Under the radar: tracking Western radio listeners in the Soviet Union
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| adam_text | Table of Contents Acknowledgements · ix Introduction Why a History of Audience Research at Radio Liberty? · i Prelude (1955-1965) My Road to Radio Liberty (amabile) · 9 First Movement (1965-1970) Early Years of Audience Research at Radio Liberty (andante) · 17 Second Movement (1970-1980) First Steps in Audience Interviewing (accelerato) · 55 Third Movement (1980-1985) Audience Research Breaks New Ground (sforzando) · 95 Fourth Movement (1986-1990) Perestroika Changes the Game (focoso) · 171 Fifth Movement (1991-1994) The End of the USSR and the Post-Soviet Transition (vittorioso, capriccioso, lamentoso) · 281 Postlude (2022) Past Successes, Future Challenges {coda) · 325 Afterword Ukraine 2022: The Information War {agitato) · 333 Appendix i Charts Referenced in Narrative · 341
Appendix i Some ofThose Who Crossed My Path: Max Ralis, Ross Johnson, James Critchlow, Morrill Bill Cody, Ralph Walter, James Buckley, Eugene Pell, William W. Marsh, Viktor Nekrasov, Andrei Sinyavsky, Victor Grayevsky, Irina Alberti, Helmut Aigner, Christopher Geleklidis, Steen Sauerberg, Copenhagen interviewer · 355 Appendix 3 The MIT Connection and Computer Simulation · 377 Appendix 4 Some Examples of SAAOR Reporting and Survey Questions Asked · 387 Appendix 5 Profiles of the SAAOR Team · 399 Bibliography · 407 Index · 411
Bibliography Select References The following materials are available in the Audience Research Section of the RFE/RL archive at the Hoover Institution/Stanford University. Dawson, Ree. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “Developing a Methodology for Project ing the Audience to Foreign Broadcasts in the Soviet Union.” Summer 1986. Dawson, Ree. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “Statistical Treatment ofSAAOR Data: A Comparison of Traditional Statistical Methods and Current Audience Simulation Techniques.” Summer-Fall 1987. Dawson, Ree. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “Estimates of Geographic Audiences: Imputing Sample Values for SAAOR Interview Data.” Summer-Fall 1989. Dawson, Ree. Harvard University. “Quality-Adjusted Audience Estimates: Russian RSFSR Listening to Foreign Broadcasts 1991-1992.” August 1993. Pool, Ithiel de Sola. “Soviet Audiences for Foreign Radio.” USIA R-17-76. With Summary pre pared by the Office of Research, United States Information Agency, Massachusetts Insti tute ofTechnology. September 1976. Volume 8, Issue 1 May 2011, p. 126. Pool, Ithiel de Sola. Director. MIT Communications Research Program. September 1975 · Preface to Simulation Report Series: i. Simulation Report #1. The Soviet Audience for Foreign Broadcasts 2. Simulation Report #2. The Soviet Audience for Foreign Broadcasts in Minority Regions and Languages 3. Simulation Report #3. The Soviet Audience for Domestic Media 4. Simulation Report #4. Methodology 5. Simulation Report #5. Trends and Variations in Soviet Audiences. Parta, R. Eugene. “Civil Liberties and the Soviet
Citizen: Attitudinal Types and Western Radio Listening,” AR 6-84, Soviet Area Audience and Opinion Research, RFE/RL, Inc. HIA. Books, Chapters and Articles Abshire, David. “International Broadcasting: A New Dimension of Western Diplomacy.” In The Washington Papers, Center for Strategic and International Studies. SAGE, 1976. Alberti, Irina Ilovaiskaya and Robert Masson. L’Exil et la Solitude: par attachement d’âme. Paris: Editions MaMe, 1993. 407
Bibliography Alexeyeva, Ludmilla. U.S. Broadcasting to the Soviet Union. Human RightsWatch, September 1986. Applebaum, Anne. Twilight ofDemocracy: The Seductive Lure ofAuthoritarianism. New York: Doubleday, 2020. Bashkirova, Elena I. “The Foreign Radio Audience in the USSR During the Cold War.” In A. Ross Johnson, and R. Eugene Parta, eds.. Cold War Broadcasting: Impact on the Soviet Union and Eastern Aara/v. Budapest: Central European Press, 2010,103-120. Bischof, Anna etai., eds., Voices ofFreedom - Western Interference? 60years ofRadio Free Europe. Munich: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 2015. Bishop, Y.M.M., S.E. Fienberg, and P.W. Holland Discrete Multivariate Analysis: Theory and Practice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1975. Brown, James F. Radio Free Europe: An Insider’s View. Washington, DC: New Academia Pub lishing, 2013. Carlin, John P., Garrett Μ. Graff, et al. Dawn ofthe Code War: America’s Battle Against Rus sia, China, and the Rising Global Cyber Threat. New York: Public Affairs, 2018.. Critchlow, James. Radio Liberty: Hole-in-the-Head. Washington DC: American University Press, 1995. Cull, Nicholas J. Public Diplomacy: Foundations for Global Engagement in the Digital Age. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2019. Cull, Nicholas, Vasily Gatov, Peter Pomerantsev, Anne Applebaum, and Alistair Shawcross. Soviet Subversion, Disinformation and Propaganda: How the West Fought Against it. An analytical history, with lessonsfor the Present. Final Report. London: LSE Consulting, 2017. Cummings, Richard H. Cold War Radio: The Dangerous History ofAmerican Broadcasting in Europe 1950-1989.
