporozhian, 32 Index Covid-19 pandemic, 104, 268 Crimean Peninsula: as ethnic republic, 44; ethnic Russian majority in, 37; Muslim refugees from, 93; panTurkic propaganda in, 102; Russian conquest in 1780s, 138 Crimean Peninsula, Russia’s annexation of, 18; justifications used for, 18, 31, 37,40; popular support for, 273-74; Putin’s popularity boost following, 43; Turkey’s response to, 104 Crimean Tatars: diaspora of, 104; Turk ish solidarity with, 106 Crimean War, 18, 27 CSTO (Collective Security Treaty Orga nization), 72, 75-76 Cultural Revolution, China’s, frontier re gions during, 224, 238, 244, 248, 250 CUP (Committee of Union and Prog ress), Turkey, 82; and massacre of Ottoman Armenians, 138; and pan Turkic propaganda, 102,134; and Turkish nationalism, 95 Cyprus: northern, Turkish invasion of, 135; Turkey’s territorial disputes with, 126,131; Turkish ethnonationalism and crisis over, 103 Cyrus the Great (Achaemenid ruler), 146,147,160 Dagestan, 172«, 45, 52; Chechen inva sion of, 56; Iranian policies regarding, 199; in North Caucasus Imamate, 53; purges of local elites in, 51; in Russian Empire, 64,197; Safavid influence in, 196 Dalai Lama, 240; flight to India, 243, 261; Panchen Lama as alternative to, 244; Qing dynasty and, 241, 242; as Tibet’s spiritual leader, 229, 240 Damad, Mir, 163 Damansky (Zhenbao) Island, 261 Danilevsky, Nikolay, 38 Darius I (Achaemenid ruler), 155 349 Davutoglu, Ahmet, 86; on Arab Spring, too; Balkan pivot of, 130-31; foreign policy vision of, 123,124,125, 126-28,130-31,135-36; on Islam and Turkish identity, 99-100; on Kurdish-Turkish relations, 109, 119, 122; Middle East policies of, 133, 137; post-Ottoman vision of, 101, 142; speech in Sarajevo, 91, 106; on tarihdaşlık, 90; on Turkey’s civiliza tional identity, 99 Dawa Party (Iraq), 164 Demirel, Süleyman, 91,103 Demirtar, Selahattin, 116 Democratic Union Party (PYD), in northern Syria, 120-21 Democrat Party (DP), Turkey, 115 Deng Xiaoping: and geopolitics of tianxia, 255; and Gorbachev, border agreements with, 261, 262; and Han centrism, 224 dervish orders: in Iran, 162; in Ottoman Empire, 92. See also Sufi orders Dink, Hrant, 96 Diyanet (Directorate of Spiritual Affairs), Turkey, 97; outreach using, 130,131 Diyarbakır: Kurdistan eyalet centered on, 112; in Ottoman Empire, IIO-II Dodon, Igor, 132 Donbas, Ukraine, 34, 38 Don Cossacks, 34 DP (Democrat Party), Turkey, 115 Dreyer, June, 224 Dudayev, Dzhokhar, 55 Dugin, Aleksandr, 36, 39,42, 74 Dungans (Hui), in Xinjiang, 245, 246 Durrani, Ahmad Shah, 200 EAEU. See Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) East Slavs: belief in unity of, 19, 31, 36, 41; religion and identity of, 25, 32; in Russian Empire, 23 35° Index East Turkestan: Hi Revolt in, 247, 248; imperial legacy and, 13; Kashgar based Islamic emirate in, 246; Tur key’s interest in, 85. See also Xinjiang East Turkestan Republic (ETR), efforts to create, 247 education: and Chinese influence in Central Asia, 78; and Iranian influ ence in Afghanistan and Tajikistan, 204; and Russification, 26, 27, 29, 51 Eisenstein, Sergey, 29 Elchibey, Abulfaz, 55,177,198 Elliott, Mark, 225 empire: as category of analysis, 6-7; nation-building within, challenges of, 10; and “politics of difference,” 8; teleological view of, 6. See also impe rial legacy empires, Eurasian: boundaries of, 9; collapse of, communal violence ac companying, 10; minority groups in, 9-10; new age of, 2, 15; ruling dynas ties in, 9. See also postimperial states, Eurasian Enver Para, Ismail, 95,138,184 Erbakan, Necmettin, 98, 99, 134 Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip: Balkan policies of, 131,132; Caucasus policies of, 139, 140; foreign policy under, 86, 104, 123-25,і2б 127-28; imperial nostalgia mobilized by, 3,15, 270, 273; on Islamic identity of Turkey, 85, 99-100; Islamist influences on, 98; Kurdish policies of, 116,119; Middle East policies of, 133,135, 137; and national identity, contend ing discourses of, 91; and Ottoman heritage, efforts to reclaim, 3,15, 82, 85, 99,106,123; post-Ottoman vision of, central dilemma in, 101; protests against, 82; on Turkism (Türkçülük), 103; Xinjiang crackdown and, 104, 271 Erekle II (King of Kartli-Kakheti), 64 Eskandar Beg Monshi, 195, 200 ethnic fusion (sliyaniye), concept of, 29 ethnic republics: imperial legacies and, 46-47; as liminal space, 44; national ist movements in, 51-52; nativization (korenizatsiya) policy in, 34-35,48, 49; “politics of difference” in, 8, 20, 45, 57-58; Russian efforts to tighten authority over, 58, 59; in Russian Federation, 20, 44-45, 50-52; after Soviet collapse, 20, 66; in Soviet Union, 20, 34-35, 37,47-52, 54-55, 70-71; Yeltsin’s efforts to separate Russia from, 20, 24, 62. See also specific republics ethnonationalism: Chinese, 219; emer gence of, impact on Eurasian em pires, 10, 24; and hostility to empire, 29, 30, 38; Iranian, 158, 181; Russian, 24, 27-31, 38; Turkish, 91,101-3; Turkmen, 183-84; undercurrent of, in postimperial Eurasian states, 12 Eurasia: as geographic pivot of history, 9; multipolar, emergence of, 21; Russian use of term, 73. See also empires, Eur asian; postimperial states, Eurasian; specific countries and regions Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), 14, 74-75, 78, 272; and Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), 79; and Greater Eur asia initiative, 76; and Iran, 205 Eurasian identity, promotion of, 39 Eurasian integration, Russian schemes for, 73-77 Eurasianism, 39 European imperialism, Eurasian empires compared to, 9-10 European Union (EU): Balkan states and, 131, 132; Britain’s departure from, 11 ; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76; Russia in relation to, 5, 62, 13 2 ; Turkish membership in, elusive quest for, 5,130 Index Far East, Russian: agricultural coloniza tion of, 47; China’s relations with, 252, 258; imperial legacies in, 46 Far North, Russian, 46. See also Siberia Fars, Iran, 172,19Ճ Fatemiyoun Division, Syria, 168 Faulkner, William, 15 Ferdowsi, Abolqasem, 154,156, 193 Ferghana Valley: resistance to Russian rule, 70; Soviet republics in, 71 Filofey (Russian monk), 38 Finland, Grand Duchy of, separatist movement in, 27-28 Finland, NATO membership of, Russian position on, 61 France, imperial legacy of, 3-4 Gamsakhurdia, Zviad, 5 5 Gaspirah (Gasprinsky), Ismail, 94-95 Georgia: breakaway regions in, 66, 67, 68; Iranian influence in, efforts to reestablish, 199; NATO member ship of, calls for, 67,141; Orthodox Church of, 64; in Ottoman Empire, 138; Rose Revolution in, 63, 67, 199, 273; Russian annexation of (1801), 65, 138,197; Russian influence in, 55, 62, 64, 67; Russian invasion of (2008), 40, 68,140,141,199; Safavid rule in, 171, 195; after Soviet collapse, 66; Tur key’s relations with, 139-40,141; U.S. influence in, concerns about, 67-68 Ghaznavid dynasty, 193 Gizel, Innokenty, 32-33 global economic crisis of 2008: and push for Eurasian integration, 74; Turkey after, 141 global order, Westphalian: alternative vi sions of, 272, 275; Chinese alternative to, 212, 251-52, 255, 256-57, 266; Eurasian postimperial states and chal lenges to, 4, 5, 7, II, 15, 270, 271-72, 275; Islamic Republic’s rejection of, 161; U.S. and, 4, 5, 271 351 Gobineau, Joseph Arthur de, 157 Gökalp, Ziya, 95, 101,103, 114 Goldsmid, Sir Frederic, 200-201 Gorbachev, Mikhail: and China, strategic rapprochement with, 261, 262; and ethnic republics, 49, 55 Gorchakov, Aleksandr, 69 Greater China (Da Zhongguo), vs. China proper (Benbu Zhongguo), 234 Greater East Asian Coprosperity Sphere, Japan and, 236 Greater Eurasia initiative, 76-77, 79 Greater Iran (Iranzamin), idea of, 150, 189-94, 205-6 Greater Khorasan. See Khorasan Greater Turkey, idea of, 90; challenges to, 105-6; in Kurdish borderlands, 109 Greater Turkic World, 91, 92 Great Leap Forward, and Han coloniza tion, 248 Great Qing (Da Qing), 210, 249; terri tory of, ca. 1800, 2077га Great Russians, 19 Great Unity (datonģ), concept of, 212 Great Wall, China, 216, 237 Great Western Development program (China), 249, 262 Greece: in Ottoman Empire, 128; population exchange with Turkey, 129; Turkey’s territorial disputes with, 126,131 Greek Catholic Church, creation of, 32 Green Movement (Iran), 188 Guangxi, China, 2 34 Gülen, Fethullah, 103 Gülen schools: in Balkans, 130, 132; in Caucasus, 139 Gulf War (1991), 118 Gumilev, Lev, 39, 74 Guomindang, 209, 221; and Inner Asian borderlands, 233; minority policies of, 221, 222; position on Mongolia, 260 352 Index Halveti order, 92 Halych-Volyn (Galicia-Volhynia), 32 Hamas, Iran’s support for, 149,155 Hamidiye Light Cavalry Regiments, 113,115 Han, Enze, 240 Hanafi madhab, and Turkish Islam, 105, no, 112 Hanbali madhab, 105 Han dynasty (China), relations with “barbarians,” 215, 216, 220, 245 Han identity/culture, in China: CCP and, 222, 224; centrality of, 210, 214-15, 218, 220, 225; state based on, 218-19 Han population: in Inner Mongolia, 237, 238-39, 240; resettlement of, as tool for integration, 250; in Tibet, 235, 244-45; in Xinjiang, 235, 248, 249 Hatay (Alexandretta), Turkish claims on, 126,135 Hawaii, Chinese émigrés in, 227 Hayat Tahrir al-Sham, Turkey’s support for, ΙΟΙ Hazaras, in Afghanistan, 203, 204 HDP (Peoples’ Democratic Party), Turkey, 116,117, 122 Helali (Safavid poet), 200 Herat: Imam Khomeini Relief Commit tee in, 204; Iranian influence in, 200, 201, 202; in Persian world, 194 Hezb-e Wadhat (Party of Unity), Af ghanistan, 202, 203 Hezbollah, 165-66; Iran’s support for, 155, 165,168 Hillman, Jonathan, 264 Hobson, J. A., 9 Holodomor, 35 Holy Rus, concept of, 41; imperial legacy and, 25 Hong Kong: Britain and, 4, 213; Chinese claims to, 226, 252 Hong Taiji, 238 Hosayn Khan, 185 Hosking, Geoffrey, 3, 23 Houthis, 167 huaxia (civilization), concept of, 213; li (ritual) and, 216; vs. tianxia, 253; and zhonghua minzu (all-Chinese nation), 214 Hui (Dungans), in Xinjiang, 245, 246 Hu Jintao, 251, 265 Hungary, in Ottoman Empire, 128 Huntington, Samuel, 6 Hussein, Saddam. See Saddam Hussein Ichkeria, Chechen Republic of, 55-56 identity, culturally focused approaches to, 12. See also national identity Ui Revolt, East Turkestan, 247, 248, 261 Ilkhanate, 156 Ilyin, Ivan, 28, 31, 36 imperial legacy: as category of analysis, 6-7; of China, 2, 3, 8, 208-9, 269-75; Cold War rivalty disguising, 269-70; combined with nationalism, paradox of, 10-11; and concept of compatriots, 25,40, 42; elites and ap peal to, 3, 4, 8, ri, 14-15; of Eurasian postimperial states, 2-4, 8,15, 269-75; impact on peripheries, 8; of Iran, 2, 3, 8, 269-75; persistence of, 269-70; rejected by Turkish Republic, 83-84, 85; of Russia, 2, 3, 8, 18-21,43, 78-79, 269-75; factors undermining, 43, 7879; salience for contemporary politics, 2, n, 15; ofTurkey, 2, 3, 8, 90-92, 101-6,123-28, 141-42, 269-75. See also postimperial states, Eurasian India: and China, relations with, 243, 255, 258; Dalai Lama in, 243, 261; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76, 77; and Tibet, 242-43, 244 Ingushetia, iqm, 45, 52; Iranian interests in, 199; resistance to Russian rule in, 54; Soviet administrative reforms and, 55 Index Inner Asia: assimilationist policies in, 224-25,232,235-37.244-45,25°; Chinese policies in, 21Ճ, 231-50; his tory of de facto sovereignty in, 233; imperial rivalry in, 233, 234; Qing dynasty and, 232-34, 241-42, 245-47; regions composing, 232; Soviet intervention in, 234, 245, 247. See also specific regims Inner Mongolia, 210, 232, 237-40; as similation of, 239-40; as autonomous region, 234, 238 İnönü, İsmet, 109 interimperial “shatter zone(s)”, 9, 63, 64, 77,138, 246, 270; managed competi tion over, 272-73 International Monetary Fund, Chinese development assistance compared to, 266 International North-South Transit Cor ridor, 198 international order. See global order, Westphalian Iran: 2,500th anniversary of founding of, 146; adoption of Shi’ism in, 148, 162; and Afghanistan, 149, 155, 191, 192,199, 200-204, 2O5i and anti-ISIS resistance in Iraq, 164; borderlands of, 150, 167, 169-88; claims to excep tionalism, 6,148,160; competition between U.S. and Russia/China and, 275; as “empire of the mind,” 154, 192; entanglement with peripheries of, 14; exclusion from current world order, 5; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76, 77; imperial legacy of, 2, 3, 8,146-48,150, 159,160, 205-6, 269-75; and Iraqi Shi’a, 164-65; Kurds in, 117, 180-83; minority groups in, 149,154,169-88; nation building in, 156-58; origins of name, 155-56; Persianate cultural realm and, 148,158,192; and “politics of difference,” 149-50; pre-Islamic past 353 of, as lost golden age, 157; revision ism of, explanations for, 5-6; Soviet occupation during World War II, 176, 181-82; supraethnic/suprareligious idea of, durability of, 275; as territori ally bound nation, efforts to reimag ine, 149,153, 154; territory of, ca. 1740, 145m; victimization narrative of, 150, 201; vulnerability to exploita tion by Russia and China, 271; during World War 1,169,170,172,176,180; during World War II, 169,170,176, 181-82. See also Islamic Republic of Iran; specific dynasties and regions Iranian identity: contested and plural nature of, 153, 274; ethnic compo nent of, 157; Islamic and imperial strands of, tension between, 274; Islam/Shi’ism and, 153,159,167-68, 177; Persian and Islamic strands of, synthesis of, 154,159-60; Persianate culture and, 148,153-54,158; sectar ian approach to, 167; supranational, Islamic Republic’s appeal to, 171 Iran-Iraq War: Afghan refugees during, 202; imperial symbols invoked in, 148, 2 74; Iranian Kurdistan dur ing, 182; Iraqi Shi’as during, 159; Khuzestan during, 179; sectarianism in, 149 Iranzamin (Greater Iran), idea of, 150, 189-94, 2θ5-6 Iraq: anti-Iranian protests among Shi’as in, 168; anti-ISIS resistance in, 164; artificial borders of, 135; Greater Iran concept and, 192; Hezbollahstyle militias in, 166,168; as imperial periphery, 9; Iran’s ambitions toward, 191 ; Kurds in, massacres of, 109,118; Kurds in, Turkey’s policies regarding, 86,107,108,109,117,118-20,12 2; in Ottoman Empire, 133; and PKK, 84, 118,119; refugees from, in Tur key, 127; separation from Ottoman 354 Index Iraq (continued) Empire, 134; Shi’ite parties/movements in, 163-Ճ5; Talabani as presi dent of, 161; ties with Iran, adoption of Shi’ism and, 148; Turkey’s interest in, 124,133,135; Turkmen militias in, 103; U.S.-led invasion of, and opportunities for Iran, 191; U.S.-led invasion of, Turkey’s response to, 119, 133,135; war in, Iran’s involvement in, 155 IRGC. See Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Isfahan: Afghans’ conquest of, 163,196, 200; in Safavid empire, 196 Islam: and Iranian identity, 153,159, 167-68,177, 274; and nationalism, in Turkey, 91-92, 98,105; vs. nationality, Khomeini on, 159; Ottoman, model of, 98, 99,127; in Ottoman Empire, 92; and Ottoman identity, 85, 93, 94; political, rise in Turkey, 129; and Rus sia’s borderlands/peripheries, 56, 57, 68, 72; territorially bounded form of, Kemalist project of, 97; in Turkey’s vision of new regional order, 127-28, 142; Turkish (democratic), model of, 105,123; and Turkish identity, conceptions of, 85, 90, 91, 99-100, 105. See also Shi’as/Shi’ism; Sunnis/ Sunnism Islamic Party of Azerbaijan, 198 Islamic Republic of Iran, 147, 153; and Azerbaijan, 197-99; backlash against foreign adventures of, 168; border lands of, administration of, 150,186, 187; and China, 205; democratic rule in, imperfect history of, 161, 273; ethnic unrest in, potential for, 188; foreign policy of, 149,150, 159, 190; Greater Iran (Iranzamin) idea and, 190,194; haphazard borders of, 148; as hybrid state, 161; imperial legacy and, 147-48,150,159,160, 205-6, 274; and Middle East’s sectar ian geopolitics, 154-55; nationality subsumed by Islam in, 159; and new regional order, aspirations regarding, 155,165-66,168,190-91; non Persian and non-Shi’ite periphery of, policies in, 173-74,187-88; and per manent revolution, 161 ; and Russia, 194, 199, 205; sectarian movements promoted by, 154-55, *65, 168; Shi’ism and foreign policy of, 148-49, 154-55,161-68; and supranational Iranian identity, appeal to, 170-71; synthesis of Islam and Persian-Iranian nationalism in, 149,154,159-61; U.S. and, campaign of resistance against, 147,150-51,155, 161 Islamic Revolution (1979), Iran: efforts to spread, 154,165; Iranian Kurdistan during, 182; Iranian Turkmen during, 184; minorities’ support for, 149, 154; trauma accompanying loss of empire and, 151 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), 161; and Badr Organization, 164; and Hezbollah, 165; minority groups represented in, 174 Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS): Central Asians in ranks of, 72; siege ofKobani, Syria, 107, no, 116,119, 120; Sistani’s fatwa against, 164; Syrian Democratic Forces in fight against, 120 Islamist movements/Islamism: in Chechnya, 56, 57; in Turkey, 97-98; Turkey’s support for, too Ismail I (Safavid ruler), 148,161,162,196 Israel: Azerbaijan and, 177; EAEU and, 75; Hezbollah as military check on, 166; invasion of southern Lebanon, 165; Iran’s campaign of resistance against, 161; Turkey’s relations with, 133,134,136. See ako Palestine Ivan III (Grand Prince of Muscovy), 32 Index Ivan IV (Tsar of Russia), 25, 29, 46 Izetbegovic, Alija, 132 Izetbegovic, Bakir, 132 Jaish al-Adl (Baluch group), 187 al-Jalili family (Mosul), 133 Jamiat-e Islami, 202 Jangalis, uprising of, 172 Japan: and Inner Asia, 233, 234, 236, 259; invasion of China, 236 Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu, 259 Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Russian Federation, 51 Jews: in Islamic Republic of Iran, 174; in Russian Empire, 27; in Turkey, 96; in Ukraine, 3 5 Jia Yi, 254 Jordan: separation from Ottoman Empire, 134; Turkey’s relations with, 135 Jundullah (Baluch group), 187 Jurchen, 235. See also Manchus Justice and Development Party (Turkey). SeeAKP Kabardino-Balkaria, гут, 52, 56 Kadeer, Rebiya, 229 Kadyrov, Akhmad, 56, 57 Kadyrov, Ramzan, 8, 20, 57-58, 59 Kai-wing Chow, 218 Kalat, Khanate of, 185 Kalin, Ibrahim, 124, 136 Kandahar, Iranian control of, 200 Kangxi Emperor (Qing ruler), 242 KangYouwei, 214, 218, 219, 227, 255 Karachaevo-Cherkessia, 17m, 52 al-Karaki al-Amili, Ali al-Muhaqqiq, 163 Karakoç, Sezai, 119 Kartli-Kakhetí, Kingdom of, 64, 195, 197 Karzai, Hamid, 203 Kashani-Sabet, Firoozeh, 157, 189 Kata’ib Hezbollah militia (Iraq), 164 Katkov, Mikhail N.,27 355 Kazakhs: along PRC’s borders, 223; in Xinjiang, 245, 248 