Verfügbarkeit: Sensors in science and technology

Sensors in science and technology: functionality and application areas

Gespeichert in:

Bibliographische Detailangaben
Weitere Verfasser:	Hering, Ekbert 1943- (HerausgeberIn), Schönfelder, Gert (HerausgeberIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	English German
Veröffentlicht:	Wiesbaden Springer [2022]
Ausgabe:	1st edition 2022
Schlagworte:	Sensortechnik Sensor Acoustical sensors Automation Biological sensors Calibration Chemical sensors Climate sensors Control engineering Electrical and magnetic sensors Electrical engineering Measurement Mechanical engineering Medical sensors Physical sensors Robotics Safety aspects Sensor applications Sensor systems
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltstext http://www.springer.com/ Inhaltsverzeichnis
Beschreibung:	xxviii, 816 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme 24 cm x 16.8 cm
ISBN:	9783658349196

Internformat

MARC


LEADER	00000nam a22000008c 4500
001	BV047616164
003	DE-604
005	20220228
007	t
008	211129s2022 gw a\|\|\| \|\|\|\| 00\|\|\| eng d
015			\|a 21,N25 \|2 dnb
016	7		\|a 1235791785 \|2 DE-101
020			\|a 9783658349196 \|c Festeinband : circa EUR 128.39 (DE) (freier Preis), circa EUR 131.99 (AT) (freier Preis), circa CHF 141.50 (freier Preis), circa EUR 119.99 \|9 978-3-658-34919-6
024	3		\|a 9783658349196
028	5	2	\|a Bestellnummer: 89075568
028	5	2	\|a Bestellnummer: 978-3-658-34919-6
035			\|a (OCoLC)1257413083
035			\|a (DE-599)DNB1235791785
040			\|a DE-604 \|b ger \|e rda
041	1		\|a eng \|h ger
044			\|a gw \|c XA-DE-HE
049			\|a DE-29T
084			\|8 1\p \|a 621.3 \|2 23sdnb
130	0		\|a Sensoren in Wissenschaft und Technik
245	1	0	\|a Sensors in science and technology \|b functionality and application areas \|c Ekbert Hering, Gert Schönfelder, editors
250			\|a 1st edition 2022
264		1	\|a Wiesbaden \|b Springer \|c [2022]
300			\|a xxviii, 816 Seiten \|b Illustrationen, Diagramme \|c 24 cm x 16.8 cm
336			\|b txt \|2 rdacontent
337			\|b n \|2 rdamedia
338			\|b nc \|2 rdacarrier
650	0	7	\|a Sensortechnik \|0 (DE-588)4121663-5 \|2 gnd \|9 rswk-swf
650	0	7	\|a Sensor \|0 (DE-588)4038824-4 \|2 gnd \|9 rswk-swf
653			\|a Acoustical sensors
653			\|a Automation
653			\|a Biological sensors
653			\|a Calibration
653			\|a Chemical sensors
653			\|a Climate sensors
653			\|a Control engineering
653			\|a Electrical and magnetic sensors
653			\|a Electrical engineering
653			\|a Measurement
653			\|a Mechanical engineering
653			\|a Medical sensors
653			\|a Physical sensors
653			\|a Robotics
653			\|a Safety aspects
653			\|a Sensor applications
653			\|a Sensor systems
689	0	0	\|a Sensor \|0 (DE-588)4038824-4 \|D s
689	0	1	\|a Sensortechnik \|0 (DE-588)4121663-5 \|D s
689	0		\|5 DE-604
700	1		\|a Hering, Ekbert \|d 1943- \|0 (DE-588)12263019X \|4 edt
700	1		\|a Schönfelder, Gert \|0 (DE-588)1155438760 \|4 edt
710	2		\|a Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden \|0 (DE-588)1043386068 \|4 pbl
776	0	8	\|i Erscheint auch als \|n Online-Ausgabe \|z 978-3-658-34920-2
856	4	2	\|m X:MVB \|q text/html \|u http://deposit.dnb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?id=66946341edd942f8ab515bc024eeb94a&prov=M&dok_var=1&dok_ext=htm \|3 Inhaltstext
856	4	2	\|m X:MVB \|u http://www.springer.com/
856	4	2	\|m DNB Datenaustausch \|q application/pdf \|u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033000879&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA \|3 Inhaltsverzeichnis
999			\|a oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-033000879
883	1		\|8 1\p \|a vlb \|d 20210619 \|q DE-101 \|u https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#vlb

Datensatz im Suchindex

_version_	1804183049856876544
adam_text	1 SENSOR SYSTEMS .................................................................................................... 1 EKBERT HERING 1.1 DEFINITION AND MODE OF OPERATION .......................................................... 1 1.2 CLASSIFICATION .............................................................................................. 2 2 PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF SENSOR USE .......................................................................... 5 EKBERT HERING, KARL-ERNST BIEL, ULRICH GUTH, MARTIN LIESS, AND WINFRIED VONAU 2.1 PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT .................................................................................... 5 2.1.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION .................... 5 2.1.2 MATERIALS ....................................................................................... 7 2.1.3 APPLICATIONS ................................................................................ 8 2.2 RESISTIVE AND PIEZORESISTIVE EFFECT .......................................................... 9 2.2.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLES AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION ........................ 9 2.2.2 RESISTIVE EFFECT AND ITS APPLICATION BY MEANS OF SGS .......... 11 2.2.3 PIEZORESISTIVE EFFECT AND ITS APPLICATION BY SILICON SEMICONDUCTOR ELEMENTS ........................................................... 13 2.2.4 MATERIALS ...................................................................................... 13 2.3 MAGNETORESISTIVE EFFECT ............................................................................ 15 2.3.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION .................... 15 2.3.1.1 AMR (ANISOTROPIC MAGNETO RESISTANCE) ............... 16 2.3.1.2 GMR (GIANT MAGNETO RESISTANCE) .......................... 18 2.3.1.3 CMR (COLOSSAL MAGNETO RESISTANCE) .................... 19 2.3.1.4 TMR (TUNNEL MAGNETO RESISTANCE) ........................ 19 2.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF XMR TECHNOLOGY ............................................. 19 2.3.3 APPLICATIONS OF XMR TECHNOLOGY ........................................... 22 2.4 MAGNETOSTRICTIVE EFFECT ............................................................................. 25 2.4.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION ..................... 25 2.4.2 ADVANTAGES OF MAGNETOSTRICTIVE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY ............. 26 2.4.3 APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETOSTRICTIVE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY ............ 27 VII VIII CONTENTS 2.5 EFFECTS OF INDUCTION ................................................................................... 28 2.5.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION ..................... 28 2.5.1.1 LAW OF INDUCTION ....................................................... 28 2.5.1.2 GENERATION OF EDDY CURRENTS IN ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE MATERIALS ............................................... 33 2.5.1.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATING CIRCUITS ...................... 33 2.5.2 ADVANTAGES OF INDUCTIVE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY .......................... 34 2.5.3 APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTIVE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY ......................... 35 2.6 EFFECTS OF CAPACITANCE ............................................................................... 35 2.6.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION .................... 35 2.6.1.1 CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE ....................................... 36 2.6.1.2 CAPACITANCE IN THE ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUIT .. . 41 2.6.2 ADVANTAGES OF CAPACITIVE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY ........................ 46 2.6.3 APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITIVE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY ...................... 47 2.7 GAUSSIAN EFFECT .......................................................................................... 48 2.7.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION ...................... 48 2.7.2 APPLICATION OF THE GAUSSIAN EFFECT ........................................... 50 2.8 HALL EFFECT .................................................................................................. 52 2.8.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION ..................... 52 2.8.2 APPLICATION OF THE HALL EFFECT ................................................... 54 2.9 EDDY CURRENT EFFECT ................................................................................... 55 2.9.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION ...................... 55 2.9.2 APPLICATION OF THE EDDY CURRENT EFFECT .................................... 56 2.10 THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT ................................................................................ 63 2.11 THERMORESISTANCE EFFECT ............................................................................ 68 2.11.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION ..................... 68 2.11.1.1 THERMAL RESPONSE TIMES .......................................... 69 2.11.1.2 SELF-HEATING AND MEASURING CURRENT ........................ 70 2.11.2 ADVANTAGES OF SENSOR TECHNOLOGY WITH THE THERMORESISTANCE EFFECT ............................................................................................ 71 2.11.3 FIELDS OF APPLICATION .................................................................. 71 2.12 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS IN SEMICONDUCTORS .................................................. 72 2.12.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION .................... 72 2.12.2 PTC THERMISTORS (PTC RESISTORS) ............................................ 73 2.12.2.1 PHYSICAL CONTEXT ....................................................... 74 2.12.2.2 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATION AREAS ......................... 75 2.12.3 THERMISTORS (NTC RESISTORS) ..................................................... 76 2.12.3.1 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATION AREAS ......................... 77 2.13 PYROELECTRIC EFFECT ..................................................................................... 79 2.13.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION ...................... 79 2.13.2 MATERIALS ...................................................................................... 80 CONTENTS IX 2.13.3 APPLICATIONS ................................................................................. 81 2.14 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ................................................................................... 84 2.14.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLES AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION ........................ 84 2.14.1.1 OUTER PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ....................................... 85 2.14.1.2 INNER PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: PHOTOCONDUCTOR ........... 87 2.14.1.3 INTERNAL PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: OPTOCOUPLER ............ 88 2.14.1.4 INTERNAL PHOTO EFFECT: PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT ............. 