Jefferson, NC: McFarland Co., 2009. Engermann, David C. Know Your Enemy: The Rise and Fall of America’s Soviet Experts. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Etheredge, Lloyd S., ed. Politics in Wired Nations: Selected Writings oflthiel de Sola Pool. New Brunswick: Transaction Press, 1998. Feldstein, Steven and Peter Pomerantsev. “Democracy Dies in Disinformation.” American Purpose, February 10, 2021. Hale, Julian. Radio Power: Propaganda and International Broadcasting. London: Paul Elek, ϊ?75· Heil, Alan. Voice ofAmerica: A History. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003. Hixson, Walter L. Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture and the Cold War, 1945-1961. New York: St. Martin s Press, 1998. Holt, Robert T. Radio Free Europe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1958. Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. Cyberwar: How Russian Hackers and Trolls Helped Elect a President: What We Don t, Cant, and Do Know. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. _ Johnson, A. Ross. Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty: the CIA Years and Beyond. Washing ton, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Press, 2010. Johnson, A. Ross and R. Eugene Parta, eds. Cold War Broadcasting: Impacton the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Budapest: Central European University Press, 2010. Kent, Thomas. Striking Back: Overtand Covert Operations to Combat Russian Disinformation. Washington, DC: The Jamestown Foundation, 2020. Kesselman, Leonid. “St. Petersburg Audience of Radio Liberty: Through Communication Towards Self-Responsibility.” In Media in Transition: From Totalitarianism to Democracy, edited by Oleg Manaev and Yuri
Prylink. Minsk: IISEPS - Kiev, ABRIS, 1993. Klensin, John C. and J. D. Nagle, Mass Media Simulation User’s Manual. MIT Center for International Studies C/69-3 (1969). 408
Bibliography Lansing, John. Changing Weapons ofDisinformation. Washington, DC: US Agency for Global Media, 1019. Lisann, Maury. Broadcasting to the Soviet Union: International Politics and Radio. New York: Praeger, 1981. Martyniuk, Jaroslav. Monte Rosa: Memoirs ofan Accidental Spy. Bloomington: Xlibris, zox8. Matlock, Jack F. Jr. Autopsy on an Empire: The American Ambassador’s Account ofthe Collapse ofthe Soviet í/»/íw. New York: Random House, 1995. McFaul, Michael. “It’s Time to Up Our Democracy Promotion Game.” American Purpose, November iz, zozi. https://www.americanpurpose.com/articles/its-time-to-up-our-democracy-promotion-game/. Miles, Simon. Engaging the Evil Empire: Washington, Moscow, and the Beginning ofthe End of the Cold War. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, zozo. Mitrovich, Gregory. Undermining the Kremlin: America’s Strategy to Subvert the Soviet Bloc, 1947-1956. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, zooo. Nelson, Michael. War of the Black Heavens: The Battle of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997. Nye, Joseph. Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. New York: Public Affairs, Z004. Parta, R. Eugene. Discovering the Hidden Listener: An Assessment ofRadio Liberty and Western Broadcasting to the USSR During the Cold War. Stanford: Hoover Press, Z007. Parta, R. Eugene. “Soviet Area Audience and Opinion Research at Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.” In Western Broadcasting Over the Iron Curtain, edited by Kenneth R.M. Short, ZZ7-Z44. London: Croom Helm, 1986. Parta, R. Eugene. “Soviet International
Operations: Domestic Fallout.” In Gorbachev’s USSR: A System in Crisis, edited by Uri Ra’anan and Igor Lukes, ioz-i 16. Basingstoke, UK: Mac millan Academic and Professional, 1990. Parta, R. Eugene, Ithiel de Sola Pool, and John C. Klensin. “The Shortwave Audience in the USSR: Methods for Improving the Estimates.” Communication Research 9, no. 4 (October 198z): 581-606. https://doi.0rg/10.1177/00936508zoo9004005 . Picaper, Jean-Paul. Lepont invisible: Ces radios que l’Est veut réduire au silence. Paris: Librairie Plon, 1986. Presidential Study Commission on International Radio Broadcasting. The Right to Know. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973. Pomar, Mark G. Cold War Radio: The Russian Broadcasts ofthe Voice ofAmerica and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Lincoln, NE: Potomac Books/University of Nebraska Press, zozz. Pomerantsev, Peter. This is not Propaganda: Adventures in the War Against Reality. London: Faber and Faber, Z019. Pomerantsev, Peter. Nothing is True and Everything is Possible: The Surreal Heart ofModern Russia. New York: Public Affairs, Z014. Pomerantsev, Peter and Michael Weiss. The Menace ofUnreality: How the Kremlin Weaponizes Information, Culture and Money. New York: Institute of Modern Russia, Z014. Pool, Ithiel de Sola. Technologies Without Boundaries: On Telecommunications in a GlobalAge. Eli Noam, ed. The Preface to the book contains a lengthy discussion of Pool and his work. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990. Pool, Ithiel de Sola, and Lloyd S. Etheredge, eds. Humane Politics and Methods ofInquiry. New Brunswick, NJ:
Transaction Publishers, zooo. Puddington, Arch. Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph ofRadio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, zooo. Ra’anan, Uri and Igor Lukes, eds. Gorbachev’s USSR: A System in Crisis. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan Academic and Professional, 1990. 409