Kazakhstan: Belt and Road Initia tive (BRI) announced in, 208, 264; China’s relations with, 211,252,257, 258, 262; denomadization of, 71; in EAEU, 74; ethnic Russian minority in, 63; Eurasian integration plans and, 74; Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and, 76; nuclear testing in, 71; Russia’s engagement with, 61, 70, 71, 72, 259; Soviet republic of, 70-71; uprising during World War I, 70; Uyghur diaspora organizations in, 257 Kazakh steppe, Russian settlement in, 69-70 Kazan khanate, Russian conquest of, 25, 46 KDPI (Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran), 181,182 Kemal, Mustafa. See Atatiirk Kemal, Namık, 94 Kermani, Mirza Aqa lihan, 157 Kerman-Sistan, Qajar rule in, 172 Khakassia, Republic of, 45 Khalka Mongols, 259 Khamenei, Ayatollah Ali: on cultural ties with Tajikistan, 204; elevation to rank of ayatollah, 164; Greater Iran (Iranzamin) idea and, 194; and Hezbollah, 166; imperial past invoked by, 3,160; on Persian language and culture, 174; and Sistani, 164 Khan, Ismail, 203 Khan, Sulmaan Wasif, 243 Khatami, Mohammad, 174 al-Khattab, Ibn, 56 Khazal of Mohammareh, Sheykh, 178 Khiabani, Mohammad, 176,177 Khiva, Khanate of, 69, 70,183, 201 Khmelnitskiy, Bohdan, 32, 35 Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah, 147-48, 161; in Atabat, 163; and denigration of nationality, 159; and Doctrine of 356 Index Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah (continued) Absolute Guardianship, 161,163; and Iranian identity, 167-68,171; opposi tion to, 176-77, 179; and permanent revolution, 161 Khoqand, Khanate of, 69, 71, 201, 246 Khorasan (Greater Khorasan), 191,192, 199; etymology of name, 200; impe rial rivalries in, 200-201; Iran’s objec tives in, 199, 201-4; major figures of, 194; northern, nomadic Turkmen of, 172,183,184; Persianization of, 184, 202; Qajar rule in, 172, 200; Safavid rule in, 170,171,172,196, 200; volatility of Iran’s borderlands in, 170, 172,183,193, 200 al-Khorasani, Abu Muslim, 159 Khorgos special economic zone, China and, 263 Khrushchev, Nikita, 29, 35,49, 54 Khuzestan (Arabestan), Iranian, 178-80; Islamic Republic’s policies in, 174; Saddam Hussein’s plans to annex, 179; Safavid rule in, 171; during World War 1,172 Kirill (Russian Patriarch), 41 Kısakürek, Necip Fazıl, 98 Kobani, Syria, ISIS siege of, 107, no, 116,119, 120 Komi, protests in, 51 Korea, tianxia concept and, 252 Koreans, along PRC’s borders, 223 korenizatsiya (nativization) policy, Soviet, 34-35,48,49 Kosovo: refugees from, 127; Turkish policies in, 130, 131,132 Kotku, Mehmed Zahid, 97 KRG (Kurdistan Regional Govern ment), Iraq, aS·,peshmerga fighters loyal to, 107,119; Turkey’s relations with, 86,107,108,109,119-20, 122 Kumar, Krishan, 8,12 Kurbsky, Andrey, 41 Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran (KDPI), 181,182 Kurdish languages, no; Turkey’s ban on, 114 Kurdish tribal emirates, in Ottoman Empire, 84, in; abolition of, 112 Kurdistan, Iranian, 171,180-83; crossborder ties with Kurdish populations, 180; Islamic Republic policies in, 174; nationalist movements in, 173,176, 181-83; Safavid rule in, 171; during World War 1,180; during World War П, 176,181-82 Kurdistan, Ottoman, partition of, 107-8. See also Kurds, Turkish Kurdistan Regional Government (Iraq). SeřKRG Kurdistan Workers Party (Turkey). See PKK Kurds: and Armenians, conflicts of, in, 112,113; divisions among, no, 116-17; m Iran, 117,180-83; in Iraq, 86,107, 108, 109,117, 118-20, 122; Islamic Revolution in Iran and, 154; nationalist movement of, 112; in Ottoman Empire, 110-13; Ottoman partition and, 107-8,113, 117; in Perso-Iranic world, 154; in Syria, 107, 109, 117,120-21, 122. See also Kurdi stan; Kurds, Turkish Kurds, Turkish, 107-22; AKP’s strategy for integrating, 86, 109, 113, 115-17, 122; in early Republic, 113-14; left-wing activism among, 115; op portunities for, 108-9; “politics of difference” regarding, in, 114-15; separatism among, Ataturk's response to, 13,108,113-14; tribal elites of, relations with state, 113,115; violence against, 84; during War of Independence, 113. See also PKK Kuwait, formation of, 178 Kyivan Rus: successor states to, 31-32; and unity of East Slavs, 31, 36,42 Index Kyrgyz, in Xinjiang, 245, 248 Kyrgyzstan: China’s relations with, 211, 252, 257, 258, 262; in CSTO, 75; in EAEU, 75; ethnic Russian minority in, 63; labor migrants from, in Russia, 73; Persian language in, 158; revolu tions in, 63, 68; Russian involvement in, 72, 259; Soviet republic of, 71; uprising during World War I, 70; U.S. forces deployed in, 72, 75-76; Uyghur diaspora organizations in, 257 Landau, Jacob, 103 Lausanne, Treaty of, 83,126,129,135 Lebanon: Hezbollah in, 165-66; Iran’s relations with, 148,149,163, 165-66; separation from Ottoman Empire, 134; Turkey’s relations with, 135 LeDonne, John, 33 Lenin, Vladimir: and ethnoterritorial federalism, 48; on European imperi alism, 9; on Great Russian chauvin ism, 28 li (ritual), and Chinese cultural space, 215-16 Liang Qichao, 214, 217-18, 219, 221, 227 liberal democracies, postimperial Eur asian states’ failure to become, 4, 5 Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR), 30, 62 Libya: Russo-Turkish tensions over, 270, 271; Turkey’s intervention in, 86,124, 133,47 Lieven, Dominic, 7, 15 Little Russians, 19, 32-33, 34 Liu Qing, 253 Liu Xiaoyuan, 232, 243, 254 Liu Zhenmin, 266 Lorestan, Safavid rule in, 171 Lukashenko, Aleksandr, 36, 37 Luxemburg, Rosa, 48 Luzhkov, Yury, 40 357 Macao: Chinese claims to, 226; tianxia concept and, 252 Mackinder, Halford John, 9 Mahabad, Kurdish Republic based in, 181-82 Mahmud II (Ottoman Sultan), in-12 MalkumKhan, 157 Mamluks, Ottoman conquest of, 92 Manchukuo, 236 Manchuria (Northeastern China), 210, 235-37; assimilation and deterritorialization of, 232, 235-37; imperial rivalry in, 235, 236, 259 Manchus, 235; anger directed against, 217; as distinct minzu in China, 237; in Qing dynasty, 9, 217 Mansur, Sheykh (Chechen leader), 53, 55 Mao Zedong: campaign against Soviet revisionism, 261; and minority poli cies, 221-22, 243; on tianxia, 255 Martin, Terry, 48 Mashhad, Khorasan: Iranian control of, 170, 200; as Shi’ite center, 163 Masoud, Ahmed Shah, 202-3 al-Masri, Aziz Ali, 134 Matthee, Rudi, 200 Mazeppa, Ivan, 1 Mazzaoui, Michael, 162 Medvedev, Dmitry, 40, 60, 74 Mehmed VI (Ottoman Sultan), 82 MEK (Mojahedin-e Khalq), 179 mellat, concept of, 156,157 Menderes, Adnan, 115, 273 Merv, 183; Iranian control over, 200, 201 Mesopotamia: in Greater Iran, 189; imperial rivalries in, 9, 270; Iran’s borderlands in, 170; Ottoman legacy in, 124,134 Mevlevi order, 92 МНР (Nationalist Movement Party), Turkey, 86, 91; accommodation with Islamist parties, 103; solidarity with Crimean Tatars and Uyghurs, 106; on Turkish identity, 102 35^ Index Middle East: Iranie languages spoken in, 158; Iran’s ambitions regarding, 168, 190; Islamist movements in, Turkey’s support for, 100, 136; in Ottoman Empire, 133-34; post-Ottoman, nation-building projects in, 106; sec tarian geopolitics of, Islamic Republic of Iran and, 12, 154-55,168; Turkey’s interests in, 99, 127,133-37; TurkishIranian tensions over, 270. See ako specific countries millets·, in Ottoman Empire, 92-93, in, 114; and Turkey’s vision of new regional order, 128 Milli Görüş (National Vision), Turkey, 97, 98, 99; and AKP, origins of, 99; influence among Turkish migrants in Europe, 100 Ming dynasty (China), 222,237; ap proach to Inner Asia, 216 minzu (nationality/ethnic groups): in People’s Republic of China (PRC), 209-10, 214-15, 222; illegitimacy of secession based on, 220; non-Han, 222-23, 237 Misak-i Milli (National Oath), Turkey, 95,125-26,134-35, 138 Mohammad Reza Shah. See Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza Shah Mohseni, Ayatollah Asif, 203, 204 Mojahedin-e Khalq (MEK), 179 Moldova, Republic of: Russian peace keeping force in, i, 2,4; unrecognized statelet of Transnistria within, 1-2, 15 Mongolia: China’s Inner Asian periphery and, 211, 232, 237; China’s relations with, 239, 252, 258, 261; indepen dence of, 211, 237, 259-60. See also Inner Mongolia; Outer Mongolia Monroe Doctrine, 61 Mosaddeq, Mohammad, 150 Mosul: ISIS occupation of, 119; in Otto man Empire, no-11, i33;Turkey’s claims on, 126,135 Motahhari, Morteza, 159 Motherland Party (Russia), 31 Mozaffar al-Din Shah (Qajar ruler), 185 Muhammad Ali Para, iii, 112,133,180 al-Muhandis, Abu Mahdi, 165 Muscovy: as successor state to Kyivan Rus, 31-32. See also Russia Muslim Brotherhood, Turkey’s support for, 101,136 Muslim Unity Party (Iran), 186 Nader Shah (Afsharid ruler), 170,175, 195, Ï97 Nagorno-Karabakh, after World War I, 65 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, 66, 67; Iran’s position on, 177, 197; refugees from, 127; Turkey’s position on, 103, 104, 138,139, 141,142 Najaf, Iraq: Iranian consulate in, attack on, 168; as Shi’ite center, 163-64,165 Najibullah, Muhammad, 202, 203 Nakhjavan (Nakhichevan): khanate of, 64; after World War I, 65 Naqshbandiyya order: common religious framework of, and Kurdish-Turkish reconciliation, 115-16; in North Caucasus, 53-54; in Ottoman Em pire, 92; in Turkey, 97 Naser al-Din Shah (Qajar ruler), 183, 185, 201 Nashi (Russian youth movement), 31 Natali, Denise, 181 national identity: ambiguity of, in postimperial Eurasian states, 11-13. See also supraethnic national identity; specific national identities nationalism: imperialism and, in Eur asian states, 10-11; Islam and, in Iran, 149, 154,159-61; Islam and, in Turkey, 91-92, 98,105. See also ethnonationalism Nationalist Movement Party (Turkey). See МНР Index Nationalist Party (China). See Guomindang National Oath (Turkey). See Misak-t Milli National Vision (Turkey). See Milli Görüş NATO: Balkan states and, 132,141; Georgia’s membership in, calls for, 67,141; Moldova’s membership in, Russian objections to, 2; Russia in relation to, 5, 62, 132, 273; Turkey’s accession to, 84 Navalny, Aleksey, 30, 273 Nazism, Ukrainian nationalism associ ated with, 35, 38 “near abroad”: of Iran, 164; of postim perial Eurasian states, 11,14-15; of Russian Federation, 60; Russian term for, 14, 60 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 255 Nemtsov, Boris, 57, 58 neo-Eurasianism, 39 neo-Ottomanism, 123, 125 Nepal, China’s territorial disputes with, 258, 261, 263 Nerchinsk, Treaty of, 259 Nevsky, Aleksandr, 29 Nicholas I (Emperor of Russia), 26, 27, 65 Nicholas II (Emperor of Russia), 24, 2 7, 28 Ningxia, China, 234 Nonaligned Movement, 255 North Africa, Ottoman legacy in, 124, 133,134 North Caucasus, 52-58; agricultural colonization of, 47; ethnic cleansing under Stalin, 54; ethnic republics in, 44, 52; imperial legacy and, 13,45, 46; incorporation in Russian Empire, 53; Iranian engagement in, 199; lim inal status of, 44, 53; Putin’s policies in, 56-58; resistance to Russian rule in, 53-54, 55; after Soviet Union’s 359 collapse, 20; Sufi orders in, 53-54, 55; system of indirect rule in, 56-57. See also specific countries North Caucasus Imamate, 53 Northern Alliance, in Afghanistan, 203 North Korea, territorial demands from China, 261 North Macedonia, Turkish policies in, North Ossetia, iqm, 45, 52, 55 Novorossiya guberniya, in Russian Em pire- 33- 37 Nurhaci (Qing founder), 237 Öcalan, Abdullah, 109,118,120,122 OCAO (Overseas Chinese Affairs Of fice), 228, 229 Opium Wars, 217, 259 Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), 35 Orthodox Church: and East Slavs, unity of, 25, 32; Georgian, Russian policies regarding, 64; and Russian identity, 23, 25; and Russian World, concept of, 41 Ottoman Empire: Balkans in, 39, 92, 128-29; Caucasus and, 137,138; Christian nationalist movements in, 39, 93, 94, 96,129; ethnic violence in, 65, 93-96,105,112,113; former, nation-building in, 125; fragmenta tion of, 89,134; heritage of, AKP and revival of, 82, 85-86, 90-91,113,123, 124; Islam in, 92; Kurds in, 110-13; legacy of, and Turkey’s geopoliti cal ambitions, 3,12,90-92,101-6, 123-28,141-42; legal successor of, 83; Middle East in, 133-34; millets in, 92-93, nr, 114; Moldavia in, 1, 2; and “politics of difference,” 142; religious minorities in, 92, 93; terri tory of, ca. 1689, 81m; in World War I, 82,95,138 Ottoman identity, Islam and, 85, 93,94 16ο Index Ottomanism/Ottoman nationalism, 93-94; Turkish language and, 10,12 OUN (Organization of Ukrainian Na tionalists), 35 “Outer Manchuria,” 258 Outer Mongolia: anti-Qing revolts in, 210; China’s loss of, 237, 259-60. See also Mongolia overseas Chinese (huaqiao huaren): China’s mobilization of, 12-13, 2I5 226—30; concept oi zhonghua minzu and, 226-27 Overseas Chinese Affairs Office (OCAO), 228, 229 overseas Russians, in Russian World concept, 41 Özal, Turgut, 98-99,103; foreign policy of, 126, 130,134,139; Iraqi Kurdish factions and, 117; Kurdish ancestry of, 109, 115-16; rise of political Islam under, 129 Özdağ, Umit, 102 Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza Shah: ceremony at Persepolis, 146-47; and Greatoer Iran (Iranzamin) idea, 194; and imperial nostalgia, 274; on Khuzestan, importance of, 178-79; Kurdish independence efforts and, 181-82; overthrow of, 147; and Persianization of Iranian identity, 158; and suppression of ethnic minorities, 117,158, 181-82; U.S. support for, 150; and western Afghanistan, 202; wife of, 173 Pahlavi, Reza Shah, 149,153, 154,158; consolidation of power by, 172,178; nationalist framework established by, 173; and non-Persian border lands, 178,181,184, 186; ouster of, US Pahlavi dynasty, Iran: and idea of Greater Iran (Iranzamin), 190; and Kurdish population, 181; minority policies of, 173,181,186; nation building project of, 158, 181; and Persian-centric conception of Iranian identity, 154, 158, 188 Pakistan: Baluch minority in, 185,187; and China, security mechanism with, 266; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76, 77; Greater Iran concept and, 192; Hezbollah-style militias in, 166; and Iranian Baluch, 186; Iran’s rela tions with, 205; and Pashtun groups in Afghanistan, 202; Persian language in, 158 Palestine: separation from Ottoman Empire, 134; Turkey’s involvement in, 133, 136-37 Palestinian Islamic Jihad, Iran’s support for, 155 Panchen Lama, 244 pan-Slavism, 38-39 pan-Turkism, 101-2. See also Turkism (Türkçülük) Pan Yihong, 216 Party for a Free Life in Kurdistan (PJAK), 182,183 Pashtuns: in Afghan civil war, 202, 203; fall of Isfahan to, 163,196, 200; in Perso-Iranic world, 154; in Taliban, 203 Paskevich, Ivan, 65 Pavlovsky, Gleb, 41, 58 Peaceful Coexistence, policy of, 255 Peoples’ Democratic Party (Turkey). See HDP People’s Protection Units (Syria). See YPG People’s Republic of China (PRC): Confucian symbolism embraced by, 212, 215, 220, 255, 274; as hybrid state, 210; imperial view of frontiers as transition zones, 260-61; and In ner Asian borderlands, 233, 236-37; minority policies in, 221-25; minzu (ethnic groups) within, 209-10, Index 214-15, 222; name of, zhonghua in, 219; nationality law in, 228; nation building in, 214, 215, 219-20; and overseas Chinese (huaqiao huaren), policies toward, 12-13, 215, 227, 228-30; Qing territorial legacy and, 209, 237, 249, 258-59; and territorial accommodation, strategy of, 261; as territorially bounded state, 258. See also China Pereyaslav, Peace of, 32, 33 peripheries: Eurasian postimperial states’ entanglement with, 4, 9,10, 14-15; imperial legacies in, 8. See aho borderlands Persianate culture/world: and Iranian identity, 148,153-54,158,174, 275; and Islam, in Islamic Repub lic of Iran, 149,154,159-61; unity of, Iranian politicians’ emphasis on, 160 Persian Gulf, Iran’s foreign policy and, 190 Persian language: countries/regions us ing, 153,158, 202; Islamic Republic of Iran and, 159,174 peshmerga fighters, Turkey and, 107, 119 Peter I the Great (Emperor of Russia), 1; administrative reforms under, 46; conquests in Caucasus, 196; and idea of common Russian identity, 23, 26 Pishevari, Jafar, 176,177, 181 PJAK (Party for a Free Life in Kurdis tan), 182,183 PKK (Kurdistan Workers Party), Tur key: AKP’s strategy for reconciliation with, 86, 109; foreign powers using, 108; idea of trans-boundary Kurdish identity and, 183; insurgency waged by, 84,108,115; Iranian offshoot of, 182; Iraqi Kurdish factions as allies against, 117,119; permeability of Turkish borders and, 118; resumption of conflict with, 116,122; Russian ties 361 to, 140-41; and YPG/PYD in Syria, 107,120 PME (Popular Mobilization Forces), Iraq, 164-65 Poland: deployment of U.S. forces in, Russia’s position on, 61; and south western Rus, 32; Soviet projection of power in, 18, 28. See also Poles Poland-Lithuania: Orthodox believers in, 32; refugees from, resettlement in Ukraine, 33 Polar Silk Road, 268 Poles: massacres of, in Ukraine, 35; in Russian Empire, 10, 27, 28, 33 “politics of difference”: China and, 214, 221; empires and, 8, to, 11; Iran and, 149-50; Russia and, 8, 20,45, 52, 56, 57-58, 59; Turkey and, in, 114-15, 142 Politkovskaya, Anna, 57 Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF), Iraq, 164-65 postimperial states, Eurasian: border lands of, volatility of, it, 13-14; chal lenges facing, 11-15; claims to special status, 271, 275; enduring imperial legacies of, 2-4, 8,15, 269-75; global order threatened by, 4, 5, 7, 11,15, 270, 271-72, 275; increasing align ment among, 4, 272-73; national identity in, ambiguity of, 11-і 3; “near abroads” of, 11,14-15; peripheries of, entanglement with, 4, 9,10,14-15; political systems in, 5, 275; power disparities among, 270-71; revision ism of, 4-6; synthesis of nationalism and imperialism in, іо-ii; unstable boundaries of, 10; Western empires compared to, 3-4,11. See also specific countries PRC. See People’s Republic of China Primakov, Yevgeny, 62 Prosperous Borders Wealthy Minorities program (China), 262 16z Index Pugachev, Yemelyan, 47 Putin, Vladimir: and annexation of Crimean Peninsula, 18, 31,40, 43; approach to ethnic autonomies, 5052; borderland policies of, 45, 58-59; and China, relations with, 261; and civic basis of Russian identity, 30; eth nonationalist movements and, 30-31; on Eurasian integration, 73-74, 76; imperial nostalgia mobilized by, 3,15, 18, 23, 270, 273; on national iden tity, 24; North Caucasus policies of, 56-58; popularity among far-right movements in U.S. and Europe, 42; and “power vertical,” aspiration to create, 45; Primakov and, 62; rise and legitimation of, centrality of Chech nya to, 13, 56; and Russian World Foundation, 41; Solzhenitsyn’s influ ence on, 36, 37; on Soviet Union’s collapse, 