88 2.14.1.5 PHOTOIONIZATION ......................................................... 88 2.14.2 PHOTOELECTRIC SENSOR ELEMENTS .................................................. 90 2.14.3 PHOTOELECTRIC SENSOR ELEMENTS .................................................. 90 2.14.3.1 PHOTOMULTIPLIER ......................................................... 90 2.14.3.2 OPTOCOUPLER .............................................................. 91 2.14.3.3 LIGHT BARRIERS ............................................................ 93 2.14.3.4 PHOTOELECTRIC SWITCHES ............................................. 95 2.14.3.5 LIGHT CURTAIN ............................................................. 96 2.14.3.6 LIGHT MEASUREMENT .................................................. 96 2.14.3.7 COLOUR RECOGNITION .................................................. 97 2.15 ELECTRO-OPTICAL EFFECT ................................................................................ 98 2.15.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION .................... 98 2.15.2 MATERIALS ...................................................................................... 100 2.15.3 APPLICATIONS ................................................................................ 100 2.16 ELECTROCHEMICAL EFFECTS ............................................................................ 103 2.16.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND CLASSIFICATION ................................ 103 2.16.2 POTENTIOMETRIC SENSORS ............................................................... 104 2.16.3 AMPEROMETRIC SENSORS ............................................................... 108 2.16.4 CONDUCTOMETRIC AND IMPEDIMETRIC SENSORS ............................. 109 2.16.5 AREAS OF APPLICATION .................................................................. 110 2.17 CHEMICAL EFFECTS ....................................................................................... 110 2.17.1 PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS OF GASES WITH SURFACES ........... 110 2.17.2 GAS SOLUBILITY (ABSORPTION) ...................................................... 112 2.17.3 GAS TRANSPORT TO THE SOLID SURFACE ........................................... 116 2.17.4 ADSORPTION AND CHEMISORPTION ................................................. 117 2.17.5 REACTIONS WITH ADSORBED SPECIES ............................................. 118 2.17.6 REACTION OF THE GAS WITH THE SOLID ........................................... 118 2.17.7 THE MIXED-PHASE DISORDER ........................................................ 121 2.18 ACOUSTIC EFFECTS ........................................................................................ 123 2.18.1 DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOUND .................................... 123 2.18.2 CHARACTERIZATION OF ACOUSTIC WAVES ........................................ 123 2.18.3 SOUND VELOCITY IN IDEAL GASES .................................................. 124 2.18.3.1 DEPENDENCE ON TEMPERATURE ................................... 124 2.18.3.2 DEPENDENCE ON THE RELATIVE AIR HUMIDITY ............ 125 X CONTENTS 2.18.3.3 DEPENDENCE ON PRESSURE ........................................... 125 2.18.4 INTENSITY OR SOUND INTENSITY ....................................................... 125 2.18.5 SOUND ABSORPTION IN AIR ............................................................ 126 2.18.6 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION ...................................................... 127 2.19 OPTICAL EFFECTS ............................................................................................ 128 2.19.1 PHYSICAL EFFECTS ........................................................................... 128 2.19.2 DESIGN OF OPTICAL SENSORS .......................................................... 133 2.19.3 CATEGORIES OF OPTICAL SENSORS ................................................... 135 2.19.4 APPLICATION FIELDS OF OPTICAL SENSORS ...................................... 136 2.20 DOPPLER EFFECT ............................................................................................ 137 2.20.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION ..................... 137 2.20.1.1 OBSERVER MOVES, SOURCE RESTS ................................. 137 2.20.1.2 SOURCE MOVES, OBSERVER RESTS ................................ 138 2.20.1.3 OBSERVER AND SOURCE MOVE ..................................... 138 2.20.1.4 DOPPLER EFFECT OF LIGHT (DOPPLER EFFECT WITHOUT MEDIUM) .................................................................... 139 2.20.2 APPLICATION AREAS ....................................................................... 140 2.20.2.1 ASTRONOMY ................................................................. 140 2.20.2.2 GEODESY (LAND SURVEYING) ...................................... 141 2.20.2.3 NAVIGATION ................................................................. 141 2.20.2.4 VIBRATION ANALYSIS .................................................... 142 2.20.2.5 SPEED MEASUREMENT .................................................. 142 2.20.2.6 DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS ..................... 142 2.20.2.7 MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY ................................................. 142 2.20.2.8 ACOUSTICS ................................................................... 142 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 143 3 GEOMETRIC QUANTITIES .......................................................................................... 147 EKBERT HERING, GERT SCHONFELDER, STEFAN BASLER, KARL-ERNST BIEHL, THOMAS BURKHARDT, THOMAS ENGEL, ALBERT FEINAUGLE, SORIN FERICEAN, ALEXANDER FORKL, CARSTEN GIEBELER, BERNHARD HAHN, ERNST HALDER, CHRISTOPHER HERFORT, STEFAN HUBRICH, JURGEN REICHENBACH, MICHAEL ROBEL, AND STEFAN SESTER 3.1 DISPLACEMENT AND DISTANCE SENSORS ........................................................ 148 3.1.1 INDUCTIVE DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT SENSORS ........................ 148 3.1.1.1 FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLE AND MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF INDUCTIVE SENSORS ............................ 148 3.1.1.2 NON-CONTACT INDUCTIVE DISTANCE SENSORS (INS) . . . 152 3.1.1.3 NON-CONTACT INDUCTIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSORS (IWS) .......................................................................... 160 3.1.1.4 DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS WITH SLIDING CORE (LVDT) ...................................................................... 163 CONTENTS XI 3.1.1.5 PULSED INDUCTIVE LINEAR POSITION SENSOR (MICROPULSE BIW) .................................................. 168 3.1.1.6 SIGNAL PROCESSING BY PHASE MEASUREMENT (SAGENTIA) .................................................................. 173 3.1.1.7 PLCD DISPLACEMENT SENSORS (PERMANENT LINEAR CONTACTLESS DISPLACEMENT SENSOR) .......................... 178 3.1.1.8 NON-CONTACT MAGNETOINDUCTIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSORS (SMARTSENS-BIL) ......................................... 184 3.1.2 OPTOELECTRONIC DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT SENSORS ............... 193 3.1.2.1 OVERVIEW .................................................................... 193 3.1.2.2 OPTOELECTRONIC COMPONENTS ..................................... 195 3.1.2.3 OPTICAL PRINCIPLES OF DISTANCE SENSORS ................... 200 3.1.2.4 MEASURING PRINCIPLE: TRIANGULATION ......................... 204 3.1.2.5 MEASURING PRINCIPLE: PULSE DELAY METHOD ............. 206 3.1.2.6 MEASURING PRINCIPLE: PHASE OR FREQUENCY DELAY METHOD ...................................................................... 208 3.1.2.7 MEASURING PRINCIPLE: PHOTOELECTRIC SCANNING ... . 211 3.1.2.8 MEASURING PRINCIPLE: INTERFEROMETRIC LENGTH MEASUREMENT ............................................................. 212 3.1.3 ULTRASONIC SENSORS FOR DISTANCE MEASUREMENT AND OBJECT DETECTION ..................................................................................... 213 3.1.3.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN TOUCH OPERATION WITH ECHO RUNTIME MEASUREMENT . ... 213 3.1.3.2 DESIGN OF THE ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER ....................... 215 3.1.3.3 DETECTION RANGE OF AN ULTRASONIC SENSOR ............... 217 3.1.3.4 DEFLECTION OF THE ULTRASOUND .................................... 219 3.1.3.5 OBJECT AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ....................... 219 3.1.3.6 APPLICATIONS ............................................................... 220 3.1.4 POTENTIOMETRIC DISPLACEMENT AND ANGLE SENSORS .................... 222 3.1.4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................ 222 3.1.4.2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF POTENTIOMETRIC SENSORS ............................................. 225 3.1.4.3 TECHNOLOGY AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES ............... 228 3.1.4.4 PRODUCTS AND APPLICATIONS ........................................ 233 3.1.5 MAGNETOSTRICTIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSORS ................................... 234 3.1.5.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE AND DESIGN OF MAGNETOSTRICTIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSORS ................. 236 3.1.5.2 HOUSING CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS ........................ 239 3.1.6 DISPLACEMENT SENSORS WITH MAGNETICALLY CODED MEASURING STANDARD ................................................................... 244 3.1.6.1 MEASURING PRINCIPLE .................................................. 244 XII CONTENTS 3.1.6.2 DESIGN AND FUNCTION OF INCREMENTAL AND ABSOLUTE MEASURING SYSTEMS ........................... 248 3.1.6.3 CHARACTERISTIC VALUES ................................................ 251 3.1.6.4 SENSOR TYPES IN COMPARISON ................................... 254 3.1.6.5 APPLICATION EXAMPLES .............................................. 255 3.2 SENSORS FOR ANGLE AND ROTATION ................................................................ 257 3.2.1 OPTICAL ENCODERS ......................................................................... 267 3.2.1.1 PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES .................................................... 267 3.2.1.2 DESIGN OF OPTICAL ENCODERS ...................................... 270 3.2.1.3 SPECIAL FEATURES OF OPTICAL ENCODERS ...................... 274 3.2.2 MAGNETICALLY ENCODED ROTARY ENCODER .................................... 275 3.2.2.1 APPLICATIONS .............................................................. 279 3.2.3 ROTATION-COUNTING ANGLE SENSORS ............................................ 281 3.2.3.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF ROTATION-COUNTING ANGLE SENSORS ........................................................... 281 3.2.3.2 GEARBOX-BASED REVOLUTION-COUNTING METHODS . . 282 3.2.3.3 ROTATION-COUNTING METHOD ON INDUCTIVE BASIS . . . 284 3.2.3.4 BATTERY BUFFERING OF THE ROTATION INFORMATION . . . 