Bibliography Rawnsley, Gary D. Political Communication and Democracy. London: Palgrave McMillan, 2005. Sanger, David. The Perfect Weapon: War, Sabotage, and Fear in the Cyber Age. New York: Crown, 2019. Satter, David. Age ofDelirium: The Decline and Fall ofthe Soviet Union. New Haven: Yale Uni versity Press, 1996. Schwartz, Lowell Fi. Political Warfare Against the Kremlin: US and British Propaganda Policy at the Beginning ofthe Cold War. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. Seib, Philip. Real Time Diplomacy: Politics and Power in the Social Media Era. New York: Pal grave, 2012. Sergunin, Alexander, and Leonid Karabeshkin. “Understanding Russia’s Soft Power Strategy.” Politics 35, no. 3-4 (November 2015): 347-63. https://doi.org/io.nn/1467-9256.121o9. Shane, Scott. Dismantling Utopia: How Information Ended the Soviet Union. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1994. Snyder, Timothy. The Road to Unfreedom: Russia, Europe, America. Penguin, 20x8. Sosin, Gene. Sparks ofLiberty: An Insider’s Memoir ofRadio Liberty. University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 1999. Stengel, Richard. Information Wars: How We Lost the Global Battle Against Disinformation and What We Can Do Aboutit. New York: Atlantic Monthly, 2019. Tolz, Vera. Edited by Melanie Newton. The USSR in 1989: A Record ofEvents. Westview Press Published in cooperation with Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford. 1990. Tromly, Benjamin. Cold War Exiles and the CIA: Plotting to Free Russia. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2019. Tumanov, Oleg. Tumanov: Confessions of a KGB Agent. Translated by David
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Index Agorametrie, 139,140,153,175-77, 305, 363, 161,163,173,176,193,196,197,314,317, 394,396 Aigner, Helmut, 138,151, i8i, 197,108,169, 334, 335, 341, 347, 350, 352, 365, 387, З92, 401-4 Belsőn, William, 151, 197 Bet, Shin, 187, 368 Board for International Broadcasting (BIB), 5, 19,76,77, 81, 83, 85, 86,88-90,91,118-10, 116, 138, 145, 157, 174, 175, 207,118, 230,131, 274, 294, 295 297 320, 325, ЗЗ1, 352, 362 “Board of Trustees,” 20,11,39,74 Broadcast Area Listener Evidence (BALE), 131, 167 Brooks, Richard, 179, 193,116,117,177,183, 400 Buchan, Alex, 84,91 Buckley, James L., 119,111,361 Burger, Inna, 58 Bush, Keith, 96,103 369 Alberti, Irina Ilovaiskaya, 37,60,369 Allen, Charlie, 96, 98, ιοί, 101, ио, 134,146, 148,150, 182, 115,137,141,171,183,191, 364,369.372., 373 American Joint Distribution Committee (JOINT), 106 Andropov Diaries, 108 Andropov, Yuri, 107, ni Anin, David, 33,58,101 anti-communist reports, 113 anti-Semitic commentaries, 113 Asanchayev, Janet, 81 audibility and jamming, 108, 113, 166, 167, 135, 108, 113,166,167,135, 394 audience estimates, 5,78,79, 83, 88, 98,113, 1Ć6,116, 300,306,377,381, 400 audience expansion, 143,133, 344 Audience Research Division (ARD), 1,4,10, 3i 34, 35, 37-39, 41-45, 52. 55. 57, 6°, 66, 71, 77, 81, 84-91,184, 300, 399 audience research units, 87, 161,307, 311 Background Reports (BGRs), 60 Bailey, George, 110, 113, 115 Balear, Joan, 46,47,57 BBC, 3, 13,18, 36, 39,46,47,58,60, 61,68,70, 83, 100, joi, 107, no, hi, 110, 116,117,143, 145,146,149, i$6,1Ճ7,187, 191, 191,19s, 199,104,109,115,117,119,111,113,114,
119,131,131,135,145,147,149,151,156, Cancan in the English Garden, 41 Central European Market Research (CEM), 289 Citizen data, 107, 113 Cline, Mary, 299,405 Cody, Morrill, 55, 56, 360,361 COFREMCA, 86 Cohen, Ariel, 105, 130,134,403 Cold War, i, 2,6, 9,13,16,124,134, 295, 303, 316, 319,325, 317,328,330, 331, 335,337 ЗЗ8,34։. 345 Cold War Broadcasting: Impact on the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, t, 131, 358 Conference on International Broadcasting Audience Research (CIBAR), 151, 307,311 41։
Index Corning, Amy, 117, 250, 254. ^бг, 277. շ83 187, зіб Communication Research, 118,378 Communist Communications Project (ComCom), 69, 377 Consistent System, 81, 180, 216, Core Audience, 198,199, 278, 343, 382 Critchlow, James, 31,34,46, 88,89,91,126, 359 Cross-Cultural Research (CCR), 46,47,57 Current Time, 335 Dawson, Ree, 198, 216, 278,353, 377,383,384 de Sola Pool, Ithiel, 22, 69, 70,78, 88,118,356, 377. 384.385 Deutsche Welle, 3,13,46,58, 68,100,107,126, 127,167,187,191,199, 219, 221, 224, 231, 233, 249, 251, 252, 314,317,342, 347, 350, 372. 374. 39a “Developing a Methodology for Projecting the Audience to Foreign Broadcasts in the Soviet Union,” 199 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), 135, 136,150, 179 Domestic Research Bureau-Lever Brothers (DRB), 219, 220 Durkee, William, 77 East European Audience and Opinion Research (EEAOR), 92,104,112,126,137, 151, 161,182, 215, 216, 241, 242, 279, 28284, 297,404 Eisenhower Commission, 74,75, 88 ElFoodo, 117 emigrant data, 107, 113, 166, 272, 350 ESOMAR (European Society of Marketing and Opinion Research), 134, 147-49,16062,165, 244, 245, 266, 301 espionage, 66, 85,104, 171,178,334, 373 European BroadcastingUnion (EBU), 251 Ferguson, Glenn, 92,100,107,119 Financial Times, 205, 293 focus groups, 5,193, 205, 210, 217, 232, 234, 247, 248, 253, 258, 260, 26։, 272, 275, 286, 288, 289, 296,305,306, 309, 322, 330, 365, 401 Forbes, Malcom S., 174, 294, 295, 320 Freedman, John, i8j, 182,403 Galskoy, Constantin, 172, 195, 248, 283,400 Gaumert, Alexandra, 60 41г Geleklidis, Christopher, 37,66, no, 225, 226, 241, 270, 271,371 Gendler,
Yuri, 61 Gesellschaft fur Marktforschung (GfM), 136, 137, 202, 271 Gigli, Susan, 283, 288, 299,306, 322 Gildner, Jay, 90,132,164,172,174,190 Ginsburg, Alek, 214 “giveaways,” 34, 35 Gladilin, Anatoly, 57 Grayevsky, Victor, 115,187, 273, 274, 275, 303, 367 Gudridge, Ernie, 84,85, 87-91,127 Field Service, 86, 87, 136,163,185, 242 Finnish Better Business Bureau, 85 Hart, Henry, 89,137,138,161,215 Haney, Michael, 237,242, 258, 270, 283, 287, 291, 296, 307,322 Harvard Interview Project, 133 Harvard University Refugee Interview Project, 31 Hankins, Irwin, 163,165,189,203, 227, 270 Hinckley, Steedman, 151 Honeywell Bull, 82 Hoover Institution Archives, 3,7, 34,39, 44, 358.367 IBM, 67,70,71,78, 80, 81 IMA, i86,187,188, 200, 202,241, 242, 272, 275, 288 independent media, blocking of, 7, 338 “information war,” 7, 333 Ingleright, Greg, 135,136 INSEARCH Inc., 191 Institute for the Study ofthe USSR, 29, 125 international broadcasting, 9,14,75,76, 81, 84, 89, 107, 117, 123, 116,147,156, 167, 214,218, 251, 322, 328,331, 358, 359, 360,364, 367 International Herald Tribune, 167, 172, 302 International Media Analysis (AMA), 186, 187,188, 200, 202, 241, 275, 288 International Research Institute on Social Change (RISC), 6, 281,286, 300-2, 305, 307,314-17.32L 322. 33°. 363 interviewing of emigrants, 59,105,113,114, 117, 225, 272, 279 in Bulgaria, 290 in Denmark, 104