18,40; succession question regarding, 59; on Ukraine, 37 Puyi (former Qing emperor), 236 PYD (Democratic Union Party), in northern Syria, 120-21 Qadiriyya order, in North Caucasus, 54 al-Qaeda, in North Caucasus, 56 Qajar, Aqa Mohammad, 175,195, 197, 200 Qajar, Fath Ali Shah, 200 Qajar, Mohammed Ali Shah, 175-76 Qajar, Mohammed Shah, 201 Qajar Iran, 9; Baluchistan in, 185-86; borderlands of, indirect rule in, 171, 172; capital of, 170; emergence of ethnonationalism and, 10; interests in Caucasus, 64,195,197; Khorasan in, 172, 200; and Kurdish emirates, 180; nation-building in, 156-57; and Persianate world, claims on, 150; and Russian Empire, contention with, 175; territorial losses of, 169, 170, 201; and Turkmens of northern Khorasan, 183 Qara Qoyunlu dynasty, 175 Qashqa’is, in Iran, 171,173,174 Qatar: formation of, 178; Turkish mili tary footprint in, 124 Qazi Muhammad (Kurdish leader), 181, 182 Qazvini, Hamdallah Mostawfi, 193 Qianlong Emperor (Qing ruler), 217, 244, 245, 249 Qing dynasty (China), 9, 210, 217; at tempts to Sinicize, 225; and Banner system, 217, 221; CCP claims regard ing, іо-ii; colonial encroachment and, 213; emergence of ethnon ationalism and, 10; and Inner Asian borderlands, 232-34, 237-38, 241-42, 245-47; and national imperialism, 214; nationalist movement and, 217-18; nationality law adopted by, 227-28; policies in Manchuria, 235, 236; and “politics of difference,” 221; relations with “barbarians,” 216; and Russia, border disputes with, 259; social and institutional basis of, 217; stable administration established by, 213-14; territorial legacy of, claims regarding, 209, 237, 249, 258-59; ter ritorial losses of, 211, 252; territory of, ca. 1800, zoqm Qin Yaqing, 254 Qizilbash, 93, no, 162,195,196 Qubilai Khan (Yuan ruler), 241 Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 202, 203 Rakhmon(ov), Emomali, 72, 204 Rama, Edi, 132 Raqqa, in Ottoman Empire, 110-11 Regional Anti-Terrorism Center (RATS), 257 regional order, new, 272; China’s vision of, 123, 205, 211-12, 220, 252-53, 257, 263-64, 267-68; Iran’s vision of, Index 155,165-66,168,190-91; Russia’s vision of, 73-77, 79, 12 3, 205; Tur key’s vision of, 99-100,12 3-2 8,13 3, 135-36,137,140,141-43 Renan, Ernest, 157 Republican People’s Party (Turkey). See CHP Republic of China (ROC): claims to Qing territorial legacy, 209; and Inner Asian borderlands, 233, 234; loss of Mongolia and, 260; Manchukuo and, 236; minority policies in, 221-25; name of, zhonghua in, 219; nationality law in, 228; nation building in, 214, 219-20; tension between diversity and assimilation in, 220-21. See also Guomindang; Taiwan revisionism, of Eurasian postimperial states: civilizational explanations for, 6; ideological/political explanations for, 4-5; imperial legacies and, 4; structural explanations for, 5 Reynolds, Michael, too, 127 Richmond, Walter, 53 Rieber, Alfred, 48 ROC. See Republic of China Rojava, self-proclaimed state of, 120 Rolland, Nadège, 264 Roman Danilovich (Prince of HalychVolyn), 32 Romania: in Ottoman Empire, 128; Turkish refugees from, 129 Rossiyskiy (term): revival under Yeltsin, 29, 42, 62; as supraethnic national identity, 12, 24, 38, 42 RSFSR. See Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Rumlu, Hasan Beg, 162 Rus’: and Rossiya, tension between, 25. See also Kyivan Rus Russia (Russian Federation): annexation of Crimean Peninsula by, 18, 31, 37, 40,43, 273-74; borderlands of, 44-45; and China, boundary negotiations 363 with, 211, 252, 258-59, 261, 262; and China, changing power balance between, 262; and China, strategic rapprochement with, 72, 78, 261, 272; civilizational distinctiveness of, argu ments for, 6,40,41-42; claim to great power status, 21; costs of empire building by, 43; democratic rule in, imperfect history of, 273; economic disparities between center and pe riphery in, 58-59; entanglement with peripheries of, 14; ethnic republics in, 20, 44-45, 50-52; and EU/NATO, strategic competition with, 5, 62,132; and Eurasian Economic Union, 14; exclusion from current world order, 5; foreign policy of, 25,40; imperial legacy and, 2, 3, 8,18-21, 43, 78-79, 269-75; intervention in affairs of smaller neighbors, 1, 2, 18-19,43; and Iran, 194,199, 205; and new regional order, aspirations regarding, 73-77, 79,123; non-Western governance norms promoted by, 76; occupation of eastern Ukraine, 14, 18, 31; and “politics of difference,” 8, 20,45, 52, 56, 57-58, 59; post-Putin, questions regarding, 59; revisionism of, explana tions for, 5-6; shifting boundaries of, 19; southern borders of, instability of, 20; Syrian conflict and, 137; ties with former Soviet states, 24-25, 63; and Turkey, competition with, 138-41; and Turkey, strategic cooperation with, 78,104, 272; and Ukraine, entanglement with, 14, 24-25; and West, strategic competition with, 21, 39, 78. See also Russian Empire; Soviet Union; specific regions Russian Agency for International Coop eration, 40 Russian Civil War: Caucasus during, 54; ethnic autonomies emerging after, 47; separatist movements during, 34 3^4 Index Russian Empire: collapse of, Ottoman forces after, 138; efforts to national ize, 26-28; ethnic Russians’ claims for special status in, 26-27; expan sion and consolidation of, 46-47, 53; heterogeneity of, 23, 25-26; incor poration of Central Asia in, 68-70; incorporation of South Caucasus in, 197; and Inner Asia, 233; loyalty as criterion for inclusion in, 25-26; ori gins of, i, 26; rise of ethnonational ism and, 27-28; territory of, ca. 1900, ібт-і^т·, unity of, elites’ perspective on, 23-24 Russian identity: ambiguity of, 37-38; civic basis of, 25-26, 29-30; culturalnational vs. imperial conceptions of, 19, 23-24, 30,42-43; Eurasianist views on, 39; imperial articulations of, 38-43; pan-Slavist views on, 38-39; religion and, 23, 25; top-down attempt to redefine, 31; transcending borders, claims regarding, 19, 38-43 Russian language: korenizatsiya (nativization) policy and use of, 49; Russian World Foundation and promotion of, 41; and Russification policies of Rus sian Empire, 26, 27; and Russification policies of Soviet Union, 29, 49; as state language of Russian Federa tion, 30, 51, 59; use in Caucasus and Central Asia, decline in, 78; use in Ukraine, 37 Russian Orthodox Church. See Ortho dox Church Russians, ethnic: agricultural coloniza tion by, 46-47; claim for special status of, 24, 26-27, 28-29, 30; Soviet ethnoterritorial federalism and, 48; in successor states to Soviet Union, 62-63 Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), 24,47,48; lowerlevel autonomies within, 48, 49 Russian World, concept of, 41; Greater Turkey idea compared to, 105; impe rial legacy and, 25 Russian World Foundation, 40, 41 Russification: in Belarus and Ukraine, 35; cultural, 27; Russian Empire and policies of, 26, 27; Russian Federation and policies of, 51; Soviet Union and policies of, 29,49 Russo-Ottoman wars, 65,94,111 Saakashvili, Mikheil, 67, 68 Saddam Hussein, 109; al-Anfal campaign of, 118; appeal to pan-Arab senti ments, 179; fall of, and opportunities for Iran/Shi’ism, 163-64; and PKK, 118; U.S.-led campaign to oust, 119 al-Sadr, Muqtada, 164 Safavid Iran, 9; Azerbaijan’s position in, 175; borderlands of, indirect rule in, 171; collapse of, 163; conversion to Shi’ism in, 148,162; empire of, term used for, 156; first capital of, 170; imperial expansion of, justifica tion for, 162; Khorasan in, 170, 171, 172, 196, 200; and Kurdish emirates, 180; Ottoman frontier with, 133; and Persianate world, claims on, 150; revolutionary dynamic associated with, 161; Selim I’s campaign against, 110; slave system in, 196 Safawiyya dervish order, 162 Safi I (Safavid ruler), 196 Said-bek (Chechen leader), 54 Said of Piran, Sheykh, 12,113 Sakha (Yakutia), 45, 52 Salafism: vs. Islamic nationalism, 98; vs. Turkish/Ottoman Islam, 105,127 Samanid dynasty, 193 Sasanian Empire, 154; idealized vision of, 189-90,192-93; and idea of Kho rasan, 200; and origins of Iran, 156 Saudi Arabia: and Iranian Baluch, 186; Iran’s views on, 160; and Pashtun Index groups in Afghanistan, 202. See also Salafism Savitsky, Petr, 39 Sazonov, Sergey, 34 SCO. See Shanghai Cooperation Organization Selim I (Ottoman Sultan), 92,110,111 Serbia: EAEU and, 75; nationalist groups in, Russian support for, 39; Turkey’s relations with, 130-31,132; U.S.-led bombing of, and imperial nostalgia, 273 Serbs: attacks on Muslims, 106,129; campaign for independence from Ot toman Empire, 38-39 Sèvres, Treaty of, 89,113 Shafi madhab: Kurds and, no; vs. Turk ish Islam, 105 Shahnahmeh (Ferdowsi), 154,157; and Greater Iran (Iranzamin) concept, 192,193 Shahroudi, Ayatollah Mahmoud Hash emi, 165 Shakak, Ismail Aqa (Simko), 180-81 Shamil, Imam (North Caucasian leader), 53,54 55 Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), 256, 272; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76; Iran and, 205; Regional Anti-Terrorism Center (RATS) of, 257 Shanghai Five, 257, 262 Shapur I (Sasanian ruler), 156,192 Shariatmadari, Ayatollah liazem, 176-77 Shaymiyev, Mintimer, 50, 51 Shchedrovitsky, Petr, 41 Sheng Shicai, 247 Shi’as/Shi’ism: Akhbari school of, 179; Atabat as center of, 163; and imperial expansion, 162; and Iranian identity, 153,159,167-68,177; Iran’s adoption of, 148,162; Iran’s appeal to loyalty of, 12; in Iraq, 163-65; and Islamic Republic’s foreign policy, 148-49, 365 154-5 5,161; revolutionary dynamic associated with, 161-62; Saddam’s fall and opportunities for, 163-64; ulema as independent political force in Iran, 161-63; Usuli school of, 179. See aho Sufi orders; ulema Shimun XIX (Assyrian Catholicos), 180-81 Shunzhi Emperor (Qing ruler), 241 Siberia: agricultural colonization of, 47, 61; ethnic republics in, 44; imperial legacies in, 46 Silk Road: China’s invocations of, 267; in Xinjiang, 245 Silk Road Economic Belt, 208. See ako Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) Simko (Ismail Aqa Shakak), 180-81 Simla Convention, 242-43, 258 Sistan and Baluchistan, Iran, 185,186. See also Baluchistan Sistani, Ayatollah Ali, 164,165 Slavic Union (Russia), 31 Slavophilism, 26-27 Soleimani, Qassem, 164,165 Solovyev, Sergey, 46 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr, 29, 36, 37, 41 Somalia, 124 South Asia: Greater Iran and, 189; Iranie languages spoken in, 158; Iran’s en gagement in, 150,190. See also specific countries South Caucasus, 63-68; agricultural colonization of, 47; as buffer zone for Russia, 20-21; China’s engagement in, 267; colonial aspects of Russian rule in, 61; ethnoterritorial conflicts in, 66-67; Eurasian integration and, 73; Greater Iran concept and, 189, 192; imperial legacy in, 46, 68; impe rial rivalries in, 63, 64, 67; Iranian Qajar interests in, 64,195, 197; Iran’s engagement in, 190,194; Russian involvement in, 20-21, 60, 64-65, 197; Soviet collapse and, 29, 36, 66; 166 Index South Caucasus {continued) Turkey’s intervention in, 86,124; dur ing World War I, 65. See also specific countries South China Sea: China’s claims in, 252, 257, 258; Russian state companies expelled from, 271 Southeast Asia, Chinese émigrés in, 226-27 Southern Song dynasty (China), 216 South Ossetia: ethnic tensions in, 66; Russian occupation of, 19,40; strug gle for independence from Georgia, 66, 67, 68 Soviet Union: and China, territorial disputes of, 261; collectivization and famine in, 35; ethnic minorities in, cultural and political autonomy of, 24; ethnic republics of, 20, 34-35, 37, 47-52, 54-55, 70-71; ethnic Russians in, foundational role of, 28-29; and Inner Asia, 234, 245, 247; korenizatsiya (nativization) policy in, 34-35,48, 49; and Kurds, support for, 118; Rus sification policies in, 29, 49; southern borderlands of, 61-62; successor states to, 60, 62, 63; successor states to, Chinese trade and investment in, 68, 72, 76; and Turkey, 102; union republics of, 47, 48, 49, 70 Soviet Union, collapse of: ethnic repub lics after, 20, 66; and idea of “compa triots,” 40; and Russia’s geopolitical marginalization, 18, 40; schemes for regional integration after, 73; Turkish policies after, 91,103,126; Yeltsin’s policies and, 62 Stahn, Josef: borderlands policies of, 48, 58, 61; claims on Iranian Azerbaijan, 61, 66; and ethnic cleansing in North Caucasus, 54, 55; on ethnic Russians, privileged status of, 28, 29; terror campaign of, 35 Stolypin, Petr, 28 Sufi orders: in North Caucasus, 53-54, 55; in Ottoman Empire, 92; in Turkey, 97-98; and Turkish Islam, influences on, 105, See also specific orders Süleyman I the Magnificent (Ottoman ruler), i, 2 Sunnis/Sunnism: Hanafi school of, 105, no, 112; Hanbali school of, 105; in Iran’s borderlands, 171,178-87; Iran’s foreign policy and, 155; in North Caucasus, 54; Ottoman sultan as preeminent ruler of, 92,134; ShaPi school of, 105, no; Turkey’s ambition regarding, 12, 92,100-101,168; and Turkish-Kurdish relations, 109. See also Salafism Suny, Ronald Grigor, 8, 96 Sun Yat-sen, 220, 227 supraethnic national identity: Persianate world as, 148, 153-54, 158, 174, 275; postimperial Eurasian states and, 12; Rossiyskiy as, 12, 24, 38,42; Türkiyeli as, 12, 91; zhonghua minzu as, 12, 214, 219 Syria: Arab Spring and, 136,137; arti ficial borders of, 135; Astana peace process for, 272; fighters from, in Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, 141; Hezbollah’s role in, 166; ISIS in, 107; Kobani siege in, 107, no, 116,119; Kurds in, Turkish policies regarding, 107, 109,117, 120-21, 122; PKK and, 84, 120; pursuit of postimperial influence in, 2, 141, 270, 271; PYD/ YPG in, 107,109,120; refugees from, in Turkey, 100, 121, 142; RussoTurkish tensions over, 141, 270, 271; separation from Ottoman Empire, 134; Turkey’s interests in, 133, 141; Turkey’s intervention in, 4,14, 86, 101,121,122,124,135, 137, 142; Turkmen militias in, 103; war in, Index Iran’s involvement in, 155, 166,168, 198, 204 Syrian Democratic Forces, 120 Tabriz: as capital of Iran, 170; conver sion to Shi’ism in, 162; Khiabani’s revolt in, 176; Safavid conquest of, 195 Tahmasp I (Safavid ruler), 162-63,195 196 Taiping Rebellion, 217, 259 Taiwan: PRC’s claims to, 226, 229, 252; tianxia concept and, 252. See also Guomindang; Republic of China (ROC) Tajikistan: China’s relations with, 211, 252, 258, 262; Chinese security presence in, 72, 266; in CSTO, 75; Greater Iran concept and, 192, 202; independence of, 202; Iranian imperial heritage and, 194; Iran’s engagement with, 202, 204; labor migrants from, in Russia, 73; Persian component of identity of, 158, 160; post-Soviet civil war in, 72; Soviet republic of, 71 Tajiks: in Afghanistan, 203-4; in PersoIranic world, 154; in Safavid empire, 196 Talabani, Jalal, 118,161 Taliban, Iran and, 203 Tang dynasty (China), relations with “barbarians,” 215, 220, 241, 245 Tannu-Uriankhai, 258, 260 Taranchis, in Xinjiang, 246 Tarbaghatai, Treaty of, 259, 261 Tarim Basin, oasis cities in, 245, 246 Tatar-Bashkir Republic, 47 Tatars: in Crimea, 104, 106; in Russian Empire, 25-26 Tatarstan, 45; bilateral treaty with Rus sia, 50, 51; nationalist movement in, 5L52 Thaçi, Hashim, 132 367 Tiananmen Square protests: centraliza tion after, 235; embrace of Confucian culture in wake of, 252; suppression of, 224 tianxia, concept of, 212, 213, 253-57; Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and, 253, 267-68; China’s central position in, 213, 214, 251; Confucianism and, 213, 214, 251, 255; in contemporary Chinese foreign policy, 215, 251-52; and pursuit of regional influence, 253; and zhonghua minzu, 214 Tibet, 210, 240-45; anti-Qing revolts in, 210; assimilationist policies in, 224-25, 235, 244-45; as autonomous region, recognition of, 234, 243; Buddhist government of, abolition of, 243-44; China’s efforts to integrate, 224-25, 233; Chinese claims on, 232, 240, 252; Dalai Lama as spiritual leader of, 229, 240; Han settlers in, 2 3 5, 244-45; imperial rivalries in, 241, 242-43; infrastructure proj ects in, 258, 263; legacy of foreign intervention and separatism in, 211; overseas Chinese investment in, 229; Panchen Lama and, 2234; periods without Chinese control in, 234; Qing rule in, 241-42; reconquest of, 211; repression under Mao, 243, 250; Simla Convention and claims to sov ereignty of, 242-43; Yuan rule in, 241 ТІКА (Turkish Cooperation and Coor dination Agency), 103,130 Tilly, Charles, 3 Tishkov, Valery, 29, 50 Torkamanchay (Tiirkmenchay), Treaty of, 64,197 Transnistrian Moldavian People’s Re public, 1-2 Transoxiana: cotton production in, 69; Persian-speaking dynasties in, 159-60; settlement and administra tive consolidation of, 70 з 68 Index Trubetskoy, Nikolay, 39 True Path Party (Turkey), 130 Tunisia, Arab Spring in, 136 Türkei, Alparslan, 102 Turkestan, 246; Russian settlement in, 69-70. See also East Turkestan Turkey (Turkish Republic): Arab Spring and, 86, too, 124, 136-37; under Atatürk, 13, 83-84, 95-96; Balkan policies of, 85, 99,105-6, 128-32, 141-42; Blue Homeland claims of, 127; borders with Iraq and Syria, per meability of, 117-18; and Caucasus, 98, 99,103, 105, 137-41; and Central Asia, 78, 98, 99,103, 106, 139; and China, strategic cooperation with, 104; as civilizational state, vision of, 6, 99; competition between U.S. and Russia/China and, 275; democratic rule in, imperfect history of, 273; entanglement with peripheries of, 14; under Erbakan, 98; under Erdoğan, 86, 99-101,123-25; exclusion from current world order, 5, 130; failed July 2016 coup in, 116; in Greater Turkic World, 91, 92; imperial legacy and, 2, 3, 8, 83-84, 85, 90-92,101-6, 123-28,141-42, 269-75; instability around periphery of, 143; interven tion in Syria, 4,14, 86, 101,121, 122, 135,137,142; Iranian cooperation with, 182; and Iranian Turkmen, 184; Islamist movements in, 97-98; Kurdish borderland of, 84,107-22, 181; Middle East policies of, 99, 127, 133-37; military’s involvement in politics in, 108; minority groups in, 96; nation-building in, 124, 125; NATO accession of, 84; and new regional order, aspirations regarding, 99-100,123-28,133, 135-36,137, 140, 141-43; origins of, 82-83, 134; Ottoman heritage of, efforts to re claim, 82, 85-86, 99, 113; under Özal, 98-99; and “politics of difference,” in, it4-15,142; popular culture of, growing reach of, 136; and postimpe rial rivals, 4,104; and post-Ottoman states, 99-100,105-6; refugees in, influence of, 96-97,125; revisionism of, explanations for, 5-6; risks of im perial overstretch for, 87; and Russia, competition in Caucasus, 138-41; and Russia, strategic cooperation with, 78, 104, 272; subnational identities in, 