286 3.2.3.5 NOVEL GMR SYSTEM FOR DETECTION AND STORAGE OF ROTATION INFORMATION ........................................... 287 3.2.4 CAPACITIVE ENCODERS ................................................................... 292 3.2.5 VARIABLE TRANSFORMERS, RESOLVERS ............................................. 295 3.2.5.1 GENERAL OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF THE VT .................. 295 3.2.5.2 SIGNIFICANT VARIANTS OF VT .......................................... 298 3.2.5.3 RESOLVER, A REPRESENTATIVE VARIANT OF VT ............. 298 3.2.6 IVPP OR SIN/COS INTERFACE ......................................................... 304 3.2.7 INCREMENTAL ENCODERS ................................................................. 307 3.2.7.1 SUMMARY OF THE PROPERTIES OF INCREMENTAL INTERFACES .................................................. 308 3.3 INCLINATION ................................................................................................... 308 3.3.1 MAGNETORESISTIVE INCLINATION SENSORS ........................................ 310 3.3.2 COMPASS SENSORS ........................................................................ 311 3.3.3 ELECTROLYTIC SENSORS .................................................................... 311 3.3.4 PIEZORESISTIVE INCLINATION SENSORS/DMS BENDING BEAM SENSORS .............................................................................. 313 3.3.5 MEMS .......................................................................................... 314 3.3.6 SERVO-INCLINOMETER ..................................................................... 315 3.3.7 OVERVIEW AND SELECTION OF INCLINATION SENSORS ....................... 316 3.4 SENSORS FOR OBJECT DETECTION .................................................................... 316 CONTENTS XIII 3.4.1 PROXIMITY SWITCH ........................................................................ 316 3.4.1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE NS, DETECTION TYPE AND MODE OF OPERATION OF THE NS .......................... 319 3.4.1.2 MAIN FEATURES OF THE NS ........................................... 321 3.4.1.3 SWITCHING DISTANCES .................................................. 321 3.4.1.4 HYSTERESIS ................................................................... 323 3.4.1.5 SWITCHING ELEMENT FUNCTION ..................................... 323 3.4.1.6 OUTPUT TYPE ................................................................ 324 3.4.1.7 DESIGN AND SIZE ........................................................ 324 3.4.1.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NS ........................................... 325 3.4.1.9 SPECIAL DESIGNS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS .................. 326 3.4.1.10 NS WITH SEVERAL SWITCHING OUTPUTS ....................... 326 3.4.1.11 NS WITH DIAGNOSTIC INFORMATION ............................. 328 3.4.1.12 APPLICATIONS OF THE NS ............................................ 328 3.4.2 OBJECT DETECTION AND DISTANCE MEASUREMENT WITH ULTRASOUND ................................................................................... 330 3.4.2.1 SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR .............................................. 330 3.4.3 OBJECT DETECTION WITH RADAR ..................................................... 331 3.4.3.1 IMPULSE RADAR ........................................................... 331 3.4.3.2 CW RADAR ................................................................. 333 3.4.3.3 APPLICATION ................................................................ 334 3.4.4 PYROELECTRIC SENSORS FOR MOTION AND PRESENCE DETECTION . . . 334 3.4.4.1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF SPUTTERED PZT FILMS .......... 334 3.4.4.2 EFFECT ON ELECTRONICS ................................................ 335 3.4.5 OBJECT DETECTION WITH LASER SCANNER ....................................... 337 3.4.5.1 APPLICATION ................................................................ 337 3.4.6 SENSORS FOR AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION (AUTO-IDENT) .................. 337 3.4.6.1 OVERVIEW .................................................................... 337 3.4.6.2 BARCODE SCANNER ....................................................... 339 3.4.6.3 AUTO-IDENT CAMERAS .................................................. 346 3.4.6.4 CONSTRUCTION OF AUTO-IDENT CAMERAS ....................... 347 3.4.6.5 IMPORTANT FIELDS OF APPLICATION FOR AUTO-IDENT CAMERAS ..................................................................... 348 3.4.6.6 RFID SYSTEMS AND READERS ..................................... 348 3.5 THREE-DIMENSIONAL MEASURING METHODS (3D MEASUREMENT) ............... 356 3.5.1 PALPABLE 3D MEASUREMENT METHODS .......................................... 357 3.5.1.1 SWITCHING SENSOR ....................................................... 357 3.5.1.2 2-PHASE SWITCHING SENSOR ........................................ 359 3.5.2 OPTICAL PROBING 3D MEASURING METHODS ................................. 360 3.5.2.1 OPTICAL, SWITCHING SINGLE POINT SENSOR .................. 360 3.5.2.2 SCANNING SENSORS ....................................................... 361 XIV CONTENTS 3.5.2.3 OTHER PROBE AND MEASURING SYSTEMS ....................... 362 3.5.3 3D IMAGING MEASURING METHODS .............................................. 363 3.5.3.1 OPTICAL 3D MEASUREMENT (GRID AND LINE PROJECTION) ................................................................. 363 3.5.3.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLE AND MEASURING ARRANGEMENT .............................................................. 364 3.5.3.3 FRINGE PROJECTION ........................................................ 365 3.5.3.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE PROCEDURE ..................................... 367 3.5.3.5 FIELDS OF APPLICATION ................................................. 367 3.5.4 OVERVIEW OF 3D MEASURING METHODS ....................................... 368 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 369 4 MECHANICAL MEASURED VARIABLES ....................................................................... 373 EKBERT HERING, GERT SCHONFELDER, AND STEFAN VINZELBERG 4.1 MASS ............................................................................................................ 373 4.1.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 373 4.1.2 APPLICATIONS ................................................................................. 374 4.2 FORCE ........................................................................................................... 376 4.2.1 DEFINITION ........................................................ 376 4.2.1.1 WEIGHT FORCE F W ....................................................... 376 4.2.1.2 CENTRIPETAL FORCE F CP ................................................. 376 4.2.1.3 ELASTIC FORCE OR SPRING FORCE F EL .................................. 377 4.2.1.4 FRICTIONAL FORCE F F .............. 377 4.2.2 EFFECTS FOR THE APPLICATIONS ........................................................ 377 4.2.2.1 PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT .................................................... 378 4.2.3 APPLICATION AREAS ....................................................................... 381 4.2.3.1 PROCESS CONTROL .......................................................... 381 4.3 ELONGATION .................................................................................................. 384 4.3.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 384 4.3.2 STRAIN MEASUREMENT .................................................................... 385 4.3.2.1 BENDING BEAM ........................................................... 387 4.3.2.2 FIBER BRAGG GRATING .................................................. 387 4.4 PRESSURE ....................................................................................................... 388 4.4.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 388 4.4.1.1 FIELDS OF APPLICATION ................................................. 389 4.4.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES .................................................................. 389 4.4.2.1 MEASURING PRINCIPLES ................................................. 389 4.4.2.2 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE MEASUREMENT ......................... 389 4.4.2.3 RELATIVE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT ................................ 390 4.4.2.4 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT ............................. 390 4.4.3 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................... 391 4.5 TORQUE ......................................................................................................... 395 CONTENTS XV 4.5.1 DEFINITION .................................................................................... 395 4.5.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES ................................................................. 396 4.5.3 APPLICATION AREAS ....................................................................... 397 4.6 HARDNESS ..................................................................................................... 398 4.6.1 DEFINITION .................................................................................... 398 4.6.2 MACROSCOPIC HARDNESS DETERMINATION ..................................... 399 4.6.3 HARDNESS DETERMINATION BY NANOINDENTATION .......................... 400 4.6.4 SENSORS FOR NANOHARDNESS MEASUREMENT ................................. 401 4.6.5 MODEL AND EVALUATION ................................................................ 401 4.6.6 APPLICATIONS ................................................................................ 403 5 TIME-BASED MEASUREMENTS ............................................................................... 405 GERT SCHONFELDER AND GERD STEPHAN 5.1 TIME ........................................................................................................... 405 5.1.1 DEFINITION .................................................................................... 405 5.1.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES .................................................................. 405 5.2 FREQUENCY ................................................................................................... 406 5.2.1 DEFINITION .................................................................................... 406 5.2.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES ................................................................. 407 5.2.3 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS FOR FREQUENCY AND TIME MEASUREMENT ............................................................................... 407 5.2.4 MEASUREMENT ERROR OF TIME-DISCRETE MEASUREMENTS ............. 407 5.2.5 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................... 409 5.3 PULSE WIDTH ............................................................................................... 