Index in Finland, 86,400 in Japan, 159 in Rome, 60,105 in Sweden, 104 in the Nordic area, 46 in the USSR, 2.54,2.71, 272 methods, in, 155, 262 Soviet travelers, 22,36, 39, 52, 67, 124, 147, 208, 269, 370 In the Country and the World, 205,206, 211,293 INTORA, 85,137,138,152, 241, 269 Iron Curtain, 13,124,300 Isotov, Dima, 47 Izvestiya, 40,66 Jamming and Audibility Reports (JARs), 167, 264 Johnson, A. Ross, 2, 279, 284, 298, 357,361 KEME, 241, 270, 271 Kiuru, Kari, 51, 89,137,242,269, 311 Klensin, John, 79, Г17,118,127, 135, 136,180, 196, 216,301 Knutson, Ruth, 57,77, 90 Komsomolskaya pravda, 40 Kostomaroff,Nicole, 56, 102, 103,135,193, 322 KPR-Marketing, 89,137,182, 242, 269 Krasnaya zvezda, 40 Krokodil, 40,41 Kuchins, Andrew, 134,404 Leroy, Michele, 136,163, 184, 185 Leroy, Patricia, 77, 102,126,132, 135,151,167, 182, 209, 282, 322,401 Liberty Live, 306 Lindblad, Goran, 51,52,63-65 listener mail, 31, 34-36, 39, 399 Listener Panel Reviews, 57, 158, 175, 205 listening patterns, 113,183, 342 listening trends, 52, 70, 198, 343, 382, 384 Literaturnayagazeta, 40,173 MacLachlan, Fiona, 217,401 Malesky-Malevich, 38 Mandeville, Laure, 198,404 Market Research and Advisory Services (MRAS), 190, 203, 228, 270 Marsh, William W, 173,363 Martyniuk, Jaroslav, 150,401 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 4, 22, 69, 78,385 Media and Opinion Research (MOR), 6, 279, 281-289, 292, 293, 296-302,304,308, 314316,322,330, 352,357,399-404 Megreblian, Sonia, 57 Melen, Ola, 47 Memento Publication and Information Ser vices (MPIS), 132 Merlerò, Anne-Daniele, 38,56, 89, 245 Method of Comparative
and Continuing Sampling, 112 Michener, James, 119, 157 Mickelson, Sig, 77, 80,92 Mihalisko, Kathleen, 127,130, 160, 191, 349 Mikoh Research, 139 Mirsky, Semyon, 57 Mostellerization, 79, 82, 88,118, 378, 379, 380, 383.384 Motivans, Albert, 277, 283, 288, 301 Moy, Patricia, 299,404 Myhul, Ivan, 189, 190, 201, 203, 228 Mykolenko, Segolene, 194,195,265, 284,287 NATO, 48, 121, 144. 333. 335. 373 Nedelya, 66 Neimanis, Orest, 31,33, 45,102 Nekrasov, Viktor Platonovich, 72,172,173, 364, 365, 366 Neveski, Kathleen, 102,402 New York Times, 104, 214,338,351 NHK, 141 Nicotera, Elena, 60,61, 206, 207, 225 “Notes on Radio Liberty” in Kontinent, 154 Office of Net Assessment (ONA), 117 Open Media Research Institute (OMRI), 321, 322 open questionnaire, 148, 152, 182, 24։, 243 Open Technology Fund (OTF), 329 Opinion and Media Research Institute (OMRI), 104, 145 Optimal Mark Reading (OMR), 196, 197 Pages, Christian, 101,103 Panayi, Joy Butler, 58 Panich, Igor, 207 Peacock, Ben, 18,19, 20, 21 Pell Amendment, 119 Pell, Eugene, 170, 363 Perry, George, 33,36,58, 91-93,102, 284 Petrouskiene, Lydia, 57,172 Pikkarainen, Oras, 52 413
Index Pitts, Florence, 92,93,19։ Plumb, Dawn, 102,144,161 Polish Press Agency (PAP), 115, 367 Poltinikova, Eleonora, 62, 105,114, 116 Pomar, Mark, 123 Public Opinion Research of Israel, 62 Pullen, Charlotte, 195, 201, 217, 237, 283,402 Quality Control Reports (QCRs), 42,58 Quinn, Thomas, 85 Radio Canada International, 58, 164,167, 229 Radio Free Afghanistan (RFA), 218-21, 224 Radio Free Europe (RFE), 4,13,14,41,73,74, 77, 218, 256, 279,320, 325, 359, 361 Radio Liberation, 19,40 Radio Liberty, attacks on, 3, 21,31,32,34,39,40-42,66, 73, 179, *¿3, зо? broadcasts, 2,43, 392 estimate of audience size, 67 foundation of 19 listening trends, 52,71, 198,343,382,384 research methods, 3, 304 Radio Liberty Committee, 17,19,21,24,30,56 Radio Liberty’s religious programming, 247 Radio Liberty’s Russian Service, 31,57,6։, 68, 1J3, 123, 141,146,154-56, 158-60, 169,172, 177, 178, 195, 206, 209, 213, 218, 232, 235, 257, 266, 292, 306, 308, 352,401 radio listening behavior, 105,107, 203,330, 383,384 Radio Marti, 208 Radio Moscow, 13, 232, 251, 304,307,323 “Radio Operators and Equipment in the USSR,” 166 Radio Prague, 13 Radio Sweden, 13 Ralis, Max, 31-33,36,37,43-45,52,55,56,58, 62,66,69, 80, 89, 91,101, i6j, 284,355, 362, 365, 369,401 report on Soviet citizens’ reactions to the war, 153 Research Institute on Social Change (RISC), 6, 281, 286,300,30։, 302, 305, 307, 314-Ï7, 321, 322,330,363 Research Machine, 238, 277, 284, 299 RFE/RL management, 88,126, 145, 162, 255 RFE/RL merger, 77 RFE/RL office in London, 58, 90-92 4M in Munich, 52,57,58 in Paris, n, 82, 92, io։, 103, 105,129,167, 261,
283,399 in Washington, 98,168, 170 RFE/RL Research Institute, 2, 6, 279, 282, 284, 292, 299,301,308,310, 314, 319, 329, 33°. 357 363,400,401,404 Rhodes, Mark, 96,102,113,117,121,133,147, 167,176,209, гл, 235,255,297,298, 314,322 right to strike, 106,3 96 RL programming, 5,22, 34, 83, ։o8, 24,127, 2J3, 245, 269, 288 Roberts, Walter, 81, 85,126 Roehm, Susan, 134, 158, 260, 283, 287, 288, 306, 319,403 Romberg. Roselyn, 135,150,179,403 Ross, Stu, 85 Russian invasion of Ukraine, 1,7 Ryser, Witold, 57 Sadgrove-Grossman, Sylvia, 58 Salkazanova, Fatima, 57,172 Sargeant, Howland, 3, 16, 20, 32,39,43, 55,56, 58, 77, 356 Satter, David, 206, 211-13 Sauerberg, Steen, 104, 105, 146,372 Scott, Ken, 23, 28-30,75 Shakespeare, Frank, 118,119,174,362 Shinkle, Peter, 131, 132, 167,404 Shtern, Yuri, 225 simulation process, 4,7, 69, 70,78-80, 127, 169, 176,199,377, 378, 382, 384,400 Sinyavsky, Andrei, 22,61,72,172, 366 SOFEMA, 86 Sokolov, Andrei, 307 Sovetskaya Rossiiya, 40 Soviet Area Audience and Opinion Research department (SAAOR) data on food supply, 117 relations with other Western broadcasters to the USSR, 166 research process of, 3,4,122 Soviet Census, 79 Soviet Interview Project (SIP), 133, 156 Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), 79 Sternberg, Hilary, 58,90 structured interviewing methods, 76, 84 survey research, 2,5,45,68,86,109,129,136,149, 151,163,190,225,238,245,250,256,259,267, 268, 285, 286, 296, 304, 312, 33°, 337֊ 369.404