96-97; and Sunni world, ambi tion regarding, 92,100-101, 168; and Turkmen tribes, 184; and U.S., relations with, 4,105; use of military and proxy forces to project power, 137; Uyghur exiles in, 104. See also Ottoman Empire Turkic identity, among Azeris, 175 Turkic language, common, call for, 95 Turkic unity, campaign for, 94-95, 184 Turkic World, 90, 91 Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency (TÌKA), 103, 130 Turkish identity: Atatürk on, 83, 89, 95-96; civic-territoriai version of, 95-96; contending discourses of, 90-92; Islam and, 85, 90, 91, 99-100, 105; Kurds and, 114; National Oath (Mtsak-i Milli) and, 95; OttomanIslamic core of, 85, 86, 93; Turkism (Türkçülük) and, 91, 101-3 Turkish-Islamic Synthesis, 91-92,103 Turkish language, and Ottomanism, 10, 12 Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, 126 Turkism (Türkçülük), gi, 101-3; irreden tist undertones of, 103 Türkiyeli, as supraethnic national iden tity, 12, 91 Türkkon (Cooperation Council of Turkic-Speaking States), 103 Turkmen, in Iranian borderlands, 170, 174,183-85, 200, 201 Index Turkmenistan: gas exports to China, 265; Greater Iran concept and, 192; and Iranian Turkmen, 184-85; Russian policies in, 72 Türkmen Sahra, Iran, 171,183-85 Turkmen SSR, 184 Tuva, Republic of, 45, 258, 260 Ubeydullah of Nehri, Sheykh, 112, 180 Ukraine: civic nationalism in, develop ment of, 37; collectivization and fam ine in, 35; contested identity of, 36, 37-38; eastern, Russian occupation of, 14,18, 31; East Slav unity and, 19, 31, 36; embrace of European identity, 73; historical ties with Russia, 24-25, 31-33; as imperial periphery, 9, 61; Orange Revolution in, 63, 68; Rus sian World Foundation activities in, 41; Russia’s annexation of Crimean Peninsula from, 18, 31, 37, 40, 43, 273-74; Russia’s claims of supporting “compatriots” in, 12; Russo-Turkish tensions over, 270; separatist move ments in, 29, 37-38, 42-43; in Soviet Union, 34-36, 37; as successor state to Kyivan Rus, 31-32; Turkey’s rela tions with, 104, 270; during World War II, 35, 38 Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), 35 ulema, Shi’ite: as independent political force in Iran, 161-63; nation-building efforts and, 156,157; in Safavid Iran, provenance of, 148,162 Ungern-Sternberg, Roman von, 260 Union of Russian People, 27 United Arab Emirates, 136,178; Iran’s views on, 160 United Nations: China’s ambitions regarding, 256; Mongolia’s admission to, 260 United Russia Party: on Russian ethnon ationalism, 31; and system of indirect rule, 56 369 United States: competition with Russia and China, 274, 275; and current world order, 4, 5, 271; and Eurasian postimperial states, relations with, 4; forces deployed in Central Asia, 72, 75-76; international bodies backed by, Chinese institutions compared to, 257; invasion of Iraq, 119, 191; Iran’s campaign of resistance against, 147, 150-51,155, 161; military presence in Afghanistan, opposition to, 203; Monroe Doctrine of, Russian poli cies compared to, 61; as product of empire, 7; and Russia’s postimperial periphery, 67-68; Turkey’s relations with, 4,105 USSR. See Soviet Union Ustryalov, Nikolay, 33 Usuli school of Shi’ism, 179 Uvarov, Sergey, 26 Uyghurs, 223; China’s crackdown on, 13, 215, 231, 249-50, 257; Chinese poli cies regarding, 223, 229-30; creation of XUAR and, 248; diaspora in Tur key, 104; overseas, China’s outreach to, 229; in Qing empire, 214; terrorist attacks by, 231; Turkish solidarity with, 106; in Xinjiang, 245, 248 Uzbekistan: cotton monoculture in, 71; Greater Iran concept and, 192; Per sian language in, 158; Soviet republic of, 71; U.S. bases in, 72 Valdai Discussion Club, 76 Valuyev, Petr, 33 Vietnam: China’s political system com pared to, 5; EAEU and, 75 Vladimir (Grand Prince of Kyiv), 18 Volga region: ethnic republics in, 44, 47; imperial legacies in, 46 Vučić, Aleksandar, 132 Wangjisi, 263 Wang Yi, 257 Warsaw Pact, 61 3Ί° Index Wehler, Hans-Ulrich, 274 Wei Yuan, 232 West: development assistance from, China’s BRI as alternative to, 266, 267; Eurasian integration as coun terweight to, 73, 74, 76; Russia’s strategic competition with, 21, 39, 78. See also global order, Westphalian; United States Western Thrace, Turkish claims on, 126 White émigrés, and Russian ethnon ationalism, 28, 31 White (Belarusian) Russians, 19 World Trade Organization, China in, 5 World Uyghur Congress, 229 World War I: Anglo-German rivalry leading to, 274; ethnic cleansing during, 102, 112, 113; Iran during, 169,170,172, 176, 180; Kazakh and Kyrgyz uprisings during, 70; and na tionalization of Russian Empire, 28; Ottoman Empire during, 82, 95,138; Russo-Ottoman conflict in, 65; South Caucasus during, 65 World War II: Iran during, 169, 170, 176,181-82; Japanese invasion of China during, 236; North Caucasus rebellions during, 54; Ukrainians in, 35,38 Xi Jinping: alliance relations under, 257; and Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), 208, 251, 264, 266, 2Ճ8; on Com munity of Common Destiny, 212, 251, 256; and concept of “Chinese Dream,” 228; elevation to “core leader,” 13; imperial past invoked by, 3; minority policies under, 223; tianxia model and, 256; Xinjiang poli cies of, 231, 249; on zhonghua minzu, 225 Xinhai Revolution, 233, 234, 258 Xinjiang, 210, 245-49; assimilationist policies in, 224-25, 235, 248, 249; as autonomous region, recognition of, 234; China’s commitment to main taining control in, 252, 275; China’s crackdown in, 13, 231, 233, 249-50, 257, 265; China’s efforts to integrate, 224-25, 233, 249, 258, 263; demo graphic profile of, 248; development strategy for, 249, 258, 262; Han set tlers in, 235, 248, 249; legacy of for eign intervention and separatism in, 211; overseas Chinese investment in, 229; periods without Chinese control in, 234; as postimperial borderland, 233; Qing rule in, 245-47; social and political experiment in, 231; Soviet influence in, 245, 247, 261; Turkey’s response to crackdown in, 104, 271; Turkic-speakers in, AKP’s interest in, 85. See also East Turkestan; Uyghurs Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR), 245, 248 xuetong zhuyi (principle of blood lin eage), 227-28 Xunzi (Chinese Han-era thinker), 255, 256 Yakutia (Sakha), 45, 52 Yan Xuetong, 255-56 Yaqub Beg, rebellion of, 246, 259 Yazidis, 109, no, 117,121 Yellow Emperor, and Han identity, 218, 219, 225 Yeltsin, Boris: anti-imperial nationalism of, 20, 24, 62; Chechen declaration of independence and, 55-56; and civic rossiyskiy nation, efforts to build, 29, 42, 62; and ethnic republics, 49, 50, 55; “red-brown” coalition opposing, 61; Russian nationalism mobilized by, 29-30 Yemen: Hezbollah-style militias in, 166; Iran’s policies regarding, 165; Shi’ite political movement in, 167 Yerevan khanate, 64 Index Yermolov, Mikhail, 64 Yongzheng Emperor (Qing ruler), 254-55 Younghusband, Francis, 242 Young Ottomans, 94 Young Turks, 82,95. See also CUP (Committee of Union and Progress) YPG (People’s Protection Units), in northern Syria, 107,109, 120-21,122 Yuan dynasty (China), 210; attempts to Sinicize, 225, 239; and Inner Asian borderlands, 232-33, 237, 241; rela tions with “barbarians,” 216 Yuan Shikai, 220-21 Yugoslavia: territory of, in Ottoman Empire, 128; wars of succession in, 129-30. See also Bosnia; Kosovo; Serbia Yunus Emre Institute, 130 Zahir Shah, Muhammad, 202 Zand dynasty, and Persianate world, 150 Zaporozhian Cossacks, revolt of, 32 Zarrinkoub, Abdolhossein, 147 Zhang Binglin (Zhang Taiyan), 218, 219, 221, 227, 234 З?! Zhang Qian, 208, 209, 267 Zhao Tingyang, 255, 256 Zhenbao (Damansky) Island, 261 Zhirinovsky, Vladimir, 30, 62 Zhivkov, Todor, 129 zhongguo, concept of, 210, 213, 219; and Greater China (Da Zhongguo) vs. China proper (Benbu Zhongguo), 234; vs. tianxia, 253 zhonghua minzu, concept of: assimila tionist policies based on, 225; and nation-building efforts in post-Qing era, 219-20; and overseas Chinese, 226-27; as supraethnic national iden tity, 12, 214, 219 Zhou dynasty (China), 213 Zhou dynasty (China), huaxia and tianxia under, 253 Zhou Enlai, 255, 261 Zhuang ethnic group, in China, 222 Zoroastrianism, 153,156, 174 Zou Rong, 218, 227 Zuhab, Peace of, 133 Zungharia, 146, 245 Zunghars, 241, 242, 245-46, 259 Zyuganov, Gennady, 62
adam_txt	Contents Acknowledgments ix A Note on Transliteration Introduction i l6 RUSSIA i. 2. 3. Russian Identity Between Empire and Nation 2 3 Russia’s Borderlands and the Territorialization of Identity 44 Russia’s Near Abroad and the Geopolitics of Empire 60 TURKEY 4. 5. 6. 8l Those Who Call Themselves Turks: Empire, Islam, and Nation 89 On the Margins of the Nation and the State: Turkey’s Kurdish Borderland 107 The Geopolitics of the Post-Ottoman Space 123 IRAN 7. 8. 9. xi 145 Iranian Identity and Iran’s “Empire of the Mind” 153 Iran’s Borderlands: The Non-Persian Periphery 169 Greater Iran (Iranzamin) and Iran’s Imperial Imagination 189 Contents viii CHINA 207 10. Civilization and Imperial Identity in China 213 11. China’s Inner Asian Borderlands 231 12. Sinocentrism and the Geopolitics of Tianxia 251 Conclusim: A World Safe for Empire? Notes 277 Index 343 2 69 Index Page numbers followed by letter m refer to maps. Abbas I (Safavid ruler), 171,195,19Ճ Abdali Pashtuns, rebellion of, 163 Abdülhamid II (Ottoman Sultan), 82, 86, 94, 95, 112-13; and Sunni caliphate, Bi, 134 Abdullah, Abdullah, 203 Abdülmecid I (Ottoman Sultan), 111, 112 Abkhazia: Russian occupation of, 19, 40; struggle for independence from Georgia, 66, 67, 68; Turkey’s ap proach to conflict in, 97; after World War 1,65 Absolute Guardianship, doctrine of, 161, 163; opposition to, 176-77,179 Achaemenid dynasty: legacy of, Mohámmad Reza Shah’s appeal to, 146, 147; : and origins of Iran, 155 Adygea, Republic of, tqm, 45, 52, 57 Aegean islands, Turkish claims on, 126, Afghanistan: British policies in, 201; and China, security mechanism with, 266; Greater Iran concept and, 192, 200; imperial rivalries in, 9, 270; Iranian imperial heritage and, 194; Iran’s involvement in, 149,155,191,199, 200-204, 205; Persian component of identity of, 158,160, 202; Shi’as in, 168; Soviet-backed government in, 202; Soviet invasion of, 191,199; Taliban in, 203; U.S.-led invasion of, and opportunities for Iran, 191; U.S. presence in, opposition to, 203 Afsharid dynasty: capital of, 170; and Persianate world, 150 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 160, 204 Ahund, Osman, 183-84 Aigun, Treaty of, 259, 261 Ajaría: special status after World War I, 65; Turkey’s claims regarding, 126, Ј38 1Akçura, Yusuf, 90, 94,101,103 Akhbari school of Shi’ism, 179 :Akhondzadeh (Akhundov), Mirza Fath Ali, 157 1АКР (Justice and Development Party), Turkey: antimigrant backlash and, too; emergence of, 99; foreign policy vision of, 123-28,133,135-3Ճ; and imperial articulation of nation, 91, 92; Islam and nationalism embraced by, 91-92, 105; and Kurdish borderlands, strategy for integrating, 86,109,113, 343 344 Index АКР (continued) 115,116-17,122; Middle East poli cies of, 133, 135-37; minority policies of, 96; Naqshbandi Sufi order and, 97; and new Turkic-centric order, vision of, 137,142,143; and Ottoman revivalism, 82, 85-86, 90-91, 113, 123, 124, 142, 143; post-Ottoman vi sion of, dilemma in, 101,142; protests against, 82; and Turkic organizations in Eurasia and Middle East, 103-4; on Turkish identity, 85, 90; uneasy balance of democracy and Islamism in, 142; uniform of, 132 Albania: in Ottoman Empire, 128; Tur key’s relations with, 131-32 Aleksandra Fedorovna (Empress of Rus sia), 28 Aleksey Mikhailovich (Tsar of Muscovy), 33 Aleppo: in Ottoman Empire, 133; Turk ish claims on, 126,135 Alevis, Turkish, 93,101, no, 117; Soviet influence among, 115 Alexander I (Emperor of Russia), 1,64 Alexander ЛІ (Emperor of Russia), 24, 27 Ճ5 Alexandretta (Hatay), Turkish claims on, 126, 135 Aliyev, Heydar, 104 Allahverdi Khan (Safavid governor), 196 All Under Heaven. See tianxia, concept of Alqas Mirza, 196 Altai, Republic of, 45 Altishahr (“six cities”), 245, 246 Amanat, Abbas, 178 Amasya, Peace of, no, 138, 195 Anatolia, eastern: Armenian minor ity in, 112; ethnic cleansing in, 65, 102, 112, 113, 121; in Greater Iran, 189; interimperial “shatter zone” in, 9; Islamization in, 92; Kurds of, 84, 110; “politics of difference” in, 111, 114-15; as postimperial borderland, 84,121; Russian objectives in, 62; in Turkish Republic, efforts to integrate, 121-22. See also Caucasus; Kurds Anderson, Benedict, 10 Andrussovo, Peace of, 32, 33 Aneran (Aneranshahr), concept of, 193 Anglo-Persian Oil Company, 178 Aqa Mohammad Shah (Qajar ruler), 175, 195, 197, 200 Aq Qoyunlu dynasty, 175 Arabestan. See Khuzestan Arabian Peninsula: Iran’s borderlands in, 178-80; Islam in, vs. Turkish Islam, 105; Ottoman legacy in, 124,133, 134. See also specific countries Arab Spring: in Syria, suppression of, 120; Turkey’s response to, 86, too, ւշ4,136-37 Aral Sea, 71 Ardashir I Papağan (Sasanian ruler), 156 ariya (term), 155-56 Armenia: in CSTO, 76; in EAEU, 74; Iran’s support for, 177, 194,195,197; Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and, 66, 67, 76,138; in Ottoman Empire, 138; revolution of 2018 in, 63; in Russian Empire, 64,197; Russia’s support for, 67,140,142; territorial expansion of, Soviet policies on, 62; territorialization of ethnicity in, 64, 66; Turkey’s relations with, 140; after World War 1,65-66 Armenians: and Kurds, conflicts be tween, in, 112; massacres of, 65, 94, 96, 112,113, 138; in Turkey, 96 Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), 256 al-Assad, Bashar, 109; Hezbollah’s sup port for, 166; Russian support for, 137; suppression of Arab Spring uprisings by, 120 al-Assad, Hafez, 118 Index Astrakhan khanate, Russian conquest of, 25,46 Atabald, Touraj, 177 Atabat, Shi’ite center in, 163,179, 273 Atatürk (Mustafa Kemal), 82-83; adop tion of one-party rule, 13,102; civic nation envisioned by, 89; conservative opposition to, 91, 97-98,106; foreign policy of, 84; and Kurdish tribal elites, 113,115; vs. pan-Turkic orga nizations, 102; secularization under, 83, 85, 97; and territorial integrity of Republic, 124,125,138-39; threat of Kurdish separatism and, 13,108, 113-14, 181; on Turkish identity, 83, 89, 95-96 Atsız, Nihal, 102,103 Austria-Hungary, imperial legacy and, 11 authoritarianism: postimperial states and, 5, 275; struggle to assimilate borderlands and, 13-14, 45 Avesta, 156,157,192 Axworthy, Michael, 154 Azerbaijan, Iranian, 174-78; historical importance of, 170,174-75; opposi tion to Doctrine of Absolute Guard ianship, 176-77; Qajar rule in, 172, 175; and Republic of Azerbaijan, 175, 176,177,187,195,198-99; Russian and Ottoman influences in, 175; Soviet claims on, 61, 66,176; volatil ity in, 169-70,171,176-77; during World War 1,172,180 Azerbaijan, Republic of: closure of Soviet-Iranian border and, 197; cross-border linkages with Iranian Azerbaijan, 175, 176,177,187,195, 198-99; Iran’s relations with, 195, 197-99; Israel’s relations with, 177; Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and, 66, 67, 76,138; Persian language in, 158; in Russian Empire, 64,197; Russian influence in, 55, 66, 142; Turkey’s relations with, 12, 103,104,137, 345 138,139, 140,142; Western energy companies in, 67 Azeris: in Iran’s ruling elite, 9, 170, 174; Islamic Revolution and, 154, 174; separatist movements of, 10, 138, 149, 174, 175 al-Azm family (Damascus), 133 Babacan, Ali, 140 Badr Organization (Iraq), 164,168 Bahrain: Greater Iran concept and, 189, 192; Hezbollah-style militias in, 166 Bakhtiyaris, in Iran, 171, 173,174, 178 Bakiyev, Kurmanbek, 75 Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) oil pipeline, 67, 139, 141 Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum gas pipeline, 67 Balkans: Chinese investment in, 267, 270; Christian nationalist move ments in, 39, 93,94, 96,129; imperial rivalries in, 9, 270; Islamization of, 92; Muslim refugees from, 93, 96-97,129; in Ottoman Empire, 39, 92,128-29; post-Ottoman, nation building projects in, 106; Russian ex pansion in, 38-39, 61; Russo-Turkish tensions over, 270; strategic competi tion between EUZNATO and Russia in, 132,141; Turkey’s interests/influence in, 85, 91, 99,105-6, 128-32, 141-42. See also specific countries Balkan Wars (1912-13), 95, 96 Balkh, Iranian control over, 200, 202 Balochistan, Pakistan, 185 Baltic states: in Russian Empire, 61; separatist movements in, 29, 36 Baluch: in Iranian borderlands, 170,173, 174, 185, 200; Islamic Revolution and, 154 Baluchistan, Iran, 185-87; national ist movement in, 173; in Qajar era, 185-86, 201; volatility in, 169, 17г, 185-86,187 Bandera, Stepan, 35 Յ46 Index Banner system, in Qing China, 217, 221, 236 Banu K’ab tribal confederacy, 178, 179 Banu Tarf tribal confederacy, 178,179 Barkey, Karen, 7 Barzani, Masoud, 118, 119,120 Barzani, Mustafa, 117,118, 182 Basayev, Shamil, 55, 56 Bashkir revolts, 47 Bashkortostan, 45, 51 Bashneft oil company, 51 Basmachi rebellion, 70 Basra province, Iraq, 179 Batumi, Turkish claims on, 126,138, 139-40 Beijing, Treaty of, 259, 261 Bektashis, 92, 97 Belarus: contested identity of, 19, 36; in CSTO, 76; in EAEU, 74; East Slav unity and, 19, 31, 36; PolishLithuanian partitions and, 33; in Russian Empire, 33, 34; in Soviet Union, 34, 35-36; statehood of, 36; as successor state to Kyivan Rus, 31-32; ties with Russia, 24-25, 36-37, 61 Belarusian language, restrictions on use of, 36 Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), China, 14, 68, 78, 208, 251, 263-68; con straints on, 268; EAEU compared to, 75; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76, 79; investments associated with, 265-66; lack of democratic account ability in, 266, 267; and new regional order, pursuit of, 211-12, 252-53, 263-64, 267-68, 272; security role of, 266, 267; tianxia paradigm and, 253, 267-68; UN’s Millennium Develop ment Goals and, 256 Bender, Moldova, 1-2; Russian peace keeping force in, i, 2,4; as transition zone, 15 Bhutan, China’s territorial disputes with, 258,263 Bismarck, Otto von, 11 Bitlisi, Idris-i, in Blue Homeland, Turkey’s concept of, 127 Bolsheviks, minority policies of, 28,47. See also Soviet Union borderlands: Chinese, 210-11, 231-50; Iranian, 150,167,169-88; Russian, 34,44-52, 58-59; Turkish, 84, 86, 107-22; volatility of, ii, 13-14. See also specific regions Bosnia, Turkey’s relations with, 131,132 Bosnian War: refugees from, 127,129; Turkey’s involvement in, 106,129, 13^31 Brest, Union of, 3 2 Brezhnev, Leonid, 35 Britain: departure from EU, 11; Eur asian postimperial