412 5.3.1 DEFINITION .................................................................................... 412 5.3.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES ................................................................. 412 5.3.3 ANALOGUE EVALUATION .................................................................. 414 5.3.4 DIGITAL EVALUATION ...................................................................... 415 5.3.5 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................... 415 5.4 PHASE, RUNNING TIME, AND LIGHT RUNNING TIME .................................... 415 5.4.1 DEFINITION .................................................................................... 415 5.4.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES ................................................................. 416 5.4.3 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................... 417 5.4.4 LIGHT RUNNING TIME ................................................................... 417 5.4.5 DIRECT TIME-OF-FLIGHT MEASUREMENT ......................................... 418 5.4.6 TRANSIT TIME MEASUREMENT THROUGH PULSE INTEGRATION .......... 419 5.4.7 TIME OF FLIGHT MEASUREMENT WITH MODULATED LIGHT .............. 421 5.5 VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES ......................................... 422 5.5.1 MEASURING PRINCIPLE ................................................................... 422 5.5.2 ANALOGUE OSCILLOGRAPHS ............................................................. 423 5.5.3 DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPES (DSOS) ..................................... 424 5.5.4 MIXED SIGNAL OSCILLOSCOPES (MSOS) ....................................... 426 XVI CONTENTS 5.5.5 THE SAMPLING PRINCIPLE .............................................................. 426 5.5.6 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................... 427 5.5.7 VOLTAGE AND PERIOD DURATION MEASUREMENT ............................. 427 5.5.8 MEASUREMENT OF RISE TIMES ...................................................... 428 5.5.9 MEASUREMENT OF PHASES .............................................................. 428 5.5.10 MEASUREMENT OF PULSE DURATION AND PULSE RATIOS (PWM) . . 431 5.6 SPEED AND ANGLE OF ROTATION ................................................................... 431 5.6.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 431 5.6.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES .................................................................. 433 5.6.3 MEASUREMENT THROUGH EVENT RECORDING .................................. 433 5.6.4 MEASUREMENT BY POSITION DETECTION ......................................... 433 5.6.5 SPEED DETERMINATION BY BEATING (STROBOSCOPE) ...................... 433 5.6.6 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................... 434 5.6.6.1 MAGNETIC AND OPTICAL SCANNING .............................. 434 5.6.7 DIGITAL OR AZB INTERFACE (INCREMENTAL ENCODER) ...................... 434 5.7 SPEED ........................................................................................................... 436 5.7.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 436 5.7.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLE SPEED ........................................................ 437 5.7.3 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS FOR SPEED MEASUREMENT ................. 437 5.8 ACCELERATION ................................................................................................ 439 5.8.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 439 5.8.2 FIELDS OF APPLICATION .................................................................. 440 5.8.3 MEASURING PRINCIPLE LINEAR ACCELERATION ................................. 440 5.8.4 MEASURING PRINCIPLE ANGULAR ACCELERATION .............................. 443 5.8.5 MEASURING ARRANGEMENT FOR MEASURING ACCELERATION ............. 445 5.9 FLOW RATE (MASS AND VOLUME) ................................................................ 445 5.9.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 445 5.9.2 MASS ............................................................................................. 445 5.9.3 VOLUME ........................................................................................ 445 5.9.4 VOLUME FLOW ............................................................................... 446 5.9.5 MASS FLOW ................................................................................... 446 5.9.6 MAIN GROUPS ................................................................................ 446 5.9.7 MEASUREMENT METHODS AND APPLICATION ................................... 446 5.9.8 BULK FLOW METER ......................................................................... 447 5.9.9 BAFFLE PLATE SCALES ...................................................................... 448 5.9.10 WEIGHFEEDERS ............................................................................... 448 5.9.11 BELT SCALES ................................................................................... 448 5.9.12 DIFFERENTIAL SCALES ....................................................................... 448 5.9.13 OPTICAL BELT WEIGHER .................................................................. 449 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 450 CONTENTS XVII 6 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT .............................................................................. 451 EKBERT HERING, GERT SCHONFELDER, MARTIN LIESS, AND LOTHAR MICHALOWSKI 6.1 TEMPERATURE AS PHYSICAL STATE VARIABLE .................................................. 451 6.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES AND MEASURING RANGES ........................................ 453 6.3 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE .......................... 453 6.3.1 METALS .......................................................................................... 453 6.3.2 METALS WITH DEFINED ADDITIVES (ALLOYS) OR LATTICE DEFECTS ......................................................................................... 458 6.3.3 ION CONDUCTING MATERIALS FOR HIGH TEMPERATURES ..................... 459 6.3.4 THERMISTORS ................................................................................. 460 6.3.5 CONSTRICTION RESISTOR TEMPERATURE SENSORS (SPREADING RESISTOR) ................................................................... 461 6.3.6 DIODES .......................................................................................... 463 6.4 THERMOELECTRICITY (SEEBECK EFFECT) ......................................................... 464 6.4.1 THERMOCOUPLES FOR VERY HIGH APPLICATION TEMPERATURES . . . 469 6.4.2 METALLIC THERMOCOUPLES FOR VERY HIGH APPLICATION TEMPERATURES ............................................................................... 469 6.4.3 INORGANIC-NON-METALLIC THERMOCOUPLES FOR VERY HIGH APPLICATION TEMPERATURES .......................................................... 469 6.5 THERMAL EXPANSION ................................................................................... 470 6.5.1 THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLID BODIES ......................................... 470 6.5.2 THERMAL EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS .................................................. 472 6.5.3 THERMAL EXPANSION OF GASES ..................................................... 474 6.6 TEMPERATURE AND FREQUENCY ..................................................................... 474 6.7 THERMOCHROMISM ...................................................................................... 475 6.8 SEGER CONE ................................................................................................. 476 6.9 NON-CONTACT OPTICAL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT .................................... 477 6.9.1 RADIATION THERMOMETER (PYROMETER) ........................................ 477 6.9.2 FIBER OPTIC APPLICATIONS ............................................................ 479 6.9.2.1 INTRINSIC SENSORS, DTS (DISTRIBUTED TEMPERATURE SENSING) ..................................................................... 479 6.9.2.2 EXTRINSIC SENSORS ...................................................... 481 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 483 7 ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC MEASURED VARIABLES ............................................... 485 GERT SCHONFELDER AND ANDREAS WILDE 7.1 VOLTAGE ....................................................................................................... 485 7.1.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 485 7.1.1.1 AC VOLTAGE ................................................................ 486 7.1.1.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES ................................................. 487 7.1.1.3 CONVERSION INTO AN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD .............. 488 7.1.1.4 CONVERSION TO HEAT ................................................... 488 XVIII CONTENTS 7.1.1.5 CONVERSION INTO A CURRENT ........................................ 488 7.1.1.6 MEASUREMENT BY COMPARISON WITH A STANDARD . . . 488 7.1.2 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS ............................................................ 490 7.1.2.1 MEASUREMENT BY ENERGY EXTRACTION ........................ 490 7.1.2.2 MEASUREMENT THROUGH INTEGRATION .......................... 491 7.1.2.3 MEASUREMENT BY COMPARISON .................................. 492 7.1.2.4 SERVO CONVERTER ......................................................... 492 7.1.2.5 THE SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION ............................... 492 7.1.2.6 MEASUREMENT OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGES .................... 494 7.2 AMPERAGE ................................................................................................... 495 7.2.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 495 7.2.1.1 MEASURING PRINCIPLES ................................................. 495 7.2.1.2 CURRENT FLOW THROUGH A RESISTOR ............................ 495 7.2.1.3 THERMAL EFFECT OF CURRENT FLOW .............................. 496 7.2.1.4 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT FLOW ...................... 496 7.2.2 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................... 496 7.3 ELECTRICAL CHARGE AND CAPACITY ................................................................ 498 7.3.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 498 7.3.1.1 MEASURING PRINCIPLE CHARGE ..................................... 500 7.3.1.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLE CAPACITY ................................. 501 7.3.2 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................... 503 7.3.2.1 CAPACITY MEASUREMENT THROUGH CHARGE SHARING ....................................................................... 503 7.3.2.2 CAPACITY MEASUREMENT BY RC GENERATORS ............. 503 7.3.2.3 COMPLEX COMPONENTS FOR CAPACITANCE DETERMINATION ............................................................ 