Index Vaslef, Nicholas, 174,178 Voice of America (VOA), 13, 28, 36,46, 60,68, 70, 100,107, no, in, 123, 126,127, 131,143, 167, 168, 170,173, 174,183, 187, 191,192, 195, 199, 217, 221, 224, 229, 231, 232, 235, 247, 249, 251, 261, 263, 274, 276, 293, 296, 297, 298, 314, 317, 320, 334, 335, 341, 347. 350, 352, 363, 364, 372, 387, 392, 401 Warsaw Pact, 26,31,55, 73, 101,121,213 Washington Post, 144,336,364, 368 Wattenberg, Ben, 118, 157, 207 WCCO, 80 Western broadcasters to the USSR, 2,5, 108, 166, 248,300,344 Western radio broadcasts, 1, 2,130, 383 Western radio stations, 60, 139,191, 295,374 Who’s Who in the USSR, 29 Williams, Fred, 68, 69, 81 Williams, Tony, 58, 92, 93 Wise, Sallie, 134,155, 166, 176, 179, 201, 208, 212, 237, 283,322,348,403 World Association of Public Opinion Research (WAPOR), 301,356 World Research International (WRI), 219, 220 World War I, 11, 24 World War II, ii, 22, 24, 29,32, 72, 78, 115, 119, 161, 238,334,364 Walter, Ralph, 92, 99,101,107, 119,361,362 Ward, Elaine, 237, 283,403 Yedigaroff, Andre, 17,18, 19, 20, 90, 91 Yurenen, Sergei, 57 Tapeshko, Grigory Ivanovich, 24, 25 Tumanov, Oleg, 171,177, 291 United States Information Agency (USIA), 34, 70, 81, 84, 86, 118, 120, 157, 164, 168, 179, 231, 237, 245, 255, 256, 260, 277, 298, 311, 319, 360, 377,401,403 Urban, George, 120 US Agency for Global Media (USAGM), 328-30, 335 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Mönchen 415
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Table of Contents Acknowledgements · ix Introduction Why a History of Audience Research at Radio Liberty? · i Prelude (1955-1965) My Road to Radio Liberty (amabile) · 9 First Movement (1965-1970) Early Years of Audience Research at Radio Liberty (andante) · 17 Second Movement (1970-1980) First Steps in Audience Interviewing (accelerato) · 55 Third Movement (1980-1985) Audience Research Breaks New Ground (sforzando) · 95 Fourth Movement (1986-1990) Perestroika Changes the Game (focoso) · 171 Fifth Movement (1991-1994) The End of the USSR and the Post-Soviet Transition (vittorioso, capriccioso, lamentoso) · 281 Postlude (2022) Past Successes, Future Challenges {coda) · 325 Afterword Ukraine 2022: The Information War {agitato) · 333 Appendix i Charts Referenced in Narrative · 341
Appendix i Some ofThose Who Crossed My Path: Max Ralis, Ross Johnson, James Critchlow, Morrill "Bill" Cody, Ralph Walter, James Buckley, Eugene Pell, William W. Marsh, Viktor Nekrasov, Andrei Sinyavsky, Victor Grayevsky, Irina Alberti, Helmut Aigner, Christopher Geleklidis, Steen Sauerberg, Copenhagen interviewer · 355 Appendix 3 The MIT Connection and Computer Simulation · 377 Appendix 4 Some Examples of SAAOR Reporting and Survey Questions Asked · 387 Appendix 5 Profiles of the SAAOR Team · 399 Bibliography · 407 Index · 411
Bibliography Select References The following materials are available in the Audience Research Section of the RFE/RL archive at the Hoover Institution/Stanford University. Dawson, Ree. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “Developing a Methodology for Project ing the Audience to Foreign Broadcasts in the Soviet Union.” Summer 1986. Dawson, Ree. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “Statistical Treatment ofSAAOR Data: A Comparison of Traditional Statistical Methods and Current Audience Simulation Techniques.” Summer-Fall 1987. Dawson, Ree. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “Estimates of Geographic Audiences: Imputing Sample Values for SAAOR Interview Data.” Summer-Fall 1989. Dawson, Ree. Harvard University. “Quality-Adjusted Audience Estimates: Russian RSFSR Listening to Foreign Broadcasts 1991-1992.” August 1993. Pool, Ithiel de Sola. “Soviet Audiences for Foreign Radio.” USIA R-17-76. With Summary pre pared by the Office of Research, United States Information Agency, Massachusetts Insti tute ofTechnology. September 1976. Volume 8, Issue 1 May 2011, p. 126. Pool, Ithiel de Sola. Director. MIT Communications Research Program. September 1975 · Preface to Simulation Report Series: i. Simulation Report #1. The Soviet Audience for Foreign Broadcasts 2. Simulation Report #2. The Soviet Audience for Foreign Broadcasts in Minority Regions and Languages 3. Simulation Report #3. The Soviet Audience for Domestic Media 4. Simulation Report #4. Methodology 5. Simulation Report #5. Trends and Variations in Soviet Audiences. Parta, R. Eugene. “Civil Liberties and the Soviet
Citizen: Attitudinal Types and Western Radio Listening,” AR 6-84, Soviet Area Audience and Opinion Research, RFE/RL, Inc. HIA. Books, Chapters and Articles Abshire, David. “International Broadcasting: A New Dimension of Western Diplomacy.” In The Washington Papers, Center for Strategic and International Studies. SAGE, 1976. Alberti, Irina Ilovaiskaya and Robert Masson. L’Exil et la Solitude: par attachement d’âme. Paris: Editions MaMe, 1993. 407
Bibliography Alexeyeva, Ludmilla. U.S. Broadcasting to the Soviet Union. Human RightsWatch, September 1986. Applebaum, Anne. Twilight ofDemocracy: The Seductive Lure ofAuthoritarianism. New York: Doubleday, 2020. Bashkirova, Elena I. “The Foreign Radio Audience in the USSR During the Cold War.” In A. Ross Johnson, and R. Eugene Parta, eds. Cold War Broadcasting: Impact on the Soviet Union and Eastern Aara/v. Budapest: Central European Press, 2010,103-120. Bischof, Anna etai., eds., Voices ofFreedom - Western Interference? 60years ofRadio Free Europe. Munich: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 2015. Bishop, Y.M.M., S.E. Fienberg, and P.W. Holland Discrete Multivariate Analysis: Theory and Practice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1975. Brown, James F. Radio Free Europe: An Insider’s View. Washington, DC: New Academia Pub lishing, 2013. Carlin, John P., Garrett Μ. Graff, et al. Dawn ofthe Code War: America’s Battle Against Rus sia, China, and the Rising Global Cyber Threat. New York: Public Affairs, 2018. Critchlow, James. Radio Liberty: Hole-in-the-Head. Washington DC: American University Press, 1995. Cull, Nicholas J. Public Diplomacy: Foundations for Global Engagement in the Digital Age. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2019. Cull, Nicholas, Vasily Gatov, Peter Pomerantsev, Anne Applebaum, and Alistair Shawcross. Soviet Subversion, Disinformation and Propaganda: How the West Fought Against it. An analytical history, with lessonsfor the Present. Final Report. London: LSE Consulting, 2017. Cummings, Richard H. Cold War Radio: The Dangerous History ofAmerican Broadcasting in Europe 1950-1989.