states compared to, 3-4,11; and Hong Kong, 4, 213; and Inner Asia, 233; and Khorasan, 2OO-2OI; and Khuzestan, 178 British India, Tibet and, 242-43 Brook, Timothy, 241 Bukhara, Emirate of, 69, 70,183,194, 201 Bulgaria: independence movement in, 38-39; Muslim refugees from, 129; in Ottoman Empire, 128; Turkey’s policies in, 105 Burbank, Jane, 8 Burma, relations with China, 261 Bush, George W., 37 Çakmak, Fevzi, 114 Candar, Cengiz, 126 Catherine II (Empress of Russia): poli cies in Georgia, 64, 197; policies in Ukraine, 3 3 Caucasus: China’s engagement in, 76, 267; elites in, post-Soviet heritage and, 63, 77-78; imperial rivalries in, 9, 63,64, 77,138,191, 270; Iranian cultural influence in, 200; Iranie Index languages spoken in, 158; Iran’s engagement in, 150, 170,190,19499, 205; Kurdish population in, 110; Ottoman Empire and, 93, 96-97,137, 138,196-97; pan-Turkic propaganda in, 102; during Russian Civil War, 54; Russian conquests in, 196,197, 201; Russo-Iranian cooperation in, 205; Russo-Turkish competition in, 138-41, 270; Safavid rule in, 171, 195-96; Turkey’s interests/influence in, 91, 98, 99, 103, 105, 137-41. See also Anatolia, eastern; North Caucasus; South Caucasus; specific countries Caucasus Cooperation and Stability Pact, 140 Caucasus Emirate, 56 Çavuroğlu, Mevlut, 141 CCP. See Chinese Communist Party Cem, Ismail, 126 Central Asia: China’s dominant eco nomic position in, 68, 72, 76, 78-79, 250, 263, 266, 270; China’s engage ment in, 78, 208, 211, 252, 262, 265, 266, 270; cotton production in, 69, 71; elites in, Soviet heritage and, 63, 77-78; Eurasian integration schemes and, 73-76; Greater Iran and, 189; imperial rivalries in, 9, 63, 77, 246, 270; Iran’s involvement in, 150, 190, 191,199-204, 205; post-Soviet states in, 71-72; in Russian Empire, 47, 61, 68-70,183, 201, 259; Russia’s interests/influence in, 20-21, 46, 60, 72-73, 77-78, 270; Soviet rule in, 70-71; Turkey’s interests/influence in, 78, 91, 98, 99, 103,106, 139; U.S. forces deployed in, 72, 75-76. See also specific countries Cevdet Paşa, Ahmed, 93 Chabahar port, Iran, 186; connection to Afghanistan, 203, 204 Charles XII (King of Sweden), 1 347 Chechnya, tqm, 45, 52; declaration of independence, 55-56; imperial forms of rule in, 20; Iran’s relations with, 199; Islamist influences in, 56, 57; in North Caucasus Imamate, 53; and Putin’s rise and legitimation of power, 13, 56; refugees from, in Turkey, 127; resistance to Russian rule, 45, 51, 52; in Russian Empire, 197; Russia’s poli cies regarding, 8, 20, 45, 56, 57-58, 59, 275; subsidies for reconstruction of, 56, 57; Turkey’s approach to con flict in, 97,140-41; wars in, 13, 20, 45, 55-56, 66 Chiang Kai-shek, 221 China: autonomous regions in, 234-35; Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) of, 14, 68, 78, 208, 2II-I2, 251, 252-53, 263-68; “century of humiliation” narrative, 209, 211; civilizational distinctiveness of, belief in, 6, 213; classic imperial model and, 263; and Community of Common Destiny, 212, 251, 256, 257, 265, 267; Cultural Revolution in, frontier regions dur ing, 224, 238, 244, 248, 250; exclusion from current world order, 5; foreign policy of, 251-52; as global power, emergence of, 252-53, 268; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76-77; grow ing economic and military might of, 270-71; imperial legacy and, 2, 3, 8, 208-9, շ67, 269-75; Inner Asian borderlands of, 210-11, 231-50; and international cooperation, alterna tive vision of, 212, 215, 251-52, 255, 256-57; Japanese invasion of, 236; nation-building in, 214, 215, 219-20; and new regional order, aspirations regarding, 123, 205, 21Ī-12, 220, 252-53, 257, 263-64, 267-68; and overseas Chinese (huaqiao huaren), mobilization of, 12-13, 2I5 226-30; Persian language in, 158; 348 Index China (continued) and “politics of difference,” 214, 221; revisionism of, 5-6; and Russia, boundary negotiations with, 211, 258-59, 261, 262; and Russia, chang ing power balance between, 262; and Russia, strategic rapprochement with, 72, 78, 261, 272; security forces in neighboring states, 72, 266; as territorially bounded state, 252, 258; tianxia concept and, 212, 213, 214, 251, 253-57; and Turkey, strategic cooperation with, 104; and U.S., competition with, 274; and “win-win” cooperation, rhetoric of, 209, 212, 264; in World Trade Organization, 5. See also People’s Republic of China (PRC); Republic of China (ROC); specific dynasties and regions Chinese Communist Party (CCP): chal lenges to, and outward pressures, 274; Confucian ideals embraced by, 212, 220, 224, 252, 274; Han-centrism of, 222, 224, 225, 235; minority policies of, 221-25, 234; post-Tiananmen nationalism of, 224; Qing legacy embraced by, 10-11 Chinese identity: ambiguous framing of, 227; concept of zhonghua minzu and, 12, 214, 219, 225, 226-27; Confucian culture and, 213-14, 215, 220; Han centric dimension of, 210, 214-15, 218, 220, 225; imperial elements in, 215, 226, 230, 249; state as arbiter of, 225; territorial conception of, 2 31 ; xuetong zhuyi (principle of blood lineage) and, 227-28 Chinggis Khan, 238; in Chinese national history, 239 CHP (Republican People’s Party), Turkey, 97,102; threat of Kurdish separatism and, 113-14 Christians: in Islamic Republic of Iran, 174; in Ottoman Empire, nationalist movements of, 39, 93, 94, 96,129; Ottoman levy of children (devşirme), 92 Chubais, Anatoly, 61 CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States), 73 civilizational distinctiveness: of China, 6, 213; of Iran, 6,148,160; of postimpe rial Eurasian states, claims regarding, 6, 271, 275; of Russia, 6,40,41-42; of Turkey, 6, 99 Cold War: imperial legacies disguised by, 269-70; Soviet domination of Eastern Europe in, 39; Turkey during, 134 Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), 72, 75-76 Committee of Union and Progress, Turkey. See CUP Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), 73 Community of Common Destiny, China and, 212, 251, 256, 257, 265, 267 compatriots: concept of, imperial legacy and, 25,40,42; Russian irredentism and claims of supporting, 12,40; Russia’s demands for loyalty of, 19; Turkish references to idea of, 90-91 Confucian culture/ideals: and ap proaches to “barbarians,” 215-16, 219; as basis for unification, 214; CCP’s/PRC’s embrace of, 212, 215, 220, 224, 252, 255, 274; and Chinese identity, 213-14, 215, 220; and new international norms, calls for, 256; and political legitimacy, 213-14; spread in Central Asia, 78; and tianxia concept, 213, 214, 251, 255 Cooper, Frederick, 8 Cooperation Council of TurkicSpeaking States (lurkkon), 103 Cossacks: Don, 34; Pugachev uprising, 47; during Russian Civil War, 54; Zaporozhian, 32 Index Covid-19 pandemic, 104, 268 Crimean Peninsula: as ethnic republic, 44; ethnic Russian majority in, 37; Muslim refugees from, 93; panTurkic propaganda in, 102; Russian conquest in 1780s, 138 Crimean Peninsula, Russia’s annexation of, 18; justifications used for, 18, 31, 37,40; popular support for, 273-74; Putin’s popularity boost following, 43; Turkey’s response to, 104 Crimean Tatars: diaspora of, 104; Turk ish solidarity with, 106 Crimean War, 18, 27 CSTO (Collective Security Treaty Orga nization), 72, 75-76 Cultural Revolution, China’s, frontier re gions during, 224, 238, 244, 248, 250 CUP (Committee of Union and Prog ress), Turkey, 82; and massacre of Ottoman Armenians, 138; and pan Turkic propaganda, 102,134; and Turkish nationalism, 95 Cyprus: northern, Turkish invasion of, 135; Turkey’s territorial disputes with, 126,131; Turkish ethnonationalism and crisis over, 103 Cyrus the Great (Achaemenid ruler), 146,147,160 Dagestan, 172«, 45, 52; Chechen inva sion of, 56; Iranian policies regarding, 199; in North Caucasus Imamate, 53; purges of local elites in, 51; in Russian Empire, 64,197; Safavid influence in, 196 Dalai Lama, 240; flight to India, 243, 261; Panchen Lama as alternative to, 244; Qing dynasty and, 241, 242; as Tibet’s spiritual leader, 229, 240 Damad, Mir, 163 Damansky (Zhenbao) Island, 261 Danilevsky, Nikolay, 38 Darius I (Achaemenid ruler), 155 349 Davutoglu, Ahmet, 86; on Arab Spring, too; Balkan pivot of, 130-31; foreign policy vision of, 123,124,125, 126-28,130-31,135-36; on Islam and Turkish identity, 99-100; on Kurdish-Turkish relations, 109, 119, 122; Middle East policies of, 133, 137; post-Ottoman vision of, 101, 142; speech in Sarajevo, 91, 106; on tarihdaşlık, 90; on Turkey’s civiliza tional identity, 99 Dawa Party (Iraq), 164 Demirel, Süleyman, 91,103 Demirtar, Selahattin, 116 Democratic Union Party (PYD), in northern Syria, 120-21 Democrat Party (DP), Turkey, 115 Deng Xiaoping: and geopolitics of tianxia, 255; and Gorbachev, border agreements with, 261, 262; and Han centrism, 224 dervish orders: in Iran, 162; in Ottoman Empire, 92. See also Sufi orders Dink, Hrant, 96 Diyanet (Directorate of Spiritual Affairs), Turkey, 97; outreach using, 130,131 Diyarbakır: Kurdistan eyalet centered on, 112; in Ottoman Empire, IIO-II Dodon, Igor, 132 Donbas, Ukraine, 34, 38 Don Cossacks, 34 DP (Democrat Party), Turkey, 115 Dreyer, June, 224 Dudayev, Dzhokhar, 55 Dugin, Aleksandr, 36, 39,42, 74 Dungans (Hui), in Xinjiang, 245, 246 Durrani, Ahmad Shah, 200 EAEU. See Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) East Slavs: belief in unity of, 19, 31, 36, 41; religion and identity of, 25, 32; in Russian Empire, 23 35° Index East Turkestan: Hi Revolt in, 247, 248; imperial legacy and, 13; Kashgar based Islamic emirate in, 246; Tur key’s interest in, 85. See also Xinjiang East Turkestan Republic (ETR), efforts to create, 247 education: and Chinese influence in Central Asia, 78; and Iranian influ ence in Afghanistan and Tajikistan, 204; and Russification, 26, 27, 29, 51 Eisenstein, Sergey, 29 Elchibey, Abulfaz, 55,177,198 Elliott, Mark, 225 empire: as category of analysis, 6-7; nation-building within, challenges of, 10; and “politics of difference,” 8; teleological view of, 6. See also impe rial legacy empires, Eurasian: boundaries of, 9; collapse of, communal violence ac companying, 10; minority groups in, 9-10; new age of, 2, 15; ruling dynas ties in, 9. See also postimperial states, Eurasian Enver Para, Ismail, 95,138,184 Erbakan, Necmettin, 98, 99, 134 Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip: Balkan policies of, 131,132; Caucasus policies of, 139, 140; foreign policy under, 86, 104, 123-25,і2б 127-28; imperial nostalgia mobilized by, 3,15, 270, 273; on Islamic identity of Turkey, 85, 99-100; Islamist influences on, 98; Kurdish policies of, 116,119; Middle East policies of, 133,135, 137; and national identity, contend ing discourses of, 91; and Ottoman heritage, efforts to reclaim, 3,15, 82, 85, 99,106,123; post-Ottoman vision of, central dilemma in, 101; protests against, 82; on Turkism (Türkçülük), 103; Xinjiang crackdown and, 104, 271 Erekle II (King of Kartli-Kakheti), 64 Eskandar Beg Monshi, 195, 200 ethnic fusion (sliyaniye), concept of, 29 ethnic republics: imperial legacies and, 46-47; as liminal space, 44; national ist movements in, 51-52; nativization (korenizatsiya) policy in, 34-35,48, 49; “politics of difference” in, 8, 20, 45, 57-58; Russian efforts to tighten authority over, 58, 59; in Russian Federation, 20, 44-45, 50-52; after Soviet collapse, 20, 66; in Soviet Union, 20, 34-35, 37,47-52, 54-55, 70-71; Yeltsin’s efforts to separate Russia from, 20, 24, 62. See also specific republics ethnonationalism: Chinese, 219; emer gence of, impact on Eurasian em pires, 10, 24; and hostility to empire, 29, 30, 38; Iranian, 158, 181; Russian, 24, 27-31, 38; Turkish, 91,101-3; Turkmen, 183-84; undercurrent of, in postimperial Eurasian states, 12 Eurasia: as geographic pivot of history, 9; multipolar, emergence of, 21; Russian use of term, 73. See also empires, Eur asian; postimperial states, Eurasian; specific countries and regions Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), 14, 74-75, 78, 272; and Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), 79; and Greater Eur asia initiative, 76; and Iran, 205 Eurasian identity, promotion of, 39 Eurasian integration, Russian schemes for, 73-77 Eurasianism, 39 European imperialism, Eurasian empires compared to, 9-10 European Union (EU): Balkan states and, 131, 132; Britain’s departure from, 11 ; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76; Russia in relation to, 5, 62, 13 2 ; Turkish membership in, elusive quest for, 5,130 Index Far East, Russian: agricultural coloniza tion of, 47; China’s relations with, 252, 258; imperial legacies in, 46 Far North, Russian, 46. See also Siberia Fars, Iran, 172,19Ճ Fatemiyoun Division, Syria, 168 Faulkner, William, 15 Ferdowsi, Abolqasem, 154,156, 193 Ferghana Valley: resistance to Russian rule, 70; Soviet republics in, 71 Filofey (Russian monk), 38 Finland, Grand Duchy of, separatist movement in, 27-28 Finland, NATO membership of, Russian position on, 61 France, imperial legacy of, 3-4 Gamsakhurdia, Zviad, 5 5 Gaspirah (Gasprinsky), Ismail, 94-95 Georgia: breakaway regions in, 66, 67, 68; Iranian influence in, efforts to reestablish, 199; NATO member ship of, calls for, 67,141; Orthodox Church of, 64; in Ottoman Empire, 138; Rose Revolution in, 63, 67, 199, 273; Russian annexation of (1801), 65, 138,197; Russian influence in, 55, 62, 64, 67; Russian invasion of (2008), 40, 68,140,141,199; Safavid rule in, 171, 195; after Soviet collapse, 66; Tur key’s relations with, 139-40,141; U.S. influence in, concerns about, 67-68 Ghaznavid dynasty, 193 Gizel, Innokenty, 32-33 global economic crisis of 2008: and push for Eurasian integration, 74; Turkey after, 141 global order, Westphalian: alternative vi sions of, 272, 275; Chinese alternative to, 212, 251-52, 255, 256-57, 266; Eurasian postimperial states and chal lenges to, 4, 5, 7, II, 15, 270, 271-72, 275; Islamic Republic’s rejection of, 161; U.S. and, 4, 5, 271 351 Gobineau, Joseph Arthur de, 157 Gökalp, Ziya, 95, 101,103, 114 Goldsmid, Sir Frederic, 200-201 Gorbachev, Mikhail: and China, strategic rapprochement with, 261, 262; and ethnic republics, 49, 55 Gorchakov, Aleksandr, 69 Greater China (Da Zhongguo), vs. China proper (Benbu Zhongguo), 234 Greater East Asian Coprosperity Sphere, Japan and, 236 Greater Eurasia initiative, 76-77, 79 Greater Iran (Iranzamin), idea of, 150, 189-94, 205-6 Greater Khorasan. See Khorasan Greater Turkey, idea of, 90; challenges to, 105-6; in Kurdish borderlands, 109 Greater Turkic World, 91, 92 Great Leap Forward, and Han coloniza tion, 248 Great Qing (Da Qing), 210, 249; terri tory of, ca. 1800, 2077га Great Russians, 19 Great Unity (datonģ), concept of, 212 Great Wall, China, 216, 237 Great Western Development program (China), 249, 262 Greece: in Ottoman Empire, 128; population exchange with Turkey, 129; Turkey’s territorial disputes with, 126,131 Greek Catholic Church, creation of, 32 Green Movement (Iran), 188 Guangxi, China, 2 34 Gülen, Fethullah, 103 Gülen schools: in Balkans, 130, 132; in Caucasus, 139 Gulf War (1991), 118 Gumilev, Lev, 39, 74 Guomindang, 209, 221; and Inner Asian borderlands, 233; minority policies of, 221, 222; position on Mongolia, 260 352 Index Halveti order, 92 Halych-Volyn (Galicia-Volhynia), 32 Hamas, Iran’s support for, 149,155 Hamidiye Light Cavalry Regiments, 113,115 Han, Enze, 240 Hanafi madhab, and Turkish Islam, 105, no, 112 Hanbali madhab, 105 Han dynasty (China), relations with “barbarians,” 215, 216, 220, 245 Han identity/culture, in China: CCP and, 222, 224; centrality of, 210, 214-15, 218, 220, 225; state based on, 218-19 Han population: in Inner Mongolia, 237, 238-39, 240; resettlement of, as tool for integration, 250; in Tibet, 235, 244-45; in Xinjiang, 235, 248, 249 Hatay (Alexandretta), Turkish claims on, 126,135 Hawaii, Chinese émigrés in, 227 Hayat Tahrir al-Sham, Turkey’s support for, ΙΟΙ Hazaras, in Afghanistan, 203, 204 HDP (Peoples’ Democratic Party), Turkey, 116,117, 122 Helali (Safavid poet), 200 Herat: Imam Khomeini Relief Commit tee in, 204; Iranian influence in, 200, 201, 202; in Persian world, 194 Hezb-e Wadhat (Party of Unity), Af ghanistan, 202, 203 Hezbollah, 165-66; Iran’s support for, 155, 165,168 Hillman, Jonathan, 264 Hobson, J. A., 9 Holodomor, 35 Holy Rus, concept of, 41; imperial legacy and, 25 Hong Kong: Britain and, 4, 213; Chinese claims to, 226, 252 Hong Taiji, 238 Hosayn Khan, 185 Hosking, Geoffrey, 3, 23 Houthis, 167 huaxia (civilization), concept of, 213; li (ritual) and, 216; vs. tianxia, 253; and zhonghua minzu (all-Chinese nation), 214 Hui (Dungans), in Xinjiang, 245, 246 Hu Jintao, 251, 265 Hungary, in Ottoman Empire, 128 Huntington, Samuel, 6 Hussein, Saddam. See Saddam Hussein Ichkeria, Chechen Republic of, 55-56 identity, culturally focused approaches to, 12. See also national identity Ui Revolt, East Turkestan, 247, 248, 261 Ilkhanate, 156 Ilyin, Ivan, 28, 31, 36 imperial legacy: as category of analysis, 6-7; of China, 2, 3, 8, 208-9, 269-75; Cold War rivalty disguising, 269-70; combined with nationalism, paradox of, 10-11; and concept of compatriots, 25,40, 42; elites and ap peal to, 3, 4, 8, ri, 14-15; of Eurasian postimperial states, 2-4, 8,15, 269-75; impact on peripheries, 8; of Iran, 2, 3, 8, 269-75; persistence of, 269-70; rejected by Turkish Republic, 83-84, 85; of Russia, 2, 3, 8, 18-21,43, 78-79, 269-75; factors undermining, 43, 7879; salience for contemporary politics, 2, n, 15; ofTurkey, 2, 3, 8, 90-92, 101-6,123-28, 141-42, 269-75. See also postimperial states, Eurasian India: and China, relations with, 243, 255, 258; Dalai Lama in, 243, 261; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76, 77; and Tibet, 242-43, 244 Ingushetia, iqm, 45, 52; Iranian interests in, 199; resistance to Russian rule in, 54; Soviet administrative reforms and, 55 Index Inner Asia: assimilationist policies in, 224-25,232,235-37.244-45,25°; Chinese policies in, 21Ճ, 231-50; his tory of de facto sovereignty in, 233; imperial rivalry in, 233, 234; Qing dynasty and, 232-34, 241-42, 245-47; regions composing, 232; Soviet intervention in, 234, 245, 247. See also specific regims Inner Mongolia, 210, 232, 237-40; as similation of, 239-40; as autonomous region, 234, 238 İnönü, İsmet, 109 interimperial “shatter zone(s)”, 9, 63, 64, 77,138, 246, 270; managed competi tion over, 272-73 International Monetary Fund, Chinese development assistance compared to, 266 International North-South Transit Cor ridor, 198 international order. See global order, Westphalian Iran: 2,500th anniversary of founding of, 146; adoption of Shi’ism in, 148, 162; and Afghanistan, 149, 155, 191, 192,199, 200-204, 2O5i and anti-ISIS resistance in Iraq, 164; borderlands of, 150, 167, 169-88; claims to excep tionalism, 6,148,160; competition between U.S. and Russia/China and, 275; as “empire of the mind,” 154, 192; entanglement with peripheries of, 14; exclusion from current world order, 5; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76, 77; imperial legacy of, 2, 3, 8,146-48,150, 159,160, 205-6, 269-75; and Iraqi Shi’a, 164-65; Kurds in, 117, 180-83; minority groups in, 149,154,169-88; nation building in, 156-58; origins of name, 155-56; Persianate cultural realm and, 148,158,192; and “politics of difference,” 149-50; pre-Islamic past 353 of, as lost golden age, 157; revision ism of, explanations for, 5-6; Soviet occupation during World War II, 176, 181-82; supraethnic/suprareligious idea of, durability of, 275; as territori ally bound nation, efforts to reimag ine, 149,153, 154; territory of, ca. 1740, 145m; victimization narrative of, 150, 201; vulnerability to exploita tion by Russia and China, 271; during World War 1,169,170,172,176,180; during World War II, 169,170,176, 181-82. See also Islamic Republic of Iran; specific dynasties and regions Iranian identity: contested and plural nature of, 153, 274; ethnic compo nent of, 157; Islamic and imperial strands of, tension between, 274; Islam/Shi’ism and, 153,159,167-68, 177; Persian and Islamic strands of, synthesis of, 154,159-60; Persianate culture and, 148,153-54,158; sectar ian approach to, 167; supranational, Islamic Republic’s appeal to, 171 Iran-Iraq War: Afghan refugees during, 202; imperial symbols invoked in, 148, 2 74; Iranian Kurdistan dur ing, 182; Iraqi Shi’as during, 159; Khuzestan during, 179; sectarianism in, 149 Iranzamin (Greater Iran), idea of, 150, 189-94, 2θ5-6 Iraq: anti-Iranian protests among Shi’as in, 168; anti-ISIS resistance in, 164; artificial borders of, 135; Greater Iran concept and, 192; Hezbollahstyle militias in, 166,168; as imperial periphery, 9; Iran’s ambitions toward, 191 ; Kurds in, massacres of, 109,118; Kurds in, Turkey’s policies regarding, 86,107,108,109,117,118-20,12 2; in Ottoman Empire, 133; and PKK, 84, 118,119; refugees from, in Tur key, 127; separation from Ottoman 354 Index Iraq (continued) Empire, 134; Shi’ite parties/movements in, 163-Ճ5; Talabani as presi dent of, 161; ties with Iran, adoption of Shi’ism and, 148; Turkey’s interest in, 124,133,135; Turkmen militias in, 103; U.S.