503 7.4 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY AND SPECIFIC ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE ................... 504 7.4.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 504 7.4.1.1 MEASURING PRINCIPLES FOR RESISTANCE ....................... 506 7.4.2 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................... 506 7.4.2.1 DETERMINATION OF CURRENT AND VOLTAGE AT THE MEASURED OBJECT ....................................................... 506 7.4.2.2 RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT THROUGH COMPENSATION ........................................................... 508 7.4.2.3 AC VOLTAGE RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT .................... 509 7.5 ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH ............................................................................... 509 7.5.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 509 7.5.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES FOR THE ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH ............... 510 7.6 ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER .................................................................... 511 7.6.1 DEFINITIONS ................................................................................... 511 7.6.1.1 PRACTICAL CASE ACCUMULATOR ..................................... 512 CONTENTS XIX 7.6.2 FORMS OF POWER .......................................................................... 512 7.6.2.1 POWER IN DC CIRCUIT ................................................ 512 7.6.2.2 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT ................................................. 513 7.6.3 MEASURING PRINCIPLES .................................................................. 515 7.6.3.1 ELECTROMECHANICAL .................................................... 515 7.6.3.2 WITH ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS ...................................... 515 7.6.3.3 WITH DIGITAL ELECTRONICS .......................................... 516 7.6.3.4 WITH STATISTICAL METHODS ......................................... 517 7.7 INDUCTANCE .................................................................................................. 517 7.7.1 DEFINITION .................................................................................... 517 7.7.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES ................................................................. 519 7.8 MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH ........................................................................... 520 7.8.1 DEFINITION .................................................................................... 520 7.8.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETIC QUANTITIES ......................... 521 7.8.2.1 HALL SENSOR ................................................................ 521 7.8.2.2 GMR SENSOR .............................................................. 521 7.8.2.3 FIELD PLATE .................................................................. 521 7.8.2.4 SQUID ....................................................................... 521 7.8.3 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................... 522 7.8.3.1 HALL SWITCH ................................................................ 522 7.8.3.2 HALL SENSORS ............................................................... 522 7.8.3.3 ANGLE SENSORS ............................................................ 522 7.8.3.4 CURRENT SENSORS ......................................................... 522 7.8.4 MULTIDIMENSIONAL MEASUREMENTS WITH THE HALL EFFECT ............. 523 7.8.4.1 BASICS ......................................................................... 523 7.8.4.2 APPLICATIONS ............................................................... 524 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 525 8 RADIO AND PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES ................................................................... 527 EKBERT HERING AND GERT SCHONFELDER 8.1 RADIOMETRY ................................................................................................ 527 8.1.1 RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES .............................................................. 527 8.1.1.1 ENERGY DENSITY ........................................................... 527 8.1.1.2 RADIANT POWER O E ...................................................... 528 8.1.1.3 SOLID ANGLE Q ............................................................. 528 8.1.1.4 RADIANT INTENSITY LE .................................................... 529 8.1.1.5 RADIANCE L E ............................................................... 530 8.1.2 MEASUREMENT OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION ............................ 531 8.2 PHOTOMETRY ................................................................................................. 531 8.2.1 PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES ............................................................... 532 8.2.1.1 LUMINOUS FLUX Z V ..................................................... 532 8.2.1.2 LIGHT QUANTITY Q V ..................................................... 534 XX CONTENTS 8.2.1.3 LUMINOUS INTENSITY 7 V ................................................ 534 8.2.1.4 LUMINANCE L V ............................................................. 534 8.2.1.5 ILLUMINANCE E Y ........................................................... 535 8.2.1.6 SPECIFIC LIGHT EMISSION M, ..................................... 535 8.2.1.7 LUMINOUS EFFICACY T] ................................................ 535 8.2.2 MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES ................................... 535 8.3 APPLICATION OF BRIGHTNESS SENSORS ........................................................... 537 8.4 COLOUR ......................................................................................................... 540 8.4.1 COLOUR PERCEPTION ....................................................................... 540 8.4.2 COLOUR MODELS ............................................................................. 543 8.4.2.1 OTHER COLOR SPACES .................................................... 544 8.4.3 COLOR SYSTEMS ............................................................................. 544 8.4.4 COLOUR FILTERS FOR SENSORS .......................................................... 545 8.4.4.1 BAYER PATTERN .............................................................. 545 8.4.4.2 COLOR CORRECTION ....................................................... 546 8.4.4.3 WHITE BALANCE ........................................................... 546 8.4.5 COLOUR SENSORS ............................................................................ 547 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 548 9 ACOUSTIC MEASURED VARIABLES ............................................................................ 549 EKBERT HERING 9.1 DEFINITION OF IMPORTANT ACOUSTIC QUANTITIES ........................................... 549 9.2 HUMAN PERCEPTION ..................................................................................... 551 9.2.1 LEVEL ............................................................................................. 551 9.2.2 VOLUME ......................................................................................... 553 9.2.3 LOUDNESS ...................................................................................... 554 9.3 TRANSDUCER .................................................................................................. 555 9.4 FIELDS OF APPLICATION ................................................................................. 557 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 560 10 CLIMATIC AND METEOROLOGICAL MEASURED VARIABLES ......................................... 561 GERT SCHONFELDER, ROBERT KRAH, GERD STEPHAN, AND ROLAND WEMECKE 10.1 MOISTURE IN GASES ...................................................................................... 561 10.1.1 DEFINITIONS AND EQUATIONS .......................................................... 561 10.1.1.1 HUMIDITY .................................................................... 561 10.1.1.2 WATER VAPOUR PARTIAL PRESSURE ................................ 561 10.1.1.3 ABSOLUTE AND SPECIFIC HUMIDITY ............................. 562 10.1.1.4 SATURATION HUMIDITY ................................................. 562 10.1.1.5 RELATIVE HUMIDITY P ................................................. 562 10.1.1.6 DEWPOINT .................................................................. 563 10.1.1.7 ENTHALPY ..................................................................... 564 10.1.1.8 MOLLIER DIAGRAM (H-X DIAGRAM) .............................. 564 CONTENTS XXI 10.1.2 HUMIDITY MEASUREMENTS IN GASES ............................................ 566 10.1.2.1 PSYCHROMETERS, DESIGN AND FUNCTION ..................... 566 10.1.2.2 DESIGN TYPES AND AREAS OF APPLICATION ................ 568 10.1.2.3 ASPIRATION PSYCHROMETER ......................................... 568 10.1.2.4 SLINGSHOT PSYCHROMETER ........................................... 568 10.1.2.5 DEW POINT MIRROR ..................................................... 569 10.1.2.6 CAPACITIVE HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT ........................ 572 10.1.2.7 INTEGRATED CAPACITIVE HUMIDITY SENSORS WITH BUS OUTPUT ....................................................... 574 10.2 MOISTURE ANALYSIS IN SOLID AND LIQUID SUBSTANCES ............................... 574 10.2.1 DIRECT METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MATERIAL MOISTURE ...................................................................................... 576 10.2.1.1 PERCENTAGE WATER CONTENT OF A MATERIAL SAMPLE . . 576 10.2.1.2 WATER ACTIVITY OF A MATERIAL SAMPLE ...................... 577 10.2.1.3 KARL FISCHER TITRATION ............................................... 577 10.2.1.4 CALCIUM CARBIDE METHOD ........................................ 579 10.2.1.5 CALCIUM HYDRIDE METHOD ........................................ 579 10.2.2 INDIRECT MEASURING METHODS FOR DETERMINING THE MOISTURE CONTENT OF MATERIALS .................................................................. 579 10.2.2.1 MEASUREMENT OF THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES .............. 579 10.2.2.2 DETECTION OF THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER AND WATER VAPOUR .................................................... 580 10.2.2.3 MEASUREMENT OF THE SUCTION PRESSURE IN MOIST MATERIALS (TENSIOMETRY) .......................................... 582 10.2.2.4 MEASUREMENT OF ATOMIC PROPERTIES ........................ 582 10.2.2.5 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE (NMR) METHOD . . . 583 10.2.2.6 MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY ................. 584 10.3 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION IN OUTDOOR CLIMATE ................................ 585 10.3.1 MEASUREMENT OF THE RELATIVE AIR HUMIDITY ............................. 