Jefferson, NC: McFarland Co., 2009. Engermann, David C. Know Your Enemy: The Rise and Fall of America’s Soviet Experts. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Etheredge, Lloyd S., ed. Politics in Wired Nations: Selected Writings oflthiel de Sola Pool. New Brunswick: Transaction Press, 1998. Feldstein, Steven and Peter Pomerantsev. “Democracy Dies in Disinformation.” American Purpose, February 10, 2021. Hale, Julian. Radio Power: Propaganda and International Broadcasting. London: Paul Elek, ϊ?75· Heil, Alan. Voice ofAmerica: A History. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003. Hixson, Walter L. Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture and the Cold War, 1945-1961. New York: St. Martin s Press, 1998. Holt, Robert T. Radio Free Europe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1958. Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. Cyberwar: How Russian Hackers and Trolls Helped Elect a President: What We Don t, Cant, and Do Know. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. _ Johnson, A. Ross. Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty: the CIA Years and Beyond. Washing ton, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Press, 2010. Johnson, A. Ross and R. Eugene Parta, eds. Cold War Broadcasting: Impacton the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Budapest: Central European University Press, 2010. Kent, Thomas. Striking Back: Overtand Covert Operations to Combat Russian Disinformation. Washington, DC: The Jamestown Foundation, 2020. Kesselman, Leonid. “St. Petersburg Audience of Radio Liberty: Through Communication Towards Self-Responsibility.” In Media in Transition: From Totalitarianism to Democracy, edited by Oleg Manaev and Yuri
Prylink. Minsk: IISEPS - Kiev, ABRIS, 1993. Klensin, John C. and J. D. Nagle, Mass Media Simulation User’s Manual. MIT Center for International Studies C/69-3 (1969). 408
Bibliography Lansing, John. Changing Weapons ofDisinformation. Washington, DC: US Agency for Global Media, 1019. Lisann, Maury. Broadcasting to the Soviet Union: International Politics and Radio. New York: Praeger, 1981. Martyniuk, Jaroslav. Monte Rosa: Memoirs ofan Accidental Spy. Bloomington: Xlibris, zox8. Matlock, Jack F. Jr. Autopsy on an Empire: The American Ambassador’s Account ofthe Collapse ofthe Soviet í/»/íw. New York: Random House, 1995. McFaul, Michael. “It’s Time to Up Our Democracy Promotion Game.” American Purpose, November iz, zozi. https://www.americanpurpose.com/articles/its-time-to-up-our-democracy-promotion-game/. Miles, Simon. Engaging the Evil Empire: Washington, Moscow, and the Beginning ofthe End of the Cold War. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, zozo. Mitrovich, Gregory. Undermining the Kremlin: America’s Strategy to Subvert the Soviet Bloc, 1947-1956. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, zooo. Nelson, Michael. War of the Black Heavens: The Battle of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997. Nye, Joseph. Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. New York: Public Affairs, Z004. Parta, R. Eugene. Discovering the Hidden Listener: An Assessment ofRadio Liberty and Western Broadcasting to the USSR During the Cold War. Stanford: Hoover Press, Z007. Parta, R. Eugene. “Soviet Area Audience and Opinion Research at Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.” In Western Broadcasting Over the Iron Curtain, edited by Kenneth R.M. Short, ZZ7-Z44. London: Croom Helm, 1986. Parta, R. Eugene. “Soviet International
Operations: Domestic Fallout.” In Gorbachev’s USSR: A System in Crisis, edited by Uri Ra’anan and Igor Lukes, ioz-i 16. Basingstoke, UK: Mac millan Academic and Professional, 1990. Parta, R. Eugene, Ithiel de Sola Pool, and John C. Klensin. “The Shortwave Audience in the USSR: Methods for Improving the Estimates.” Communication Research 9, no. 4 (October 198z): 581-606. https://doi.0rg/10.1177/00936508zoo9004005 . Picaper, Jean-Paul. Lepont invisible: Ces radios que l’Est veut réduire au silence. Paris: Librairie Plon, 1986. Presidential Study Commission on International Radio Broadcasting. The Right to Know. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973. Pomar, Mark G. Cold War Radio: The Russian Broadcasts ofthe Voice ofAmerica and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Lincoln, NE: Potomac Books/University of Nebraska Press, zozz. Pomerantsev, Peter. This is not Propaganda: Adventures in the War Against Reality. London: Faber and Faber, Z019. Pomerantsev, Peter. Nothing is True and Everything is Possible: The Surreal Heart ofModern Russia. New York: Public Affairs, Z014. Pomerantsev, Peter and Michael Weiss. The Menace ofUnreality: How the Kremlin Weaponizes Information, Culture and Money. New York: Institute of Modern Russia, Z014. Pool, Ithiel de Sola. Technologies Without Boundaries: On Telecommunications in a GlobalAge. Eli Noam, ed. The Preface to the book contains a lengthy discussion of Pool and his work. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990. Pool, Ithiel de Sola, and Lloyd S. Etheredge, eds. Humane Politics and Methods ofInquiry. New Brunswick, NJ:
Transaction Publishers, zooo. Puddington, Arch. Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph ofRadio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, zooo. Ra’anan, Uri and Igor Lukes, eds. Gorbachev’s USSR: A System in Crisis. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan Academic and Professional, 1990. 409
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Index Agorametrie, 139,140,153,175-77, 305, 363, 161,163,173,176,193,196,197,314,317, 394,396 Aigner, Helmut, 138,151, i8i, 197,108,169, 334, 335, 341, 347, 350, 352, 365, 387, З92, 401-4 Belsőn, William, 151, 197 Bet, Shin, 187, 368 Board for International Broadcasting (BIB), 5, 19,76,77, 81, 83, 85, 86,88-90,91,118-10, 116, 138, 145, 157, 174, 175, 207,118, 230,131, 274, 294, 295 297 320, 325, ЗЗ1, 352, 362 “Board of Trustees,” 20,11,39,74 Broadcast Area Listener Evidence (BALE), 131, 167 Brooks, Richard, 179, 193,116,117,177,183, 400 Buchan, Alex, 84,91 Buckley, James L., 119,111,361 Burger, Inna, 58 Bush, Keith, 96,103 369 Alberti, Irina Ilovaiskaya, 37,60,369 Allen, Charlie, 96, 98, ιοί, 101, ио, 134,146, 148,150, 182, 115,137,141,171,183,191, 364,369.372., 373 American Joint Distribution Committee (JOINT), 106 Andropov Diaries, 108 Andropov, Yuri, 107, ni Anin, David, 33,58,101 anti-communist reports, 113 anti-Semitic commentaries, 113 Asanchayev, Janet, 81 audibility and jamming, 108, 113, 166, 167, 135, 108, 113,166,167,135, 394 audience estimates, 5,78,79, 83, 88, 98,113, 1Ć6,116, 300,306,377,381, 400 audience expansion, 143,133, 344 Audience Research Division (ARD), 1,4,10, 3i 34, 35, 37-39, 41-45, 52. 55. 57, 6°, 66, 71, 77, 81, 84-91,184, 300, 399 audience research units, 87, 161,307, 311 Background Reports (BGRs), 60 Bailey, George, 110, 113, 115 Balear, Joan, 46,47,57 BBC, 3, 13,18, 36, 39,46,47,58,60, 61,68,70, 83, 100, joi, 107, no, hi, 110, 116,117,143, 145,146,149, i$6,1Ճ7,187, 191, 191,19s, 199,104,109,115,117,119,111,113,114,