-led invasion of, and opportunities for Iran, 191; U.S.-led invasion of, Turkey’s response to, 119, 133,135; war in, Iran’s involvement in, 155 IRGC. See Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Isfahan: Afghans’ conquest of, 163,196, 200; in Safavid empire, 196 Islam: and Iranian identity, 153,159, 167-68,177, 274; and nationalism, in Turkey, 91-92, 98,105; vs. nationality, Khomeini on, 159; Ottoman, model of, 98, 99,127; in Ottoman Empire, 92; and Ottoman identity, 85, 93, 94; political, rise in Turkey, 129; and Rus sia’s borderlands/peripheries, 56, 57, 68, 72; territorially bounded form of, Kemalist project of, 97; in Turkey’s vision of new regional order, 127-28, 142; Turkish (democratic), model of, 105,123; and Turkish identity, conceptions of, 85, 90, 91, 99-100, 105. See also Shi’as/Shi’ism; Sunnis/ Sunnism Islamic Party of Azerbaijan, 198 Islamic Republic of Iran, 147, 153; and Azerbaijan, 197-99; backlash against foreign adventures of, 168; border lands of, administration of, 150,186, 187; and China, 205; democratic rule in, imperfect history of, 161, 273; ethnic unrest in, potential for, 188; foreign policy of, 149,150, 159, 190; Greater Iran (Iranzamin) idea and, 190,194; haphazard borders of, 148; as hybrid state, 161; imperial legacy and, 147-48,150,159,160, 205-6, 274; and Middle East’s sectar ian geopolitics, 154-55; nationality subsumed by Islam in, 159; and new regional order, aspirations regarding, 155,165-66,168,190-91; non Persian and non-Shi’ite periphery of, policies in, 173-74,187-88; and per manent revolution, 161 ; and Russia, 194, 199, 205; sectarian movements promoted by, 154-55, *65, 168; Shi’ism and foreign policy of, 148-49, 154-55,161-68; and supranational Iranian identity, appeal to, 170-71; synthesis of Islam and Persian-Iranian nationalism in, 149,154,159-61; U.S. and, campaign of resistance against, 147,150-51,155, 161 Islamic Revolution (1979), Iran: efforts to spread, 154,165; Iranian Kurdistan during, 182; Iranian Turkmen during, 184; minorities’ support for, 149, 154; trauma accompanying loss of empire and, 151 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), 161; and Badr Organization, 164; and Hezbollah, 165; minority groups represented in, 174 Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS): Central Asians in ranks of, 72; siege ofKobani, Syria, 107, no, 116,119, 120; Sistani’s fatwa against, 164; Syrian Democratic Forces in fight against, 120 Islamist movements/Islamism: in Chechnya, 56, 57; in Turkey, 97-98; Turkey’s support for, too Ismail I (Safavid ruler), 148,161,162,196 Israel: Azerbaijan and, 177; EAEU and, 75; Hezbollah as military check on, 166; invasion of southern Lebanon, 165; Iran’s campaign of resistance against, 161; Turkey’s relations with, 133,134,136. See ako Palestine Ivan III (Grand Prince of Muscovy), 32 Index Ivan IV (Tsar of Russia), 25, 29, 46 Izetbegovic, Alija, 132 Izetbegovic, Bakir, 132 Jaish al-Adl (Baluch group), 187 al-Jalili family (Mosul), 133 Jamiat-e Islami, 202 Jangalis, uprising of, 172 Japan: and Inner Asia, 233, 234, 236, 259; invasion of China, 236 Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu, 259 Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Russian Federation, 51 Jews: in Islamic Republic of Iran, 174; in Russian Empire, 27; in Turkey, 96; in Ukraine, 3 5 Jia Yi, 254 Jordan: separation from Ottoman Empire, 134; Turkey’s relations with, 135 Jundullah (Baluch group), 187 Jurchen, 235. See also Manchus Justice and Development Party (Turkey). SeeAKP Kabardino-Balkaria, гут, 52, 56 Kadeer, Rebiya, 229 Kadyrov, Akhmad, 56, 57 Kadyrov, Ramzan, 8, 20, 57-58, 59 Kai-wing Chow, 218 Kalat, Khanate of, 185 Kalin, Ibrahim, 124, 136 Kandahar, Iranian control of, 200 Kangxi Emperor (Qing ruler), 242 KangYouwei, 214, 218, 219, 227, 255 Karachaevo-Cherkessia, 17m, 52 al-Karaki al-Amili, Ali al-Muhaqqiq, 163 Karakoç, Sezai, 119 Kartli-Kakhetí, Kingdom of, 64, 195, 197 Karzai, Hamid, 203 Kashani-Sabet, Firoozeh, 157, 189 Kata’ib Hezbollah militia (Iraq), 164 Katkov, Mikhail N.,27 355 Kazakhs: along PRC’s borders, 223; in Xinjiang, 245, 248 Kazakhstan: Belt and Road Initia tive (BRI) announced in, 208, 264; China’s relations with, 211,252,257, 258, 262; denomadization of, 71; in EAEU, 74; ethnic Russian minority in, 63; Eurasian integration plans and, 74; Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and, 76; nuclear testing in, 71; Russia’s engagement with, 61, 70, 71, 72, 259; Soviet republic of, 70-71; uprising during World War I, 70; Uyghur diaspora organizations in, 257 Kazakh steppe, Russian settlement in, 69-70 Kazan khanate, Russian conquest of, 25, 46 KDPI (Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran), 181,182 Kemal, Mustafa. See Atatiirk Kemal, Namık, 94 Kermani, Mirza Aqa lihan, 157 Kerman-Sistan, Qajar rule in, 172 Khakassia, Republic of, 45 Khalka Mongols, 259 Khamenei, Ayatollah Ali: on cultural ties with Tajikistan, 204; elevation to rank of ayatollah, 164; Greater Iran (Iranzamin) idea and, 194; and Hezbollah, 166; imperial past invoked by, 3,160; on Persian language and culture, 174; and Sistani, 164 Khan, Ismail, 203 Khan, Sulmaan Wasif, 243 Khatami, Mohammad, 174 al-Khattab, Ibn, 56 Khazal of Mohammareh, Sheykh, 178 Khiabani, Mohammad, 176,177 Khiva, Khanate of, 69, 70,183, 201 Khmelnitskiy, Bohdan, 32, 35 Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah, 147-48, 161; in Atabat, 163; and denigration of nationality, 159; and Doctrine of 356 Index Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah (continued) Absolute Guardianship, 161,163; and Iranian identity, 167-68,171; opposi tion to, 176-77, 179; and permanent revolution, 161 Khoqand, Khanate of, 69, 71, 201, 246 Khorasan (Greater Khorasan), 191,192, 199; etymology of name, 200; impe rial rivalries in, 200-201; Iran’s objec tives in, 199, 201-4; major figures of, 194; northern, nomadic Turkmen of, 172,183,184; Persianization of, 184, 202; Qajar rule in, 172, 200; Safavid rule in, 170,171,172,196, 200; volatility of Iran’s borderlands in, 170, 172,183,193, 200 al-Khorasani, Abu Muslim, 159 Khorgos special economic zone, China and, 263 Khrushchev, Nikita, 29, 35,49, 54 Khuzestan (Arabestan), Iranian, 178-80; Islamic Republic’s policies in, 174; Saddam Hussein’s plans to annex, 179; Safavid rule in, 171; during World War 1,172 Kirill (Russian Patriarch), 41 Kısakürek, Necip Fazıl, 98 Kobani, Syria, ISIS siege of, 107, no, 116,119, 120 Komi, protests in, 51 Korea, tianxia concept and, 252 Koreans, along PRC’s borders, 223 korenizatsiya (nativization) policy, Soviet, 34-35,48,49 Kosovo: refugees from, 127; Turkish policies in, 130, 131,132 Kotku, Mehmed Zahid, 97 KRG (Kurdistan Regional Govern ment), Iraq, aS·,peshmerga fighters loyal to, 107,119; Turkey’s relations with, 86,107,108,109,119-20, 122 Kumar, Krishan, 8,12 Kurbsky, Andrey, 41 Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran (KDPI), 181,182 Kurdish languages, no; Turkey’s ban on, 114 Kurdish tribal emirates, in Ottoman Empire, 84, in; abolition of, 112 Kurdistan, Iranian, 171,180-83; crossborder ties with Kurdish populations, 180; Islamic Republic policies in, 174; nationalist movements in, 173,176, 181-83; Safavid rule in, 171; during World War 1,180; during World War П, 176,181-82 Kurdistan, Ottoman, partition of, 107-8. See also Kurds, Turkish Kurdistan Regional Government (Iraq). SeřKRG Kurdistan Workers Party (Turkey). See PKK Kurds: and Armenians, conflicts of, in, 112,113; divisions among, no, 116-17; m Iran, 117,180-83; in Iraq, 86,107, 108, 109,117, 118-20, 122; Islamic Revolution in Iran and, 154; nationalist movement of, 112; in Ottoman Empire, 110-13; Ottoman partition and, 107-8,113, 117; in Perso-Iranic world, 154; in Syria, 107, 109, 117,120-21, 122. See also Kurdi stan; Kurds, Turkish Kurds, Turkish, 107-22; AKP’s strategy for integrating, 86, 109, 113, 115-17, 122; in early Republic, 113-14; left-wing activism among, 115; op portunities for, 108-9; “politics of difference” regarding, in, 114-15; separatism among, Ataturk's response to, 13,108,113-14; tribal elites of, relations with state, 113,115; violence against, 84; during War of Independence, 113. See also PKK Kuwait, formation of, 178 Kyivan Rus: successor states to, 31-32; and unity of East Slavs, 31, 36,42 Index Kyrgyz, in Xinjiang, 245, 248 Kyrgyzstan: China’s relations with, 211, 252, 257, 258, 262; in CSTO, 75; in EAEU, 75; ethnic Russian minority in, 63; labor migrants from, in Russia, 73; Persian language in, 158; revolu tions in, 63, 68; Russian involvement in, 72, 259; Soviet republic of, 71; uprising during World War I, 70; U.S. forces deployed in, 72, 75-76; Uyghur diaspora organizations in, 257 Landau, Jacob, 103 Lausanne, Treaty of, 83,126,129,135 Lebanon: Hezbollah in, 165-66; Iran’s relations with, 148,149,163, 165-66; separation from Ottoman Empire, 134; Turkey’s relations with, 135 LeDonne, John, 33 Lenin, Vladimir: and ethnoterritorial federalism, 48; on European imperi alism, 9; on Great Russian chauvin ism, 28 li (ritual), and Chinese cultural space, 215-16 Liang Qichao, 214, 217-18, 219, 221, 227 liberal democracies, postimperial Eur asian states’ failure to become, 4, 5 Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR), 30, 62 Libya: Russo-Turkish tensions over, 270, 271; Turkey’s intervention in, 86,124, 133,47 Lieven, Dominic, 7, 15 Little Russians, 19, 32-33, 34 Liu Qing, 253 Liu Xiaoyuan, 232, 243, 254 Liu Zhenmin, 266 Lorestan, Safavid rule in, 171 Lukashenko, Aleksandr, 36, 37 Luxemburg, Rosa, 48 Luzhkov, Yury, 40 357 Macao: Chinese claims to, 226; tianxia concept and, 252 Mackinder, Halford John, 9 Mahabad, Kurdish Republic based in, 181-82 Mahmud II (Ottoman Sultan), in-12 MalkumKhan, 157 Mamluks, Ottoman conquest of, 92 Manchukuo, 236 Manchuria (Northeastern China), 210, 235-37; assimilation and deterritorialization of, 232, 235-37; imperial rivalry in, 235, 236, 259 Manchus, 235; anger directed against, 217; as distinct minzu in China, 237; in Qing dynasty, 9, 217 Mansur, Sheykh (Chechen leader), 53, 55 Mao Zedong: campaign against Soviet revisionism, 261; and minority poli cies, 221-22, 243; on tianxia, 255 Martin, Terry, 48 Mashhad, Khorasan: Iranian control of, 170, 200; as Shi’ite center, 163 Masoud, Ahmed Shah, 202-3 al-Masri, Aziz Ali, 134 Matthee, Rudi, 200 Mazeppa, Ivan, 1 Mazzaoui, Michael, 162 Medvedev, Dmitry, 40, 60, 74 Mehmed VI (Ottoman Sultan), 82 MEK (Mojahedin-e Khalq), 179 mellat, concept of, 156,157 Menderes, Adnan, 115, 273 Merv, 183; Iranian control over, 200, 201 Mesopotamia: in Greater Iran, 189; imperial rivalries in, 9, 270; Iran’s borderlands in, 170; Ottoman legacy in, 124,134 Mevlevi order, 92 МНР (Nationalist Movement Party), Turkey, 86, 91; accommodation with Islamist parties, 103; solidarity with Crimean Tatars and Uyghurs, 106; on Turkish identity, 102 35^ Index Middle East: Iranie languages spoken in, 158; Iran’s ambitions regarding, 168, 190; Islamist movements in, Turkey’s support for, 100, 136; in Ottoman Empire, 133-34; post-Ottoman, nation-building projects in, 106; sec tarian geopolitics of, Islamic Republic of Iran and, 12, 154-55,168; Turkey’s interests in, 99, 127,133-37; TurkishIranian tensions over, 270. See ako specific countries millets·, in Ottoman Empire, 92-93, in, 114; and Turkey’s vision of new regional order, 128 Milli Görüş (National Vision), Turkey, 97, 98, 99; and AKP, origins of, 99; influence among Turkish migrants in Europe, 100 Ming dynasty (China), 222,237; ap proach to Inner Asia, 216 minzu (nationality/ethnic groups): in People’s Republic of China (PRC), 209-10, 214-15, 222; illegitimacy of secession based on, 220; non-Han, 222-23, 237 Misak-i Milli (National Oath), Turkey, 95,125-26,134-35, 138 Mohammad Reza Shah. See Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza Shah Mohseni, Ayatollah Asif, 203, 204 Mojahedin-e Khalq (MEK), 179 Moldova, Republic of: Russian peace keeping force in, i, 2,4; unrecognized statelet of Transnistria within, 1-2, 15 Mongolia: China’s Inner Asian periphery and, 211, 232, 237; China’s relations with, 239, 252, 258, 261; indepen dence of, 211, 237, 259-60. See also Inner Mongolia; Outer Mongolia Monroe Doctrine, 61 Mosaddeq, Mohammad, 150 Mosul: ISIS occupation of, 119; in Otto man Empire, no-11, i33;Turkey’s claims on, 126,135 Motahhari, Morteza, 159 Motherland Party (Russia), 31 Mozaffar al-Din Shah (Qajar ruler), 185 Muhammad Ali Para, iii, 112,133,180 al-Muhandis, Abu Mahdi, 165 Muscovy: as successor state to Kyivan Rus, 31-32. See also Russia Muslim Brotherhood, Turkey’s support for, 101,136 Muslim Unity Party (Iran), 186 Nader Shah (Afsharid ruler), 170,175, 195, Ï97 Nagorno-Karabakh, after World War I, 65 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, 66, 67; Iran’s position on, 177, 197; refugees from, 127; Turkey’s position on, 103, 104, 138,139, 141,142 Najaf, Iraq: Iranian consulate in, attack on, 168; as Shi’ite center, 163-64,165 Najibullah, Muhammad, 202, 203 Nakhjavan (Nakhichevan): khanate of, 64; after World War I, 65 Naqshbandiyya order: common religious framework of, and Kurdish-Turkish reconciliation, 115-16; in North Caucasus, 53-54; in Ottoman Em pire, 92; in Turkey, 97 Naser al-Din Shah (Qajar ruler), 183, 185, 201 Nashi (Russian youth movement), 31 Natali, Denise, 181 national identity: ambiguity of, in postimperial Eurasian states, 11-13. See also supraethnic national identity; specific national identities nationalism: imperialism and, in Eur asian states, 10-11; Islam and, in Iran, 149, 154,159-61; Islam and, in Turkey, 91-92, 98,105. See also ethnonationalism Nationalist Movement Party (Turkey). See МНР Index Nationalist Party (China). See Guomindang National Oath (Turkey). See Misak-t Milli National Vision (Turkey). See Milli Görüş NATO: Balkan states and, 132,141; Georgia’s membership in, calls for, 67,141; Moldova’s membership in, Russian objections to, 2; Russia in relation to, 5, 62, 132, 273; Turkey’s accession to, 84 Navalny, Aleksey, 30, 273 Nazism, Ukrainian nationalism associ ated with, 35, 38 “near abroad”: of Iran, 164; of postim perial Eurasian states, 11,14-15; of Russian Federation, 60; Russian term for, 14, 60 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 255 Nemtsov, Boris, 57, 58 neo-Eurasianism, 39 neo-Ottomanism, 123, 125 Nepal, China’s territorial disputes with, 258, 261, 263 Nerchinsk, Treaty of, 259 Nevsky, Aleksandr, 29 Nicholas I (Emperor of Russia), 26, 27, 65 Nicholas II (Emperor of Russia), 24, 2 7, 28 Ningxia, China, 234 Nonaligned Movement, 255 North Africa, Ottoman legacy in, 124, 133,134 North Caucasus, 52-58; agricultural colonization of, 47; ethnic cleansing under Stalin, 54; ethnic republics in, 44, 52; imperial legacy and, 13,45, 46; incorporation in Russian Empire, 53; Iranian engagement in, 199; lim inal status of, 44, 53; Putin’s policies in, 56-58; resistance to Russian rule in, 53-54, 55; after Soviet Union’s 359 collapse, 20; Sufi orders in, 53-54, 55; system of indirect rule in, 56-57. See also specific countries North Caucasus Imamate, 53 Northern Alliance, in Afghanistan, 203 North Korea, territorial demands from China, 261 North Macedonia, Turkish policies in, North Ossetia, iqm, 45, 52, 55 Novorossiya guberniya, in Russian Em pire- 33- 37 Nurhaci (Qing founder), 237 Öcalan, Abdullah, 109,118,120,122 OCAO (Overseas Chinese Affairs Of fice), 228, 229 Opium Wars, 217, 259 Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), 35 Orthodox Church: and East Slavs, unity of, 25, 32; Georgian, Russian policies regarding, 64; and Russian identity, 23, 25; and Russian World, concept of, 41 Ottoman Empire: Balkans in, 39, 92, 128-29; Caucasus and, 137,138; Christian nationalist movements in, 39, 93, 94, 96,129; ethnic violence in, 65, 93-96,105,112,113; former, nation-building in, 125; fragmenta tion of, 89,134; heritage of, AKP and revival of, 82, 85-86, 90-91,113,123, 124; Islam