585 10.3.2 PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT ........................................................ 585 10.3.3 CONDENSATION MEASUREMENT ...................................................... 586 10.4 HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT IN CLOSED ROOMS .............................................. 587 10.4.1 MEASUREMENT OF THE CLIMATE IN HOMES AND AT WORKPLACES ...................................................................... 587 10.4.2 CLIMATE IN MUSEUMS AND EXHIBITION ROOMS ........................... 588 10.4.3 CLIMATE IN ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS ............................................. 591 10.4.4 INFLUENCING THE INDOOR CLIMATE ................................................. 591 10.4.4.1 AIR HUMIDIFICATION ................................................... 591 10.4.4.2 EVAPORATOR ................................................................. 591 10.4.4.3 STEAM HUMIDIFIER ..................................................... 592 10.4.4.4 NEBULIZER ................................................................... 592 XXII CONTENTS 10.4.4.5 DEHUMIDIFYING ROOMS ............................................. 593 10.4.4.6 CONDENSATION DEHUMIDIFICATION .............................. 593 10.4.4.7 ADSORPTION DEHUMIDIFIER ......................................... 593 10.4.4.8 ABSORPTION DEHUMIDIFIER ......................................... 593 10.5 AIR PRESSURE ................................................................................................ 593 10.5.1 FIELDS OF APPLICATION .................................................................. 593 10.5.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES .................................................................. 594 10.5.3 DEFINITIONS ................................................................................... 594 10.6 WIND AND AIR FLOW .................................................................................... 595 10.6.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 595 10.6.2 METHODS FOR WIND MEASUREMENT .............................................. 595 10.7 WATER FLOW ................................................................................................. 600 10.7.1 DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 600 10.7.2 DIRECT AND INDIRECT FLOW MEASUREMENT .................................... 601 10.7.2.1 ULTRASONIC MEASUREMENT .......................................... 601 10.7.2.2 TERM PRINCIPLE ........................................................... 601 10.7.2.3 DOPPLER PRINCIPLE ...................................................... 603 10.7.2.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC MEASURING METHOD ....................... 604 10.7.2.5 HYDROMETRIC MEASURING BLADE ................................ 604 10.7.2.6 MEASUREMENT WITH MARKERS (TRACERS) ..................... 605 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 605 11 SELECTED CHEMICAL PARAMETERS .......................................................................... 607 WINFRIED VONAU 11.1 REDOX POTENTIAL .......................................................................................... 607 11.1.1 GENERAL ......................................................................................... 607 11.1.2 PRECIOUS METAL REDOX ELECTRODES ............................................. 610 11.1.3 REDOX GLASS ELECTRODES .............................................................. 611 11.1.4 REFERENCE ELECTRODES .................................................................. 613 11.2 IONS INCLUDING HYDRONIUM IONS ................................................................ 617 11.2.1 GENERAL INFORMATION .................................................................... 617 11.2.2 PH MEASUREMENT ........................................................................ 618 11.2.3 OTHER IONS .................................................................................... 623 11.3 GASES ........................................................................................................... 627 11.3.1 GENERAL INFORMATION .................................................................... 627 11.3.2 GASES IN A PHYSICALLY DISSOLVED STATE OR AT NORMAL TEMPERATURE ................................................................................. 628 11.3.2.1 SOLID ELECTROLYTE SENSORS ......................................... 630 11.3.3 SEMICONDUCTOR GAS SENSORS: METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR SENSORS (MOS) ............................................................................ 641 11.3.3.1 SURFACE CONDUCTIVITY ................................................ 641 11.3.3.2 VOLUME CONDUCTIVITY ............................................... 642 11.3.4 PELLISTORS ....................................................................................... 643 CONTENTS XXIII 11.4 ELECTROLYTIC CONDUCTIVITY .......................................................................... 644 11.4.1 GENERAL INFORMATION ................................................................... 644 11.4.2 KOHLRAUSCH MEASURING CELLS ..................................................... 644 11.4.3 MULTI-ELECTRODE MEASURING CELLS .............................................. 645 11.4.4 ELECTRODELESS CONDUCTIVITY MEASURING CELLS ........................... 646 11.4.5 EXAMPLES FOR THE APPLICATION OF CONDUCTIVITY SENSORS ......... 647 12 BIOLOGICAL AND MEDICAL SENSORS ........................................................................ 651 ELFRIEDE SIMON 12.1 BIOLOGICAL SENSOR TECHNOLOGY ................................................................. 651 12.1.1 BIOSENSOR TECHNOLOGY ............................................................... 651 12.1.2 REAL BIOLOGICAL SENSORS ............................................................. 653 12.2 FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLES OF BIOSENSORS ........................................................ 655 12.2.1 CALORIMETRIC SENSORS .................................................................. 655 12.2.2 MICROGRAVIMETRIC SENSORS .......................................................... 657 12.2.3 OPTICAL SENSORS ........................................................................... 658 12.2.4 ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSORS ............................................................ 660 12.2.5 IMMOBILIZATION METHODS ............................................................ 663 12.3 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SENSORS IN MEDICINE .......................................... 664 12.3.1 PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL BLOOD ANALYSES .......................................... 665 12.3.2 CLINICAL-CHEMICAL BLOOD ANALYSES ........................................... 668 12.4 ENZYMATIC METHODS: ENZYME SENSORS .................................................... 669 12.4.1 ENZYME-BASED ANALYTE DETECTION ............................................ 672 12.4.2 DETERMINATION OF ENZYME ACTIVITY ........................................... 673 12.4.3 APPLICATION FIELDS OF ENZYMATIC TESTS .................................... 674 12.5 IMMUNOLOGICAL METHODS: IMMUNOSENSORS .............................................. 675 12.5.1 DIRECT IMMUNOSENSORS ............................................................... 679 12.5.2 INDIRECT IMMUNOSENSORS ............................................................. 679 12.5.3 APPLICATION FIELDS OF IMMUNOSENSORS ...................................... 681 12.6 DNA-BASED SENSORS ................................................................................. 681 12.6.1 HYBRIDIZATION DIAGNOSTICS ......................................................... 682 12.6.2 APPLICATION AND USE OF DNA SENSORS ..................................... 684 12.7 CELL-BASED SENSOR TECHNOLOGY ................................................................ 686 12.7.1 METABOLIC CELL CHIP ................................................................... 687 12.7.2 NEURO-CHIP .................................................................................. 687 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 689 13 MEASURED QUANTITIES FOR IONIZING RADIATION ................................................. 691 HARTMUT BARWOLFF 13.1 INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL QUANTITIES ....................................................... 691 13.2 INTERACTION OF IONISING RADIATION WITH MATTER ........................................ 696 XXIV CONTENTS 13.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS ........................................................................... 700 13.4 GAS-FILLED RADIATION SENSORS ................................................................... 703 13.5 RADIATION SENSORS ACCORDING TO THE EXCITATION PRINCIPLE ...................... 708 13.6 SEMICONDUCTOR SENSORS ............................................................................. 710 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 720 14 PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS .......................................................................................... 721 GERT SCHONFELDER AND MARTIN LIESS 14.1 RADIATION ..................................................................................................... 721 14.2 SCINTILLATORS ................................................................................................. 722 14.3 OUTER PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ......................................................................... 723 14.3.1 PHOTOMULTIPLIER ............................................................................ 723 14.3.2 CHANNEL PHOTOMULTIPLIER ............................................................ 724 14.3.3 IMAGE PICKUP TUBES ................................................................... 725 14.4 INTERNAL PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ..................................................................... 726 14.4.1 PHOTOCONDUCTOR ........................................................................... 726 14.4.2 PHOTODIODES ................................................................................. 728 14.4.3 PHOTOTRANSISTOR, PHOTOTHYRISTOR AND PHOTO-FET ....................... 731 14.4.4 CMOS IMAGE SENSORS ................................................................ 732 14.4.5 HIGH DYNAMIC CMOS IMAGE SENSORS ...................................... 732 14.5 CCD SENSORS .............................................................................................. 734 14.5.1 LINE SENSORS ................................................................................ 735 14.5.2 CCD MATRIX SENSORS .................................................................. 735 14.6 QUANTUM WELL INFRARED PHOTODETECTOR QWIP .......................................... 736 14.7 THERMAL OPTICAL DETECTORS ........................................................................ 738 14.7.1 THERMAL PILES .............................................................................. 739 14.7.2 PYROELECTRIC DETECTORS ................................................................. 