119,131,131,135,145,147,149,151,156, Cancan in the English Garden, 41 Central European Market Research (CEM), 289 Citizen data, 107, 113 Cline, Mary, 299,405 Cody, Morrill, 55, 56, 360,361 COFREMCA, 86 Cohen, Ariel, 105, 130,134,403 Cold War, i, 2,6, 9,13,16,124,134, 295, 303, 316, 319,325, 317,328,330, 331, 335,337 ЗЗ8,34։. 345 Cold War Broadcasting: Impact on the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, t, 131, 358 Conference on International Broadcasting Audience Research (CIBAR), 151, 307,311 41։
Index Corning, Amy, 117, 250, 254. ^бг, 277. շ83 187, зіб Communication Research, 118,378 Communist Communications Project (ComCom), 69, 377 Consistent System, 81, 180, 216, Core Audience, 198,199, 278, 343, 382 Critchlow, James, 31,34,46, 88,89,91,126, 359 Cross-Cultural Research (CCR), 46,47,57 Current Time, 335 Dawson, Ree, 198, 216, 278,353, 377,383,384 de Sola Pool, Ithiel, 22, 69, 70,78, 88,118,356, 377. 384.385 Deutsche Welle, 3,13,46,58, 68,100,107,126, 127,167,187,191,199, 219, 221, 224, 231, 233, 249, 251, 252, 314,317,342, 347, 350, 372. 374. 39a “Developing a Methodology for Projecting the Audience to Foreign Broadcasts in the Soviet Union,” 199 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), 135, 136,150, 179 Domestic Research Bureau-Lever Brothers (DRB), 219, 220 Durkee, William, 77 East European Audience and Opinion Research (EEAOR), 92,104,112,126,137, 151, 161,182, 215, 216, 241, 242, 279, 28284, 297,404 Eisenhower Commission, 74,75, 88 ElFoodo, 117 emigrant data, 107, 113, 166, 272, 350 ESOMAR (European Society of Marketing and Opinion Research), 134, 147-49,16062,165, 244, 245, 266, 301 espionage, 66, 85,104, 171,178,334, 373 European BroadcastingUnion (EBU), 251 Ferguson, Glenn, 92,100,107,119 Financial Times, 205, 293 focus groups, 5,193, 205, 210, 217, 232, 234, 247, 248, 253, 258, 260, 26։, 272, 275, 286, 288, 289, 296,305,306, 309, 322, 330, 365, 401 Forbes, Malcom S., 174, 294, 295, 320 Freedman, John, i8j, 182,403 Galskoy, Constantin, 172, 195, 248, 283,400 Gaumert, Alexandra, 60 41г Geleklidis, Christopher, 37,66, no, 225, 226, 241, 270, 271,371 Gendler,
Yuri, 61 Gesellschaft fur Marktforschung (GfM), 136, 137, 202, 271 Gigli, Susan, 283, 288, 299,306, 322 Gildner, Jay, 90,132,164,172,174,190 Ginsburg, Alek, 214 “giveaways,” 34, 35 Gladilin, Anatoly, 57 Grayevsky, Victor, 115,187, 273, 274, 275, 303, 367 Gudridge, Ernie, 84,85, 87-91,127 Field Service, 86, 87, 136,163,185, 242 Finnish Better Business Bureau, 85 Hart, Henry, 89,137,138,161,215 Haney, Michael, 237,242, 258, 270, 283, 287, 291, 296, 307,322 Harvard Interview Project, 133 Harvard University Refugee Interview Project, 31 Hankins, Irwin, 163,165,189,203, 227, 270 Hinckley, Steedman, 151 Honeywell Bull, 82 Hoover Institution Archives, 3,7, 34,39, 44, 358.367 IBM, 67,70,71,78, 80, 81 IMA, i86,187,188, 200, 202,241, 242, 272, 275, 288 independent media, blocking of, 7, 338 “information war,” 7, 333 Ingleright, Greg, 135,136 INSEARCH Inc., 191 Institute for the Study ofthe USSR, 29, 125 international broadcasting, 9,14,75,76, 81, 84, 89, 107, 117, 123, 116,147,156, 167, 214,218, 251, 322, 328,331, 358, 359, 360,364, 367 International Herald Tribune, 167, 172, 302 International Media Analysis (AMA), 186, 187,188, 200, 202, 241, 275, 288 International Research Institute on Social Change (RISC), 6, 281,286, 300-2, 305, 307,314-17.32L 322. 33°. 363 interviewing of emigrants, 59,105,113,114, 117, 225, 272, 279 in Bulgaria, 290 in Denmark, 104
Index in Finland, 86,400 in Japan, 159 in Rome, 60,105 in Sweden, 104 in the Nordic area, 46 in the USSR, 2.54,2.71, 272 methods, in, 155, 262 Soviet travelers, 22,36, 39, 52, 67, 124, 147, 208, 269, 370 In the Country and the World, 205,206, 211,293 INTORA, 85,137,138,152, 241, 269 Iron Curtain, 13,124,300 Isotov, Dima, 47 Izvestiya, 40,66 Jamming and Audibility Reports (JARs), 167, 264 Johnson, A. Ross, 2, 279, 284, 298, 357,361 KEME, 241, 270, 271 Kiuru, Kari, 51, 89,137,242,269, 311 Klensin, John, 79, Г17,118,127, 135, 136,180, 196, 216,301 Knutson, Ruth, 57,77, 90 Komsomolskaya pravda, 40 Kostomaroff,Nicole, 56, 102, 103,135,193, 322 KPR-Marketing, 89,137,182, 242, 269 Krasnaya zvezda, 40 Krokodil, 40,41 Kuchins, Andrew, 134,404 Leroy, Michele, 136,163, 184, 185 Leroy, Patricia, 77, 102,126,132, 135,151,167, 182, 209, 282, 322,401 Liberty Live, 306 Lindblad, Goran, 51,52,63-65 listener mail, 31, 34-36, 39, 399 Listener Panel Reviews, 57, 158, 175, 205 listening patterns, 113,183, 342 listening trends, 52, 70, 198, 343, 382, 384 Literaturnayagazeta, 40,173 MacLachlan, Fiona, 217,401 Malesky-Malevich, 38 Mandeville, Laure, 198,404 Market Research and Advisory Services (MRAS), 190, 203, 228, 270 Marsh, William W, 173,363 Martyniuk, Jaroslav, 150,401 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 4, 22, 69, 78,385 Media and Opinion Research (MOR), 6, 279, 281-289, 292, 293, 296-302,304,308, 314316,322,330, 352,357,399-404 Megreblian, Sonia, 57 Melen, Ola, 47 Memento Publication and Information Ser vices (MPIS), 132 Merlerò, Anne-Daniele, 38,56, 89, 245 Method of Comparative
and Continuing Sampling, 112 Michener, James, 119, 157 Mickelson, Sig, 77, 80,92 Mihalisko, Kathleen, 127,130, 160, 191, 349 Mikoh Research, 139 Mirsky, Semyon, 57 Mostellerization, 79, 82, 88,118, 378, 379, 380, 383.384 Motivans, Albert, 277, 283, 288, 301 Moy, Patricia, 299,404 Myhul, Ivan, 189, 190, 201, 203, 228 Mykolenko, Segolene, 194,195,265, 284,287 NATO, 48, 121, 144. 333. 335. 373 Nedelya, 66 Neimanis, Orest, 31,33, 45,102 Nekrasov, Viktor Platonovich, 72,172,173, 364, 365, 366 Neveski, Kathleen, 102,402 New York Times, 104, 214,338,351 NHK, 141 Nicotera, Elena, 60,61, 206, 207, 225 “Notes on Radio Liberty” in Kontinent, 154 Office of Net Assessment (ONA), 117 Open Media Research Institute (OMRI), 321, 322 open questionnaire, 148, 152, 182, 24։, 243 Open Technology Fund (OTF), 329 Opinion and Media Research Institute (OMRI), 104, 145 Optimal Mark Reading (OMR), 196, 197 Pages, Christian, 101,103 Panayi, Joy Butler, 58 Panich, Igor, 207 Peacock, Ben, 18,19, 20, 21 Pell Amendment, 119 Pell, Eugene, 170, 363 Perry, George, 33,36,58, 91-93,102, 284 Petrouskiene, Lydia, 57,172 Pikkarainen, Oras, 52 413