in, 92; Kurds in, 110-13; legacy of, and Turkey’s geopoliti cal ambitions, 3,12,90-92,101-6, 123-28,141-42; legal successor of, 83; Middle East in, 133-34; millets in, 92-93, nr, 114; Moldavia in, 1, 2; and “politics of difference,” 142; religious minorities in, 92, 93; terri tory of, ca. 1689, 81m; in World War I, 82,95,138 Ottoman identity, Islam and, 85, 93,94 16ο Index Ottomanism/Ottoman nationalism, 93-94; Turkish language and, 10,12 OUN (Organization of Ukrainian Na tionalists), 35 “Outer Manchuria,” 258 Outer Mongolia: anti-Qing revolts in, 210; China’s loss of, 237, 259-60. See also Mongolia overseas Chinese (huaqiao huaren): China’s mobilization of, 12-13, 2I5 226—30; concept oi zhonghua minzu and, 226-27 Overseas Chinese Affairs Office (OCAO), 228, 229 overseas Russians, in Russian World concept, 41 Özal, Turgut, 98-99,103; foreign policy of, 126, 130,134,139; Iraqi Kurdish factions and, 117; Kurdish ancestry of, 109, 115-16; rise of political Islam under, 129 Özdağ, Umit, 102 Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza Shah: ceremony at Persepolis, 146-47; and Greatoer Iran (Iranzamin) idea, 194; and imperial nostalgia, 274; on Khuzestan, importance of, 178-79; Kurdish independence efforts and, 181-82; overthrow of, 147; and Persianization of Iranian identity, 158; and suppression of ethnic minorities, 117,158, 181-82; U.S. support for, 150; and western Afghanistan, 202; wife of, 173 Pahlavi, Reza Shah, 149,153, 154,158; consolidation of power by, 172,178; nationalist framework established by, 173; and non-Persian border lands, 178,181,184, 186; ouster of, US Pahlavi dynasty, Iran: and idea of Greater Iran (Iranzamin), 190; and Kurdish population, 181; minority policies of, 173,181,186; nation building project of, 158, 181; and Persian-centric conception of Iranian identity, 154, 158, 188 Pakistan: Baluch minority in, 185,187; and China, security mechanism with, 266; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76, 77; Greater Iran concept and, 192; Hezbollah-style militias in, 166; and Iranian Baluch, 186; Iran’s rela tions with, 205; and Pashtun groups in Afghanistan, 202; Persian language in, 158 Palestine: separation from Ottoman Empire, 134; Turkey’s involvement in, 133, 136-37 Palestinian Islamic Jihad, Iran’s support for, 155 Panchen Lama, 244 pan-Slavism, 38-39 pan-Turkism, 101-2. See also Turkism (Türkçülük) Pan Yihong, 216 Party for a Free Life in Kurdistan (PJAK), 182,183 Pashtuns: in Afghan civil war, 202, 203; fall of Isfahan to, 163,196, 200; in Perso-Iranic world, 154; in Taliban, 203 Paskevich, Ivan, 65 Pavlovsky, Gleb, 41, 58 Peaceful Coexistence, policy of, 255 Peoples’ Democratic Party (Turkey). See HDP People’s Protection Units (Syria). See YPG People’s Republic of China (PRC): Confucian symbolism embraced by, 212, 215, 220, 255, 274; as hybrid state, 210; imperial view of frontiers as transition zones, 260-61; and In ner Asian borderlands, 233, 236-37; minority policies in, 221-25; minzu (ethnic groups) within, 209-10, Index 214-15, 222; name of, zhonghua in, 219; nationality law in, 228; nation building in, 214, 215, 219-20; and overseas Chinese (huaqiao huaren), policies toward, 12-13, 215, 227, 228-30; Qing territorial legacy and, 209, 237, 249, 258-59; and territorial accommodation, strategy of, 261; as territorially bounded state, 258. See also China Pereyaslav, Peace of, 32, 33 peripheries: Eurasian postimperial states’ entanglement with, 4, 9,10, 14-15; imperial legacies in, 8. See aho borderlands Persianate culture/world: and Iranian identity, 148,153-54,158,174, 275; and Islam, in Islamic Repub lic of Iran, 149,154,159-61; unity of, Iranian politicians’ emphasis on, 160 Persian Gulf, Iran’s foreign policy and, 190 Persian language: countries/regions us ing, 153,158, 202; Islamic Republic of Iran and, 159,174 peshmerga fighters, Turkey and, 107, 119 Peter I the Great (Emperor of Russia), 1; administrative reforms under, 46; conquests in Caucasus, 196; and idea of common Russian identity, 23, 26 Pishevari, Jafar, 176,177, 181 PJAK (Party for a Free Life in Kurdis tan), 182,183 PKK (Kurdistan Workers Party), Tur key: AKP’s strategy for reconciliation with, 86, 109; foreign powers using, 108; idea of trans-boundary Kurdish identity and, 183; insurgency waged by, 84,108,115; Iranian offshoot of, 182; Iraqi Kurdish factions as allies against, 117,119; permeability of Turkish borders and, 118; resumption of conflict with, 116,122; Russian ties 361 to, 140-41; and YPG/PYD in Syria, 107,120 PME (Popular Mobilization Forces), Iraq, 164-65 Poland: deployment of U.S. forces in, Russia’s position on, 61; and south western Rus, 32; Soviet projection of power in, 18, 28. See also Poles Poland-Lithuania: Orthodox believers in, 32; refugees from, resettlement in Ukraine, 33 Polar Silk Road, 268 Poles: massacres of, in Ukraine, 35; in Russian Empire, 10, 27, 28, 33 “politics of difference”: China and, 214, 221; empires and, 8, to, 11; Iran and, 149-50; Russia and, 8, 20,45, 52, 56, 57-58, 59; Turkey and, in, 114-15, 142 Politkovskaya, Anna, 57 Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF), Iraq, 164-65 postimperial states, Eurasian: border lands of, volatility of, it, 13-14; chal lenges facing, 11-15; claims to special status, 271, 275; enduring imperial legacies of, 2-4, 8,15, 269-75; global order threatened by, 4, 5, 7, 11,15, 270, 271-72, 275; increasing align ment among, 4, 272-73; national identity in, ambiguity of, 11-і 3; “near abroads” of, 11,14-15; peripheries of, entanglement with, 4, 9,10,14-15; political systems in, 5, 275; power disparities among, 270-71; revision ism of, 4-6; synthesis of nationalism and imperialism in, іо-ii; unstable boundaries of, 10; Western empires compared to, 3-4,11. See also specific countries PRC. See People’s Republic of China Primakov, Yevgeny, 62 Prosperous Borders Wealthy Minorities program (China), 262 16z Index Pugachev, Yemelyan, 47 Putin, Vladimir: and annexation of Crimean Peninsula, 18, 31,40, 43; approach to ethnic autonomies, 5052; borderland policies of, 45, 58-59; and China, relations with, 261; and civic basis of Russian identity, 30; eth nonationalist movements and, 30-31; on Eurasian integration, 73-74, 76; imperial nostalgia mobilized by, 3,15, 18, 23, 270, 273; on national iden tity, 24; North Caucasus policies of, 56-58; popularity among far-right movements in U.S. and Europe, 42; and “power vertical,” aspiration to create, 45; Primakov and, 62; rise and legitimation of, centrality of Chech nya to, 13, 56; and Russian World Foundation, 41; Solzhenitsyn’s influ ence on, 36, 37; on Soviet Union’s collapse, 18,40; succession question regarding, 59; on Ukraine, 37 Puyi (former Qing emperor), 236 PYD (Democratic Union Party), in northern Syria, 120-21 Qadiriyya order, in North Caucasus, 54 al-Qaeda, in North Caucasus, 56 Qajar, Aqa Mohammad, 175,195, 197, 200 Qajar, Fath Ali Shah, 200 Qajar, Mohammed Ali Shah, 175-76 Qajar, Mohammed Shah, 201 Qajar Iran, 9; Baluchistan in, 185-86; borderlands of, indirect rule in, 171, 172; capital of, 170; emergence of ethnonationalism and, 10; interests in Caucasus, 64,195,197; Khorasan in, 172, 200; and Kurdish emirates, 180; nation-building in, 156-57; and Persianate world, claims on, 150; and Russian Empire, contention with, 175; territorial losses of, 169, 170, 201; and Turkmens of northern Khorasan, 183 Qara Qoyunlu dynasty, 175 Qashqa’is, in Iran, 171,173,174 Qatar: formation of, 178; Turkish mili tary footprint in, 124 Qazi Muhammad (Kurdish leader), 181, 182 Qazvini, Hamdallah Mostawfi, 193 Qianlong Emperor (Qing ruler), 217, 244, 245, 249 Qing dynasty (China), 9, 210, 217; at tempts to Sinicize, 225; and Banner system, 217, 221; CCP claims regard ing, іо-ii; colonial encroachment and, 213; emergence of ethnon ationalism and, 10; and Inner Asian borderlands, 232-34, 237-38, 241-42, 245-47; and national imperialism, 214; nationalist movement and, 217-18; nationality law adopted by, 227-28; policies in Manchuria, 235, 236; and “politics of difference,” 221; relations with “barbarians,” 216; and Russia, border disputes with, 259; social and institutional basis of, 217; stable administration established by, 213-14; territorial legacy of, claims regarding, 209, 237, 249, 258-59; ter ritorial losses of, 211, 252; territory of, ca. 1800, zoqm Qin Yaqing, 254 Qizilbash, 93, no, 162,195,196 Qubilai Khan (Yuan ruler), 241 Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 202, 203 Rakhmon(ov), Emomali, 72, 204 Rama, Edi, 132 Raqqa, in Ottoman Empire, 110-11 Regional Anti-Terrorism Center (RATS), 257 regional order, new, 272; China’s vision of, 123, 205, 211-12, 220, 252-53, 257, 263-64, 267-68; Iran’s vision of, Index 155,165-66,168,190-91; Russia’s vision of, 73-77, 79, 12 3, 205; Tur key’s vision of, 99-100,12 3-2 8,13 3, 135-36,137,140,141-43 Renan, Ernest, 157 Republican People’s Party (Turkey). See CHP Republic of China (ROC): claims to Qing territorial legacy, 209; and Inner Asian borderlands, 233, 234; loss of Mongolia and, 260; Manchukuo and, 236; minority policies in, 221-25; name of, zhonghua in, 219; nationality law in, 228; nation building in, 214, 219-20; tension between diversity and assimilation in, 220-21. See also Guomindang; Taiwan revisionism, of Eurasian postimperial states: civilizational explanations for, 6; ideological/political explanations for, 4-5; imperial legacies and, 4; structural explanations for, 5 Reynolds, Michael, too, 127 Richmond, Walter, 53 Rieber, Alfred, 48 ROC. See Republic of China Rojava, self-proclaimed state of, 120 Rolland, Nadège, 264 Roman Danilovich (Prince of HalychVolyn), 32 Romania: in Ottoman Empire, 128; Turkish refugees from, 129 Rossiyskiy (term): revival under Yeltsin, 29, 42, 62; as supraethnic national identity, 12, 24, 38, 42 RSFSR. See Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic Rumlu, Hasan Beg, 162 Rus’: and Rossiya, tension between, 25. See also Kyivan Rus Russia (Russian Federation): annexation of Crimean Peninsula by, 18, 31, 37, 40,43, 273-74; borderlands of, 44-45; and China, boundary negotiations 363 with, 211, 252, 258-59, 261, 262; and China, changing power balance between, 262; and China, strategic rapprochement with, 72, 78, 261, 272; civilizational distinctiveness of, argu ments for, 6,40,41-42; claim to great power status, 21; costs of empire building by, 43; democratic rule in, imperfect history of, 273; economic disparities between center and pe riphery in, 58-59; entanglement with peripheries of, 14; ethnic republics in, 20, 44-45, 50-52; and EU/NATO, strategic competition with, 5, 62,132; and Eurasian Economic Union, 14; exclusion from current world order, 5; foreign policy of, 25,40; imperial legacy and, 2, 3, 8,18-21, 43, 78-79, 269-75; intervention in affairs of smaller neighbors, 1, 2, 18-19,43; and Iran, 194,199, 205; and new regional order, aspirations regarding, 73-77, 79,123; non-Western governance norms promoted by, 76; occupation of eastern Ukraine, 14, 18, 31; and “politics of difference,” 8, 20,45, 52, 56, 57-58, 59; post-Putin, questions regarding, 59; revisionism of, explana tions for, 5-6; shifting boundaries of, 19; southern borders of, instability of, 20; Syrian conflict and, 137; ties with former Soviet states, 24-25, 63; and Turkey, competition with, 138-41; and Turkey, strategic cooperation with, 78,104, 272; and Ukraine, entanglement with, 14, 24-25; and West, strategic competition with, 21, 39, 78. See also Russian Empire; Soviet Union; specific regions Russian Agency for International Coop eration, 40 Russian Civil War: Caucasus during, 54; ethnic autonomies emerging after, 47; separatist movements during, 34 3^4 Index Russian Empire: collapse of, Ottoman forces after, 138; efforts to national ize, 26-28; ethnic Russians’ claims for special status in, 26-27; expan sion and consolidation of, 46-47, 53; heterogeneity of, 23, 25-26; incor poration of Central Asia in, 68-70; incorporation of South Caucasus in, 197; and Inner Asia, 233; loyalty as criterion for inclusion in, 25-26; ori gins of, i, 26; rise of ethnonational ism and, 27-28; territory of, ca. 1900, ібт-і^т·, unity of, elites’ perspective on, 23-24 Russian identity: ambiguity of, 37-38; civic basis of, 25-26, 29-30; culturalnational vs. imperial conceptions of, 19, 23-24, 30,42-43; Eurasianist views on, 39; imperial articulations of, 38-43; pan-Slavist views on, 38-39; religion and, 23, 25; top-down attempt to redefine, 31; transcending borders, claims regarding, 19, 38-43 Russian language: korenizatsiya (nativization) policy and use of, 49; Russian World Foundation and promotion of, 41; and Russification policies of Rus sian Empire, 26, 27; and Russification policies of Soviet Union, 29, 49; as state language of Russian Federa tion, 30, 51, 59; use in Caucasus and Central Asia, decline in, 78; use in Ukraine, 37 Russian Orthodox Church. See Ortho dox Church Russians, ethnic: agricultural coloniza tion by, 46-47; claim for special status of, 24, 26-27, 28-29, 30; Soviet ethnoterritorial federalism and, 48; in successor states to Soviet Union, 62-63 Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), 24,47,48; lowerlevel autonomies within, 48, 49 Russian World, concept of, 41; Greater Turkey idea compared to, 105; impe rial legacy and, 25 Russian World Foundation, 40, 41 Russification: in Belarus and Ukraine, 35; cultural, 27; Russian Empire and policies of, 26, 27; Russian Federation and policies of, 51; Soviet Union and policies of, 29,49 Russo-Ottoman wars, 65,94,111 Saakashvili, Mikheil, 67, 68 Saddam Hussein, 109; al-Anfal campaign of, 118; appeal to pan-Arab senti ments, 179; fall of, and opportunities for Iran/Shi’ism, 163-64; and PKK, 118; U.S.-led campaign to oust, 119 al-Sadr, Muqtada, 164 Safavid Iran, 9; Azerbaijan’s position in, 175; borderlands of, indirect rule in, 171; collapse of, 163; conversion to Shi’ism in, 148,162; empire of, term used for, 156; first capital of, 170; imperial expansion of, justifica tion for, 162; Khorasan in, 170, 171, 172, 196, 200; and Kurdish emirates, 180; Ottoman frontier with, 133; and Persianate world, claims on, 150; revolutionary dynamic associated with, 161; Selim I’s campaign against, 110; slave system in, 196 Safawiyya dervish order, 162 Safi I (Safavid ruler), 196 Said-bek (Chechen leader), 54 Said of Piran, Sheykh, 12,113 Sakha (Yakutia), 45, 52 Salafism: vs. Islamic nationalism, 98; vs. Turkish/Ottoman Islam, 105,127 Samanid dynasty, 193 Sasanian Empire, 154; idealized vision of, 189-90,192-93; and idea of Kho rasan, 200; and origins of Iran, 156 Saudi Arabia: and Iranian Baluch, 186; Iran’s views on, 160; and Pashtun Index groups in Afghanistan, 202. See also Salafism Savitsky, Petr, 39 Sazonov, Sergey, 34 SCO. See Shanghai Cooperation Organization Selim I (Ottoman Sultan), 92,110,111 Serbia: EAEU and, 75; nationalist groups in, Russian support for, 39; Turkey’s relations with, 130-31,132; U.S.-led bombing of, and imperial nostalgia, 273 Serbs: attacks on Muslims, 106,129; campaign for independence from Ot toman Empire, 38-39 Sèvres, Treaty of, 89,113 Shafi madhab: Kurds and, no; vs. Turk ish Islam, 105 Shahnahmeh (Ferdowsi), 154,157; and Greater Iran (Iranzamin) concept, 192,193 Shahroudi, Ayatollah Mahmoud Hash emi, 165 Shakak, Ismail Aqa (Simko), 180-81 Shamil, Imam (North Caucasian leader), 53,54 55 Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), 256, 272; Greater Eurasia initiative and, 76; Iran and, 205; Regional Anti-Terrorism Center (RATS) of, 257 Shanghai Five, 257, 262 Shapur I (Sasanian ruler), 156,192 Shariatmadari, Ayatollah liazem, 176-77 Shaymiyev, Mintimer, 50, 51 Shchedrovitsky, Petr, 41 Sheng Shicai, 247 Shi’as/Shi’ism: Akhbari school of, 179; Atabat as center of, 163; and imperial expansion, 162; and Iranian identity, 153,159,167-68,177; Iran’s adoption of, 148,162; Iran’s appeal to loyalty of, 12; in Iraq, 163-65; and Islamic Republic’s foreign policy, 148-49, 365 154-5 5,161; revolutionary dynamic associated with, 161-62; Saddam’s fall and opportunities for, 163-64; ulema as independent political force in Iran, 161-63; Usuli school of, 179. See aho Sufi orders; ulema Shimun XIX (Assyrian Catholicos), 180-81 Shunzhi Emperor (Qing ruler), 241 Siberia: agricultural colonization of, 47, 61; ethnic republics in, 44; imperial legacies in, 46 Silk Road: China’s invocations of, 267; in Xinjiang, 245 Silk Road Economic Belt, 208. See ako Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) Simko (Ismail Aqa Shakak), 180-81 Simla Convention, 242-43, 258 Sistan and Baluchistan, Iran, 185,186. See also Baluchistan Sistani, Ayatollah Ali, 164,165 Slavic Union (Russia), 31 Slavophilism, 26-27 Soleimani, Qassem, 164,165 Solovyev, Sergey, 46 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr, 29, 36, 37, 41 Somalia, 124 South Asia: Greater Iran and, 189; Iranie languages spoken in, 158; Iran’s en gagement in, 150,190. See also specific countries South Caucasus, 63-68; agricultural colonization of, 47; as buffer zone for Russia, 20-21; China’s engagement in, 267; colonial aspects of Russian rule in, 61; ethnoterritorial conflicts in, 66-67; Eurasian integration and, 73; Greater Iran concept and, 189, 192; imperial legacy in, 46, 68; impe rial rivalries in, 63, 64, 67; Iranian Qajar interests in, 64,195, 197; Iran’s engagement in, 190,194; Russian involvement in, 20-21, 60, 64-65, 197; Soviet collapse and, 29, 36, 66; 166 Index South Caucasus {continued) Turkey’s intervention in, 86,124; dur ing World War I, 65. See also specific countries South China Sea: China’s claims in, 252, 257, 258; Russian state companies expelled from, 271 Southeast Asia, Chinese émigrés in, 226-27 Southern Song dynasty (China), 216 South Ossetia: ethnic tensions in, 66; Russian occupation of, 19,40; strug gle for independence from Georgia, 66, 67, 68 Soviet Union: and China, territorial disputes of, 261; collectivization and famine in, 35; ethnic minorities in, cultural and political autonomy of, 24; ethnic republics of, 20, 34-35, 37, 47-52, 54-55, 70-71; ethnic Russians in, foundational role of, 28-29; and Inner Asia, 234, 245, 247; korenizatsiya (nativization) policy in, 34-35,48, 49; and Kurds, support for, 118; Rus sification policies in, 29, 49; southern borderlands of, 61-62; successor states to, 60, 62, 63; successor states to, Chinese trade and investment in, 68, 72, 76; and Turkey, 102; union republics of, 47, 48, 49, 70 Soviet