741 14.7.3 BOLOMETER .................................................................................... 742 15 SIGNAL PROCESSING AND CALIBRATION ................................................................... 745 GERT SCHONFELDER 15.1 SIGNAL PROCESSING ....................................................................................... 745 15.1.1 ANALOG (DISCRETE) SIGNAL CONDITIONING .................................... 746 15.1.2 SIGNAL CONDITIONING WITH SYSTEM CIRCUITS ............................... 746 15.1.3 SIGNAL CONDITIONING WITH ASICS ............................................... 746 15.1.4 SIGNAL CONDITIONING WITH MICROCONTROLLERS .............................. 748 15.2 SENSOR CALIBRATION ..................................................................................... 748 15.2.1 PASSIVE COMPENSATION ................................................................ 749 15.2.2 ADJUSTMENT WITH ANALOG SIGNAL PROCESSING ............................. 750 15.2.3 ADJUSTMENT WITH DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING ............................. 751 15.3 ENERGY MANAGEMENT FOR SENSORS ............................................................. 753 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 755 CONTENTS XXV 16 INTERFACE ................................................................................................................ 757 GERT SCHONFELDER 16.1 ANALOGUE INTERFACES .................................................................................. 757 16.1.1 VOLTAGE OUTPUT ........................................................................... 758 16.1.2 RATIOMETRIC VOLTAGE OUTPUT ...................................................... 759 16.1.3 CURRENT OUTPUT ............................................................................ 759 16.1.4 FREQUENCY OUTPUT AND PULSE WIDTH MODULATION ...................... 760 16.1.5 4-/6-WIRE INTERFACE ..................................................................... 762 16.2 DIGITAL INTERFACES ....................................................................................... 762 16.2.1 CAN GROUP ................................................................................. 765 16.2.2 LON ............................................................................................. 767 16.2.3 HART .......................................................................................... 767 16.2.4 RS485 .......................................................................................... 768 16.2.5 LO-LINK ........................................................................................ 768 16.2.6 PROFIBUS ....................................................................................... 770 16.2.7 I2C ............................................................................................... 771 16.2.8 SPI ............................................................................................... 772 16.2.9 IEEE 1451 ................................................................................... 773 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 776 17 SAFETY ASPECTS FOR SENSORS ................................................................................ 777 GERT SCHONFELDER AND SORIN FERICEAN 17.1 FEATURES FOR FUNCTION MONITORING ............................................................ 777 17.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC) ................................................... 782 17.3 FUNCTIONAL SAFETY (SIL) ............................................................................ 785 17.4 SENSORS IN EXPLOSIVE ENVIRONMENTS (ATEX) ......................................... 787 17.4.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ATEX ......................................................... 788 17.4.2 IGNITION PROTECTION TYPE INTRINSIC SAFETY ................................. 789 17.4.3 TYPE OF PROTECTION FLAMEPROOF ENCLOSURE ............................... 791 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 791 18 MEASUREMENT ERRORS, MEASUREMENT ACCURACY AND MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS ........................................................................................................... 793 GERT SCHONFELDER 18.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS ACCORDING TO THEIR CAUSE . . . . 793 18.2 DISPLAY OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS ............................................................... 795 18.2.1 ARITHMETIC MEAN, ERROR SUM AND STANDARD DEVIATION ........... 795 18.2.2 ABSOLUTE ERROR ............................................................................ 796 18.2.3 RELATIVE ERROR ............................................................................. 796 18.3 MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS .......................................................................... 799 18.3.1 SCATTERING OF MEASURED VALUES ................................................. 800 18.3.2 RESOLUTION OF MEASURED VALUES ................................................ 801 18.3.3 SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO AND DYNAMICS OF MEASURED VALUES . . 801 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 802 INDEX .............................................................................................................................. 803
adam_txt	1 SENSOR SYSTEMS . 1 EKBERT HERING 1.1 DEFINITION AND MODE OF OPERATION . 1 1.2 CLASSIFICATION . 2 2 PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF SENSOR USE . 5 EKBERT HERING, KARL-ERNST BIEL, ULRICH GUTH, MARTIN LIESS, AND WINFRIED VONAU 2.1 PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT . 5 2.1.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 5 2.1.2 MATERIALS . 7 2.1.3 APPLICATIONS . 8 2.2 RESISTIVE AND PIEZORESISTIVE EFFECT . 9 2.2.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLES AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 9 2.2.2 RESISTIVE EFFECT AND ITS APPLICATION BY MEANS OF SGS . 11 2.2.3 PIEZORESISTIVE EFFECT AND ITS APPLICATION BY SILICON SEMICONDUCTOR ELEMENTS . 13 2.2.4 MATERIALS . 13 2.3 MAGNETORESISTIVE EFFECT . 15 2.3.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 15 2.3.1.1 AMR (ANISOTROPIC MAGNETO RESISTANCE) . 16 2.3.1.2 GMR (GIANT MAGNETO RESISTANCE) . 18 2.3.1.3 CMR (COLOSSAL MAGNETO RESISTANCE) . 19 2.3.1.4 TMR (TUNNEL MAGNETO RESISTANCE) . 19 2.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF XMR TECHNOLOGY . 19 2.3.3 APPLICATIONS OF XMR TECHNOLOGY . 22 2.4 MAGNETOSTRICTIVE EFFECT . 25 2.4.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 25 2.4.2 ADVANTAGES OF MAGNETOSTRICTIVE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY . 26 2.4.3 APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETOSTRICTIVE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY . 27 VII VIII CONTENTS 2.5 EFFECTS OF INDUCTION . 28 2.5.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 28 2.5.1.1 LAW OF INDUCTION . 28 2.5.1.2 GENERATION OF EDDY CURRENTS IN ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE MATERIALS . 33 2.5.1.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATING CIRCUITS . 33 2.5.2 ADVANTAGES OF INDUCTIVE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY . 34 2.5.3 APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTIVE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY . 35 2.6 EFFECTS OF CAPACITANCE . 35 2.6.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 35 2.6.1.1 CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE . 36 2.6.1.2 CAPACITANCE IN THE ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUIT . . 41 2.6.2 ADVANTAGES OF CAPACITIVE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY . 46 2.6.3 APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITIVE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY . 47 2.7 GAUSSIAN EFFECT . 48 2.7.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 48 2.7.2 APPLICATION OF THE GAUSSIAN EFFECT . 50 2.8 HALL EFFECT . 52 2.8.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 52 2.8.2 APPLICATION OF THE HALL EFFECT . 54 2.9 EDDY CURRENT EFFECT . 55 2.9.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 55 2.9.2 APPLICATION OF THE EDDY CURRENT EFFECT . 56 2.10 THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT . 63 2.11 THERMORESISTANCE EFFECT . 68 2.11.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 68 2.11.1.1 THERMAL RESPONSE TIMES . 69 2.11.1.2 SELF-HEATING AND MEASURING CURRENT . 70 2.11.2 ADVANTAGES OF SENSOR TECHNOLOGY WITH THE THERMORESISTANCE EFFECT . 71 2.11.3 FIELDS OF APPLICATION . 71 2.12 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS IN SEMICONDUCTORS . 72 2.12.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 72 2.12.2 PTC THERMISTORS (PTC RESISTORS) . 73 2.12.2.1 PHYSICAL CONTEXT . 74 2.12.2.2 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATION AREAS . 75 2.12.3 THERMISTORS (NTC RESISTORS) . 76 2.12.3.1 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATION AREAS . 77 2.13 PYROELECTRIC EFFECT . 79 2.13.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 79 2.13.2 MATERIALS . 80 CONTENTS IX 2.13.3 APPLICATIONS . 81 2.14 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT . 84 2.14.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLES AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 84 2.14.1.1 OUTER PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT . 85 2.14.1.2 INNER PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: PHOTOCONDUCTOR . 87 2.14.1.3 INTERNAL PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: OPTOCOUPLER . 88 2.14.1.4 INTERNAL PHOTO EFFECT: PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT . 88 2.14.1.5 PHOTOIONIZATION . 88 2.14.2 PHOTOELECTRIC SENSOR ELEMENTS . 90 2.14.3 PHOTOELECTRIC SENSOR ELEMENTS . 90 2.14.3.1 PHOTOMULTIPLIER . 90 2.14.3.2 OPTOCOUPLER . 91 2.14.3.3 LIGHT BARRIERS . 93 2.14.3.4 PHOTOELECTRIC SWITCHES . 95 2.14.3.5 LIGHT CURTAIN . 96 2.14.3.6 LIGHT MEASUREMENT . 96 2.14.3.7 COLOUR RECOGNITION . 97 2.15 ELECTRO-OPTICAL EFFECT . 98 2.15.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 98 2.15.2 MATERIALS . 100 2.15.3 APPLICATIONS . 100 2.16 ELECTROCHEMICAL EFFECTS . 103 2.16.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND CLASSIFICATION . 103 2.16.2 POTENTIOMETRIC SENSORS . 104 2.16.3 AMPEROMETRIC SENSORS . 108 2.16.4 CONDUCTOMETRIC AND IMPEDIMETRIC SENSORS . 109 2.16.5 AREAS OF APPLICATION . 110 2.17 CHEMICAL EFFECTS . 110 2.17.1 PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS OF GASES WITH SURFACES . 110 2.17.2 GAS SOLUBILITY (ABSORPTION) . 112 2.17.3 GAS TRANSPORT TO THE SOLID SURFACE . 116 2.17.4 ADSORPTION AND CHEMISORPTION . 117 2.17.5 REACTIONS WITH ADSORBED SPECIES . 118 2.17.6 REACTION OF THE GAS WITH THE SOLID . 118 2.17.7 THE MIXED-PHASE DISORDER . 121 2.18 ACOUSTIC EFFECTS . 123 2.18.1 DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOUND . 123 2.18.2 CHARACTERIZATION OF ACOUSTIC WAVES . 123 2.18.3 SOUND VELOCITY IN IDEAL GASES . 124 2.18.3.1 DEPENDENCE ON TEMPERATURE . 124 2.18.3.2 DEPENDENCE ON THE RELATIVE AIR HUMIDITY . 125 X CONTENTS 2.18.3.3 DEPENDENCE ON PRESSURE . 125 2.18.4 INTENSITY OR SOUND INTENSITY . 