Index Pitts, Florence, 92,93,19։ Plumb, Dawn, 102,144,161 Polish Press Agency (PAP), 115, 367 Poltinikova, Eleonora, 62, 105,114, 116 Pomar, Mark, 123 Public Opinion Research of Israel, 62 Pullen, Charlotte, 195, 201, 217, 237, 283,402 Quality Control Reports (QCRs), 42,58 Quinn, Thomas, 85 Radio Canada International, 58, 164,167, 229 Radio Free Afghanistan (RFA), 218-21, 224 Radio Free Europe (RFE), 4,13,14,41,73,74, 77, 218, 256, 279,320, 325, 359, 361 Radio Liberation, 19,40 Radio Liberty, attacks on, 3, 21,31,32,34,39,40-42,66, 73, 179, *¿3, зо? broadcasts, 2,43, 392 estimate of audience size, 67 foundation of 19 listening trends, 52,71, 198,343,382,384 research methods, 3, 304 Radio Liberty Committee, 17,19,21,24,30,56 Radio Liberty’s religious programming, 247 Radio Liberty’s Russian Service, 31,57,6։, 68, 1J3, 123, 141,146,154-56, 158-60, 169,172, 177, 178, 195, 206, 209, 213, 218, 232, 235, 257, 266, 292, 306, 308, 352,401 radio listening behavior, 105,107, 203,330, 383,384 Radio Marti, 208 Radio Moscow, 13, 232, 251, 304,307,323 “Radio Operators and Equipment in the USSR,” 166 Radio Prague, 13 Radio Sweden, 13 Ralis, Max, 31-33,36,37,43-45,52,55,56,58, 62,66,69, 80, 89, 91,101, i6j, 284,355, 362, 365, 369,401 report on Soviet citizens’ reactions to the war, 153 Research Institute on Social Change (RISC), 6, 281, 286,300,30։, 302, 305, 307, 314-Ï7, 321, 322,330,363 Research Machine, 238, 277, 284, 299 RFE/RL management, 88,126, 145, 162, 255 RFE/RL merger, 77 RFE/RL office in London, 58, 90-92 4M in Munich, 52,57,58 in Paris, 'n, 82, 92, io։, 103, 105,129,167, 261,
283,399 in Washington, 98,168, 170 RFE/RL Research Institute, 2, 6, 279, 282, 284, 292, 299,301,308,310, 314, 319, 329, 33°. 357 363,400,401,404 Rhodes, Mark, 96,102,113,117,121,133,147, 167,176,209, гл, 235,255,297,298, 314,322 right to strike, 106,3 96 RL programming, 5,22, 34, 83, ։o8, 24,127, 2J3, 245, 269, 288 Roberts, Walter, 81, 85,126 Roehm, Susan, 134, 158, 260, 283, 287, 288, 306, 319,403 Romberg. Roselyn, 135,150,179,403 Ross, Stu, 85 Russian invasion of Ukraine, 1,7 Ryser, Witold, 57 Sadgrove-Grossman, Sylvia, 58 Salkazanova, Fatima, 57,172 Sargeant, Howland, 3, 16, 20, 32,39,43, 55,56, 58, 77, 356 Satter, David, 206, 211-13 Sauerberg, Steen, 104, 105, 146,372 Scott, Ken, 23, 28-30,75 Shakespeare, Frank, 118,119,174,362 Shinkle, Peter, 131, 132, 167,404 Shtern, Yuri, 225 simulation process, 4,7, 69, 70,78-80, 127, 169, 176,199,377, 378, 382, 384,400 Sinyavsky, Andrei, 22,61,72,172, 366 SOFEMA, 86 Sokolov, Andrei, 307 Sovetskaya Rossiiya, 40 Soviet Area Audience and Opinion Research department (SAAOR) data on food supply, 117 relations with other Western broadcasters to the USSR, 166 research process of, 3,4,122 Soviet Census, 79 Soviet Interview Project (SIP), 133, 156 Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), 79 Sternberg, Hilary, 58,90 structured interviewing methods, 76, 84 survey research, 2,5,45,68,86,109,129,136,149, 151,163,190,225,238,245,250,256,259,267, 268, 285, 286, 296, 304, 312, 33°, 337֊ 369.404
Index Vaslef, Nicholas, 174,178 Voice of America (VOA), 13, 28, 36,46, 60,68, 70, 100,107, no, in, 123, 126,127, 131,143, 167, 168, 170,173, 174,183, 187, 191,192, 195, 199, 217, 221, 224, 229, 231, 232, 235, 247, 249, 251, 261, 263, 274, 276, 293, 296, 297, 298, 314, 317, 320, 334, 335, 341, 347. 350, 352, 363, 364, 372, 387, 392, 401 Warsaw Pact, 26,31,55, 73, 101,121,213 Washington Post, 144,336,364, 368 Wattenberg, Ben, 118, 157, 207 WCCO, 80 Western broadcasters to the USSR, 2,5, 108, 166, 248,300,344 Western radio broadcasts, 1, 2,130, 383 Western radio stations, 60, 139,191, 295,374 Who’s Who in the USSR, 29 Williams, Fred, 68, 69, 81 Williams, Tony, 58, 92, 93 Wise, Sallie, 134,155, 166, 176, 179, 201, 208, 212, 237, 283,322,348,403 World Association of Public Opinion Research (WAPOR), 301,356 World Research International (WRI), 219, 220 World War I, 11, 24 World War II, ii, 22, 24, 29,32, 72, 78, 115, 119, 161, 238,334,364 Walter, Ralph, 92, 99,101,107, 119,361,362 Ward, Elaine, 237, 283,403 Yedigaroff, Andre, 17,18, 19, 20, 90, 91 Yurenen, Sergei, 57 Tapeshko, Grigory Ivanovich, 24, 25 Tumanov, Oleg, 171,177, 291 United States Information Agency (USIA), 34, 70, 81, 84, 86, 118, 120, 157, 164, 168, 179, 231, 237, 245, 255, 256, 260, 277, 298, 311, 319, 360, 377,401,403 Urban, George, 120 US Agency for Global Media (USAGM), 328-30, 335 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Mönchen 415 |
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| spelling | Parta, R. Eugene 1940- Verfasser (DE-588)1208416677 aut Under the radar tracking Western radio listeners in the Soviet Union Budapest CEU Press 2022 X, 415 Seiten Illustrationen, Porträts txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty (DE-588)2058914-1 gnd rswk-swf Geschichte 1953-1994 gnd rswk-swf Hörer (DE-588)4139839-7 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd rswk-swf Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty (DE-588)2058914-1 b Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 g Hörer (DE-588)4139839-7 s Geschichte 1953-1994 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033053830&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033053830&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033053830&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Parta, R. Eugene 1940- Under the radar tracking Western radio listeners in the Soviet Union Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty (DE-588)2058914-1 gnd Hörer (DE-588)4139839-7 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)2058914-1 (DE-588)4139839-7 (DE-588)4077548-3 |
| title | Under the radar tracking Western radio listeners in the Soviet Union |
| title_auth | Under the radar tracking Western radio listeners in the Soviet Union |
| title_exact_search | Under the radar tracking Western radio listeners in the Soviet Union |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Under the radar tracking Western radio listeners in the Soviet Union |
| title_full | Under the radar tracking Western radio listeners in the Soviet Union |
| title_fullStr | Under the radar tracking Western radio listeners in the Soviet Union |
| title_full_unstemmed | Under the radar tracking Western radio listeners in the Soviet Union |
| title_short | Under the radar |
| title_sort | under the radar tracking western radio listeners in the soviet union |
| title_sub | tracking Western radio listeners in the Soviet Union |
| topic | Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty (DE-588)2058914-1 gnd Hörer (DE-588)4139839-7 gnd |
| topic_facet | Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty Hörer Sowjetunion |
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