Union, collapse of: ethnic repub lics after, 20, 66; and idea of “compa triots,” 40; and Russia’s geopolitical marginalization, 18, 40; schemes for regional integration after, 73; Turkish policies after, 91,103,126; Yeltsin’s policies and, 62 Stahn, Josef: borderlands policies of, 48, 58, 61; claims on Iranian Azerbaijan, 61, 66; and ethnic cleansing in North Caucasus, 54, 55; on ethnic Russians, privileged status of, 28, 29; terror campaign of, 35 Stolypin, Petr, 28 Sufi orders: in North Caucasus, 53-54, 55; in Ottoman Empire, 92; in Turkey, 97-98; and Turkish Islam, influences on, 105, See also specific orders Süleyman I the Magnificent (Ottoman ruler), i, 2 Sunnis/Sunnism: Hanafi school of, 105, no, 112; Hanbali school of, 105; in Iran’s borderlands, 171,178-87; Iran’s foreign policy and, 155; in North Caucasus, 54; Ottoman sultan as preeminent ruler of, 92,134; ShaPi school of, 105, no; Turkey’s ambition regarding, 12, 92,100-101,168; and Turkish-Kurdish relations, 109. See also Salafism Suny, Ronald Grigor, 8, 96 Sun Yat-sen, 220, 227 supraethnic national identity: Persianate world as, 148, 153-54, 158, 174, 275; postimperial Eurasian states and, 12; Rossiyskiy as, 12, 24, 38,42; Türkiyeli as, 12, 91; zhonghua minzu as, 12, 214, 219 Syria: Arab Spring and, 136,137; arti ficial borders of, 135; Astana peace process for, 272; fighters from, in Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, 141; Hezbollah’s role in, 166; ISIS in, 107; Kobani siege in, 107, no, 116,119; Kurds in, Turkish policies regarding, 107, 109,117, 120-21, 122; PKK and, 84, 120; pursuit of postimperial influence in, 2, 141, 270, 271; PYD/ YPG in, 107,109,120; refugees from, in Turkey, 100, 121, 142; RussoTurkish tensions over, 141, 270, 271; separation from Ottoman Empire, 134; Turkey’s interests in, 133, 141; Turkey’s intervention in, 4,14, 86, 101,121,122,124,135, 137, 142; Turkmen militias in, 103; war in, Index Iran’s involvement in, 155, 166,168, 198, 204 Syrian Democratic Forces, 120 Tabriz: as capital of Iran, 170; conver sion to Shi’ism in, 162; Khiabani’s revolt in, 176; Safavid conquest of, 195 Tahmasp I (Safavid ruler), 162-63,195 196 Taiping Rebellion, 217, 259 Taiwan: PRC’s claims to, 226, 229, 252; tianxia concept and, 252. See also Guomindang; Republic of China (ROC) Tajikistan: China’s relations with, 211, 252, 258, 262; Chinese security presence in, 72, 266; in CSTO, 75; Greater Iran concept and, 192, 202; independence of, 202; Iranian imperial heritage and, 194; Iran’s engagement with, 202, 204; labor migrants from, in Russia, 73; Persian component of identity of, 158, 160; post-Soviet civil war in, 72; Soviet republic of, 71 Tajiks: in Afghanistan, 203-4; in PersoIranic world, 154; in Safavid empire, 196 Talabani, Jalal, 118,161 Taliban, Iran and, 203 Tang dynasty (China), relations with “barbarians,” 215, 220, 241, 245 Tannu-Uriankhai, 258, 260 Taranchis, in Xinjiang, 246 Tarbaghatai, Treaty of, 259, 261 Tarim Basin, oasis cities in, 245, 246 Tatar-Bashkir Republic, 47 Tatars: in Crimea, 104, 106; in Russian Empire, 25-26 Tatarstan, 45; bilateral treaty with Rus sia, 50, 51; nationalist movement in, 5L52 Thaçi, Hashim, 132 367 Tiananmen Square protests: centraliza tion after, 235; embrace of Confucian culture in wake of, 252; suppression of, 224 tianxia, concept of, 212, 213, 253-57; Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and, 253, 267-68; China’s central position in, 213, 214, 251; Confucianism and, 213, 214, 251, 255; in contemporary Chinese foreign policy, 215, 251-52; and pursuit of regional influence, 253; and zhonghua minzu, 214 Tibet, 210, 240-45; anti-Qing revolts in, 210; assimilationist policies in, 224-25, 235, 244-45; as autonomous region, recognition of, 234, 243; Buddhist government of, abolition of, 243-44; China’s efforts to integrate, 224-25, 233; Chinese claims on, 232, 240, 252; Dalai Lama as spiritual leader of, 229, 240; Han settlers in, 2 3 5, 244-45; imperial rivalries in, 241, 242-43; infrastructure proj ects in, 258, 263; legacy of foreign intervention and separatism in, 211; overseas Chinese investment in, 229; Panchen Lama and, 2234; periods without Chinese control in, 234; Qing rule in, 241-42; reconquest of, 211; repression under Mao, 243, 250; Simla Convention and claims to sov ereignty of, 242-43; Yuan rule in, 241 ТІКА (Turkish Cooperation and Coor dination Agency), 103,130 Tilly, Charles, 3 Tishkov, Valery, 29, 50 Torkamanchay (Tiirkmenchay), Treaty of, 64,197 Transnistrian Moldavian People’s Re public, 1-2 Transoxiana: cotton production in, 69; Persian-speaking dynasties in, 159-60; settlement and administra tive consolidation of, 70 з 68 Index Trubetskoy, Nikolay, 39 True Path Party (Turkey), 130 Tunisia, Arab Spring in, 136 Türkei, Alparslan, 102 Turkestan, 246; Russian settlement in, 69-70. See also East Turkestan Turkey (Turkish Republic): Arab Spring and, 86, too, 124, 136-37; under Atatürk, 13, 83-84, 95-96; Balkan policies of, 85, 99,105-6, 128-32, 141-42; Blue Homeland claims of, 127; borders with Iraq and Syria, per meability of, 117-18; and Caucasus, 98, 99,103, 105, 137-41; and Central Asia, 78, 98, 99,103, 106, 139; and China, strategic cooperation with, 104; as civilizational state, vision of, 6, 99; competition between U.S. and Russia/China and, 275; democratic rule in, imperfect history of, 273; entanglement with peripheries of, 14; under Erbakan, 98; under Erdoğan, 86, 99-101,123-25; exclusion from current world order, 5, 130; failed July 2016 coup in, 116; in Greater Turkic World, 91, 92; imperial legacy and, 2, 3, 8, 83-84, 85, 90-92,101-6, 123-28,141-42, 269-75; instability around periphery of, 143; interven tion in Syria, 4,14, 86, 101,121, 122, 135,137,142; Iranian cooperation with, 182; and Iranian Turkmen, 184; Islamist movements in, 97-98; Kurdish borderland of, 84,107-22, 181; Middle East policies of, 99, 127, 133-37; military’s involvement in politics in, 108; minority groups in, 96; nation-building in, 124, 125; NATO accession of, 84; and new regional order, aspirations regarding, 99-100,123-28,133, 135-36,137, 140, 141-43; origins of, 82-83, 134; Ottoman heritage of, efforts to re claim, 82, 85-86, 99, 113; under Özal, 98-99; and “politics of difference,” in, it4-15,142; popular culture of, growing reach of, 136; and postimpe rial rivals, 4,104; and post-Ottoman states, 99-100,105-6; refugees in, influence of, 96-97,125; revisionism of, explanations for, 5-6; risks of im perial overstretch for, 87; and Russia, competition in Caucasus, 138-41; and Russia, strategic cooperation with, 78, 104, 272; subnational identities in, 96-97; and Sunni world, ambi tion regarding, 92,100-101, 168; and Turkmen tribes, 184; and U.S., relations with, 4,105; use of military and proxy forces to project power, 137; Uyghur exiles in, 104. See also Ottoman Empire Turkic identity, among Azeris, 175 Turkic language, common, call for, 95 Turkic unity, campaign for, 94-95, 184 Turkic World, 90, 91 Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency (TÌKA), 103, 130 Turkish identity: Atatürk on, 83, 89, 95-96; civic-territoriai version of, 95-96; contending discourses of, 90-92; Islam and, 85, 90, 91, 99-100, 105; Kurds and, 114; National Oath (Mtsak-i Milli) and, 95; OttomanIslamic core of, 85, 86, 93; Turkism (Türkçülük) and, 91, 101-3 Turkish-Islamic Synthesis, 91-92,103 Turkish language, and Ottomanism, 10, 12 Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, 126 Turkism (Türkçülük), gi, 101-3; irreden tist undertones of, 103 Türkiyeli, as supraethnic national iden tity, 12, 91 Türkkon (Cooperation Council of Turkic-Speaking States), 103 Turkmen, in Iranian borderlands, 170, 174,183-85, 200, 201 Index Turkmenistan: gas exports to China, 265; Greater Iran concept and, 192; and Iranian Turkmen, 184-85; Russian policies in, 72 Türkmen Sahra, Iran, 171,183-85 Turkmen SSR, 184 Tuva, Republic of, 45, 258, 260 Ubeydullah of Nehri, Sheykh, 112, 180 Ukraine: civic nationalism in, develop ment of, 37; collectivization and fam ine in, 35; contested identity of, 36, 37-38; eastern, Russian occupation of, 14,18, 31; East Slav unity and, 19, 31, 36; embrace of European identity, 73; historical ties with Russia, 24-25, 31-33; as imperial periphery, 9, 61; Orange Revolution in, 63, 68; Rus sian World Foundation activities in, 41; Russia’s annexation of Crimean Peninsula from, 18, 31, 37, 40, 43, 273-74; Russia’s claims of supporting “compatriots” in, 12; Russo-Turkish tensions over, 270; separatist move ments in, 29, 37-38, 42-43; in Soviet Union, 34-36, 37; as successor state to Kyivan Rus, 31-32; Turkey’s rela tions with, 104, 270; during World War II, 35, 38 Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), 35 ulema, Shi’ite: as independent political force in Iran, 161-63; nation-building efforts and, 156,157; in Safavid Iran, provenance of, 148,162 Ungern-Sternberg, Roman von, 260 Union of Russian People, 27 United Arab Emirates, 136,178; Iran’s views on, 160 United Nations: China’s ambitions regarding, 256; Mongolia’s admission to, 260 United Russia Party: on Russian ethnon ationalism, 31; and system of indirect rule, 56 369 United States: competition with Russia and China, 274, 275; and current world order, 4, 5, 271; and Eurasian postimperial states, relations with, 4; forces deployed in Central Asia, 72, 75-76; international bodies backed by, Chinese institutions compared to, 257; invasion of Iraq, 119, 191; Iran’s campaign of resistance against, 147, 150-51,155, 161; military presence in Afghanistan, opposition to, 203; Monroe Doctrine of, Russian poli cies compared to, 61; as product of empire, 7; and Russia’s postimperial periphery, 67-68; Turkey’s relations with, 4,105 USSR. See Soviet Union Ustryalov, Nikolay, 33 Usuli school of Shi’ism, 179 Uvarov, Sergey, 26 Uyghurs, 223; China’s crackdown on, 13, 215, 231, 249-50, 257; Chinese poli cies regarding, 223, 229-30; creation of XUAR and, 248; diaspora in Tur key, 104; overseas, China’s outreach to, 229; in Qing empire, 214; terrorist attacks by, 231; Turkish solidarity with, 106; in Xinjiang, 245, 248 Uzbekistan: cotton monoculture in, 71; Greater Iran concept and, 192; Per sian language in, 158; Soviet republic of, 71; U.S. bases in, 72 Valdai Discussion Club, 76 Valuyev, Petr, 33 Vietnam: China’s political system com pared to, 5; EAEU and, 75 Vladimir (Grand Prince of Kyiv), 18 Volga region: ethnic republics in, 44, 47; imperial legacies in, 46 Vučić, Aleksandar, 132 Wangjisi, 263 Wang Yi, 257 Warsaw Pact, 61 3Ί° Index Wehler, Hans-Ulrich, 274 Wei Yuan, 232 West: development assistance from, China’s BRI as alternative to, 266, 267; Eurasian integration as coun terweight to, 73, 74, 76; Russia’s strategic competition with, 21, 39, 78. See also global order, Westphalian; United States Western Thrace, Turkish claims on, 126 White émigrés, and Russian ethnon ationalism, 28, 31 White (Belarusian) Russians, 19 World Trade Organization, China in, 5 World Uyghur Congress, 229 World War I: Anglo-German rivalry leading to, 274; ethnic cleansing during, 102, 112, 113; Iran during, 169,170,172, 176, 180; Kazakh and Kyrgyz uprisings during, 70; and na tionalization of Russian Empire, 28; Ottoman Empire during, 82, 95,138; Russo-Ottoman conflict in, 65; South Caucasus during, 65 World War II: Iran during, 169, 170, 176,181-82; Japanese invasion of China during, 236; North Caucasus rebellions during, 54; Ukrainians in, 35,38 Xi Jinping: alliance relations under, 257; and Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), 208, 251, 264, 266, 2Ճ8; on Com munity of Common Destiny, 212, 251, 256; and concept of “Chinese Dream,” 228; elevation to “core leader,” 13; imperial past invoked by, 3; minority policies under, 223; tianxia model and, 256; Xinjiang poli cies of, 231, 249; on zhonghua minzu, 225 Xinhai Revolution, 233, 234, 258 Xinjiang, 210, 245-49; assimilationist policies in, 224-25, 235, 248, 249; as autonomous region, recognition of, 234; China’s commitment to main taining control in, 252, 275; China’s crackdown in, 13, 231, 233, 249-50, 257, 265; China’s efforts to integrate, 224-25, 233, 249, 258, 263; demo graphic profile of, 248; development strategy for, 249, 258, 262; Han set tlers in, 235, 248, 249; legacy of for eign intervention and separatism in, 211; overseas Chinese investment in, 229; periods without Chinese control in, 234; as postimperial borderland, 233; Qing rule in, 245-47; social and political experiment in, 231; Soviet influence in, 245, 247, 261; Turkey’s response to crackdown in, 104, 271; Turkic-speakers in, AKP’s interest in, 85. See also East Turkestan; Uyghurs Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR), 245, 248 xuetong zhuyi (principle of blood lin eage), 227-28 Xunzi (Chinese Han-era thinker), 255, 256 Yakutia (Sakha), 45, 52 Yan Xuetong, 255-56 Yaqub Beg, rebellion of, 246, 259 Yazidis, 109, no, 117,121 Yellow Emperor, and Han identity, 218, 219, 225 Yeltsin, Boris: anti-imperial nationalism of, 20, 24, 62; Chechen declaration of independence and, 55-56; and civic rossiyskiy nation, efforts to build, 29, 42, 62; and ethnic republics, 49, 50, 55; “red-brown” coalition opposing, 61; Russian nationalism mobilized by, 29-30 Yemen: Hezbollah-style militias in, 166; Iran’s policies regarding, 165; Shi’ite political movement in, 167 Yerevan khanate, 64 Index Yermolov, Mikhail, 64 Yongzheng Emperor (Qing ruler), 254-55 Younghusband, Francis, 242 Young Ottomans, 94 Young Turks, 82,95. See also CUP (Committee of Union and Progress) YPG (People’s Protection Units), in northern Syria, 107,109, 120-21,122 Yuan dynasty (China), 210; attempts to Sinicize, 225, 239; and Inner Asian borderlands, 232-33, 237, 241; rela tions with “barbarians,” 216 Yuan Shikai, 220-21 Yugoslavia: territory of, in Ottoman Empire, 128; wars of succession in, 129-30. See also Bosnia; Kosovo; Serbia Yunus Emre Institute, 130 Zahir Shah, Muhammad, 202 Zand dynasty, and Persianate world, 150 Zaporozhian Cossacks, revolt of, 32 Zarrinkoub, Abdolhossein, 147 Zhang Binglin (Zhang Taiyan), 218, 219, 221, 227, 234 З?! Zhang Qian, 208, 209, 267 Zhao Tingyang, 255, 256 Zhenbao (Damansky) Island, 261 Zhirinovsky, Vladimir, 30, 62 Zhivkov, Todor, 129 zhongguo, concept of, 210, 213, 219; and Greater China (Da Zhongguo) vs. China proper (Benbu Zhongguo), 234; vs. tianxia, 253 zhonghua minzu, concept of: assimila tionist policies based on, 225; and nation-building efforts in post-Qing era, 219-20; and overseas Chinese, 226-27; as supraethnic national iden tity, 12, 214, 219 Zhou dynasty (China), 213 Zhou dynasty (China), huaxia and tianxia under, 253 Zhou Enlai, 255, 261 Zhuang ethnic group, in China, 222 Zoroastrianism, 153,156, 174 Zou Rong, 218, 227 Zuhab, Peace of, 133 Zungharia, 146, 245 Zunghars, 241, 242, 245-46, 259 Zyuganov, Gennady, 62
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geographic	China (DE-588)4009937-4 gnd Iran (DE-588)4027653-3 gnd Türkei (DE-588)4061163-2 gnd Russland (DE-588)4076899-5 gnd
geographic_facet	China Iran Türkei Russland
id	DE-604.BV047925744
illustrated	Not Illustrated
index_date	2024-07-03T19:34:21Z
indexdate	2024-08-31T02:17:45Z
institution	BVB
isbn	9780300248258
language	English
oai_aleph_id	oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-033307288
oclc_num	1334031075
open_access_boolean
owner	DE-739 DE-188 DE-12
owner_facet	DE-739 DE-188 DE-12
physical	xi, 371 Seiten Karten
psigel	BSB_NED_20221128
publishDate	2022
publishDateSearch	2022
publishDateSort	2022
publisher	Yale University Press ; CSIS
record_format	marc
spelling	Mankoff, Jeffrey 1977- Verfasser (DE-588)1163557927 aut Empires of Eurasia how imperial legacies shape international security Jeffrey Mankoff New Haven ; London Yale University Press ; CSIS [2022] xi, 371 Seiten Karten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Geschichte gnd rswk-swf Internationale Politik (DE-588)4072885-7 gnd rswk-swf Sicherheitspolitik (DE-588)4116489-1 gnd rswk-swf Imperialismus (DE-588)4026651-5 gnd rswk-swf China (DE-588)4009937-4 gnd rswk-swf Iran (DE-588)4027653-3 gnd rswk-swf Türkei (DE-588)4061163-2 gnd rswk-swf Russland (DE-588)4076899-5 gnd rswk-swf Russland (DE-588)4076899-5 g Türkei (DE-588)4061163-2 g Iran (DE-588)4027653-3 g China (DE-588)4009937-4 g Internationale Politik (DE-588)4072885-7 s Sicherheitspolitik (DE-588)4116489-1 s Imperialismus (DE-588)4026651-5 s Geschichte z DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe 978-0-300-26537-8 (DE-604)BV047953307 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033307288&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033307288&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register
spellingShingle	Mankoff, Jeffrey 1977- Empires of Eurasia how imperial legacies shape international security Internationale Politik (DE-588)4072885-7 gnd Sicherheitspolitik (DE-588)4116489-1 gnd Imperialismus (DE-588)4026651-5 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4072885-7 (DE-588)4116489-1 (DE-588)4026651-5 (DE-588)4009937-4 (DE-588)4027653-3 (DE-588)4061163-2 (DE-588)4076899-5
title	Empires of Eurasia how imperial legacies shape international security
title_auth	Empires of Eurasia how imperial legacies shape international security
title_exact_search	Empires of Eurasia how imperial legacies shape international security
title_exact_search_txtP	Empires of Eurasia how imperial legacies shape international security
title_full	Empires of Eurasia how imperial legacies shape international security Jeffrey Mankoff
title_fullStr	Empires of Eurasia how imperial legacies shape international security Jeffrey Mankoff
title_full_unstemmed	Empires of Eurasia how imperial legacies shape international security Jeffrey Mankoff
title_short	Empires of Eurasia
title_sort	empires of eurasia how imperial legacies shape international security
title_sub	how imperial legacies shape international security
topic	Internationale Politik (DE-588)4072885-7 gnd Sicherheitspolitik (DE-588)4116489-1 gnd Imperialismus (DE-588)4026651-5 gnd
topic_facet	Internationale Politik Sicherheitspolitik Imperialismus China Iran Türkei Russland
url	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033307288&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033307288&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
work_keys_str_mv	AT mankoffjeffrey empiresofeurasiahowimperiallegaciesshapeinternationalsecurity

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