125 2.18.5 SOUND ABSORPTION IN AIR . 126 2.18.6 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION . 127 2.19 OPTICAL EFFECTS . 128 2.19.1 PHYSICAL EFFECTS . 128 2.19.2 DESIGN OF OPTICAL SENSORS . 133 2.19.3 CATEGORIES OF OPTICAL SENSORS . 135 2.19.4 APPLICATION FIELDS OF OPTICAL SENSORS . 136 2.20 DOPPLER EFFECT . 137 2.20.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION . 137 2.20.1.1 OBSERVER MOVES, SOURCE RESTS . 137 2.20.1.2 SOURCE MOVES, OBSERVER RESTS . 138 2.20.1.3 OBSERVER AND SOURCE MOVE . 138 2.20.1.4 DOPPLER EFFECT OF LIGHT (DOPPLER EFFECT WITHOUT MEDIUM) . 139 2.20.2 APPLICATION AREAS . 140 2.20.2.1 ASTRONOMY . 140 2.20.2.2 GEODESY (LAND SURVEYING) . 141 2.20.2.3 NAVIGATION . 141 2.20.2.4 VIBRATION ANALYSIS . 142 2.20.2.5 SPEED MEASUREMENT . 142 2.20.2.6 DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS . 142 2.20.2.7 MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY . 142 2.20.2.8 ACOUSTICS . 142 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 143 3 GEOMETRIC QUANTITIES . 147 EKBERT HERING, GERT SCHONFELDER, STEFAN BASLER, KARL-ERNST BIEHL, THOMAS BURKHARDT, THOMAS ENGEL, ALBERT FEINAUGLE, SORIN FERICEAN, ALEXANDER FORKL, CARSTEN GIEBELER, BERNHARD HAHN, ERNST HALDER, CHRISTOPHER HERFORT, STEFAN HUBRICH, JURGEN REICHENBACH, MICHAEL ROBEL, AND STEFAN SESTER 3.1 DISPLACEMENT AND DISTANCE SENSORS . 148 3.1.1 INDUCTIVE DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT SENSORS . 148 3.1.1.1 FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLE AND MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF INDUCTIVE SENSORS . 148 3.1.1.2 NON-CONTACT INDUCTIVE DISTANCE SENSORS (INS) . . . 152 3.1.1.3 NON-CONTACT INDUCTIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSORS (IWS) . 160 3.1.1.4 DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS WITH SLIDING CORE (LVDT) . 163 CONTENTS XI 3.1.1.5 PULSED INDUCTIVE LINEAR POSITION SENSOR (MICROPULSE BIW) . 168 3.1.1.6 SIGNAL PROCESSING BY PHASE MEASUREMENT (SAGENTIA) . 173 3.1.1.7 PLCD DISPLACEMENT SENSORS (PERMANENT LINEAR CONTACTLESS DISPLACEMENT SENSOR) . 178 3.1.1.8 NON-CONTACT MAGNETOINDUCTIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSORS (SMARTSENS-BIL) . 184 3.1.2 OPTOELECTRONIC DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT SENSORS . 193 3.1.2.1 OVERVIEW . 193 3.1.2.2 OPTOELECTRONIC COMPONENTS . 195 3.1.2.3 OPTICAL PRINCIPLES OF DISTANCE SENSORS . 200 3.1.2.4 MEASURING PRINCIPLE: TRIANGULATION . 204 3.1.2.5 MEASURING PRINCIPLE: PULSE DELAY METHOD . 206 3.1.2.6 MEASURING PRINCIPLE: PHASE OR FREQUENCY DELAY METHOD . 208 3.1.2.7 MEASURING PRINCIPLE: PHOTOELECTRIC SCANNING . . 211 3.1.2.8 MEASURING PRINCIPLE: INTERFEROMETRIC LENGTH MEASUREMENT . 212 3.1.3 ULTRASONIC SENSORS FOR DISTANCE MEASUREMENT AND OBJECT DETECTION . 213 3.1.3.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN TOUCH OPERATION WITH ECHO RUNTIME MEASUREMENT . . 213 3.1.3.2 DESIGN OF THE ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER . 215 3.1.3.3 DETECTION RANGE OF AN ULTRASONIC SENSOR . 217 3.1.3.4 DEFLECTION OF THE ULTRASOUND . 219 3.1.3.5 OBJECT AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES . 219 3.1.3.6 APPLICATIONS . 220 3.1.4 POTENTIOMETRIC DISPLACEMENT AND ANGLE SENSORS . 222 3.1.4.1 INTRODUCTION . 222 3.1.4.2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF POTENTIOMETRIC SENSORS . 225 3.1.4.3 TECHNOLOGY AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES . 228 3.1.4.4 PRODUCTS AND APPLICATIONS . 233 3.1.5 MAGNETOSTRICTIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSORS . 234 3.1.5.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE AND DESIGN OF MAGNETOSTRICTIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSORS . 236 3.1.5.2 HOUSING CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS . 239 3.1.6 DISPLACEMENT SENSORS WITH MAGNETICALLY CODED MEASURING STANDARD . 244 3.1.6.1 MEASURING PRINCIPLE . 244 XII CONTENTS 3.1.6.2 DESIGN AND FUNCTION OF INCREMENTAL AND ABSOLUTE MEASURING SYSTEMS . 248 3.1.6.3 CHARACTERISTIC VALUES . 251 3.1.6.4 SENSOR TYPES IN COMPARISON . 254 3.1.6.5 APPLICATION EXAMPLES . 255 3.2 SENSORS FOR ANGLE AND ROTATION . 257 3.2.1 OPTICAL ENCODERS . 267 3.2.1.1 PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES . 267 3.2.1.2 DESIGN OF OPTICAL ENCODERS . 270 3.2.1.3 SPECIAL FEATURES OF OPTICAL ENCODERS . 274 3.2.2 MAGNETICALLY ENCODED ROTARY ENCODER . 275 3.2.2.1 APPLICATIONS . 279 3.2.3 ROTATION-COUNTING ANGLE SENSORS . 281 3.2.3.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF ROTATION-COUNTING ANGLE SENSORS . 281 3.2.3.2 GEARBOX-BASED REVOLUTION-COUNTING METHODS . . 282 3.2.3.3 ROTATION-COUNTING METHOD ON INDUCTIVE BASIS . . . 284 3.2.3.4 BATTERY BUFFERING OF THE ROTATION INFORMATION . . . 286 3.2.3.5 NOVEL GMR SYSTEM FOR DETECTION AND STORAGE OF ROTATION INFORMATION . 287 3.2.4 CAPACITIVE ENCODERS . 292 3.2.5 VARIABLE TRANSFORMERS, RESOLVERS . 295 3.2.5.1 GENERAL OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF THE VT . 295 3.2.5.2 SIGNIFICANT VARIANTS OF VT . 298 3.2.5.3 RESOLVER, A REPRESENTATIVE VARIANT OF VT . 298 3.2.6 IVPP OR SIN/COS INTERFACE . 304 3.2.7 INCREMENTAL ENCODERS . 307 3.2.7.1 SUMMARY OF THE PROPERTIES OF INCREMENTAL INTERFACES . 308 3.3 INCLINATION . 308 3.3.1 MAGNETORESISTIVE INCLINATION SENSORS . 310 3.3.2 COMPASS SENSORS . 311 3.3.3 ELECTROLYTIC SENSORS . 311 3.3.4 PIEZORESISTIVE INCLINATION SENSORS/DMS BENDING BEAM SENSORS . 313 3.3.5 MEMS . 314 3.3.6 SERVO-INCLINOMETER . 315 3.3.7 OVERVIEW AND SELECTION OF INCLINATION SENSORS . 316 3.4 SENSORS FOR OBJECT DETECTION . 316 CONTENTS XIII 3.4.1 PROXIMITY SWITCH . 316 3.4.1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE NS, DETECTION TYPE AND MODE OF OPERATION OF THE NS . 319 3.4.1.2 MAIN FEATURES OF THE NS . 321 3.4.1.3 SWITCHING DISTANCES . 321 3.4.1.4 HYSTERESIS . 323 3.4.1.5 SWITCHING ELEMENT FUNCTION . 323 3.4.1.6 OUTPUT TYPE . 324 3.4.1.7 DESIGN AND SIZE . 324 3.4.1.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NS . 325 3.4.1.9 SPECIAL DESIGNS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS . 326 3.4.1.10 NS WITH SEVERAL SWITCHING OUTPUTS . 326 3.4.1.11 NS WITH DIAGNOSTIC INFORMATION . 328 3.4.1.12 APPLICATIONS OF THE NS . 328 3.4.2 OBJECT DETECTION AND DISTANCE MEASUREMENT WITH ULTRASOUND . 330 3.4.2.1 SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR . 330 3.4.3 OBJECT DETECTION WITH RADAR . 331 3.4.3.1 IMPULSE RADAR . 331 3.4.3.2 CW RADAR . 333 3.4.3.3 APPLICATION . 334 3.4.4 PYROELECTRIC SENSORS FOR MOTION AND PRESENCE DETECTION . . . 334 3.4.4.1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF SPUTTERED PZT FILMS . 334 3.4.4.2 EFFECT ON ELECTRONICS . 335 3.4.5 OBJECT DETECTION WITH LASER SCANNER . 337 3.4.5.1 APPLICATION . 337 3.4.6 SENSORS FOR AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION (AUTO-IDENT) . 337 3.4.6.1 OVERVIEW . 337 3.4.6.2 BARCODE SCANNER . 339 3.4.6.3 AUTO-IDENT CAMERAS . 346 3.4.6.4 CONSTRUCTION OF AUTO-IDENT CAMERAS . 347 3.4.6.5 IMPORTANT FIELDS OF APPLICATION FOR AUTO-IDENT CAMERAS . 348 3.4.6.6 RFID SYSTEMS AND READERS . 348 3.5 THREE-DIMENSIONAL MEASURING METHODS (3D MEASUREMENT) . 356 3.5.1 PALPABLE 3D MEASUREMENT METHODS . 357 3.5.1.1 SWITCHING SENSOR . 357 3.5.1.2 2-PHASE SWITCHING SENSOR . 359 3.5.2 OPTICAL PROBING 3D MEASURING METHODS . 360 3.5.2.1 OPTICAL, SWITCHING SINGLE POINT SENSOR . 360 3.5.2.2 SCANNING SENSORS . 361 XIV CONTENTS 3.5.2.3 OTHER PROBE AND MEASURING SYSTEMS . 362 3.5.3 3D IMAGING MEASURING METHODS . 363 3.5.3.1 OPTICAL 3D MEASUREMENT (GRID AND LINE PROJECTION) . 363 3.5.3.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLE AND MEASURING ARRANGEMENT . 364 3.5.3.3 FRINGE PROJECTION . 365 3.5.3.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE PROCEDURE . 367 3.5.3.5 FIELDS OF APPLICATION . 367 3.5.4 OVERVIEW OF 3D MEASURING METHODS . 368 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 369 4 MECHANICAL MEASURED VARIABLES . 373 EKBERT HERING, GERT SCHONFELDER, AND STEFAN VINZELBERG 4.1 MASS . 373 4.1.1 DEFINITION . 373 4.1.2 APPLICATIONS . 374 4.2 FORCE . 376 4.2.1 DEFINITION . 376 4.2.1.1 WEIGHT FORCE F W . 376 4.2.1.2 CENTRIPETAL FORCE F CP . 376 4.2.1.3 ELASTIC FORCE OR SPRING FORCE F EL . 377 4.2.1.4 FRICTIONAL FORCE F F . 377 4.2.2 EFFECTS FOR THE APPLICATIONS . 377 4.2.2.1 PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT . 378 4.2.3 APPLICATION AREAS . 381 4.2.3.1 PROCESS CONTROL . 381 4.3 ELONGATION . 384 4.3.1 DEFINITION . 384 4.3.2 STRAIN MEASUREMENT . 385 4.3.2.1 BENDING BEAM . 387 4.3.2.2 FIBER BRAGG GRATING . 387 4.4 PRESSURE . 388 4.4.1 DEFINITION . 388 4.4.1.1 FIELDS OF APPLICATION . 389 4.4.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES . 389 4.4.2.1 MEASURING PRINCIPLES . 389 4.4.2.2 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE MEASUREMENT . 389 4.4.2.3 RELATIVE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT . 390 4.4.2.4 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT . 390 4.4.3 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS . 391 4.5 TORQUE . 395 CONTENTS XV 4.5.1 DEFINITION . 395 4.5.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES . 396 4.5.3 APPLICATION AREAS . 397 4.6 HARDNESS . 398 4.6.1 DEFINITION . 398 4.6.2 MACROSCOPIC HARDNESS DETERMINATION . 399 4.6.3 HARDNESS DETERMINATION BY NANOINDENTATION . 400 4.6.4 SENSORS FOR NANOHARDNESS MEASUREMENT . 401 4.6.5 MODEL AND EVALUATION . 401 4.6.6 APPLICATIONS . 403 5 TIME-BASED MEASUREMENTS . 405 GERT SCHONFELDER AND GERD STEPHAN 5.1 TIME . 405 5.1.1 DEFINITION . 405 5.1.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES . 405 5.2 FREQUENCY . 406 5.2.1 DEFINITION . 406 5.2.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES . 407 5.2.3 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS FOR FREQUENCY AND TIME MEASUREMENT . 407 5.2.4 MEASUREMENT ERROR OF TIME-DISCRETE MEASUREMENTS . 407 5.2.5 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS . 409 5.3 PULSE WIDTH . 412 5.3.1 DEFINITION . 412 5.3.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES . 412 5.3.3 ANALOGUE EVALUATION . 414 5.3.4 DIGITAL EVALUATION . 415 5.3.5 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS . 415 5.4 PHASE, RUNNING TIME, AND LIGHT RUNNING TIME . 415 5.4.1 DEFINITION . 415 5.4.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES . 416 5.4.3 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS . 417 5.4.4 LIGHT RUNNING TIME . 417 5.4.5 DIRECT TIME-OF-FLIGHT MEASUREMENT . 418 5.4.6 TRANSIT TIME MEASUREMENT THROUGH PULSE INTEGRATION . 419 5.4.7 TIME OF FLIGHT MEASUREMENT WITH MODULATED LIGHT . 421 5.5 VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF MEASURED VARIABLES . 422 5.5.1 MEASURING PRINCIPLE . 422 5.5.2 ANALOGUE OSCILLOGRAPHS . 423 5.5.3 DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPES (DSOS) . 424 5.5.4 MIXED SIGNAL OSCILLOSCOPES (MSOS) . 426 XVI CONTENTS 5.5.5 THE SAMPLING PRINCIPLE . 426 5.5.6 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS . 427 5.5.7 VOLTAGE AND PERIOD DURATION MEASUREMENT . 427 5.5.8 MEASUREMENT OF RISE TIMES . 428 5.5.9 MEASUREMENT OF PHASES . 428 5.5.10 MEASUREMENT OF PULSE DURATION AND PULSE RATIOS (PWM) . . 431 5.6 SPEED AND ANGLE OF ROTATION . 431 5.6.1 DEFINITION . 431 5.6.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES . 433 5.6.3 MEASUREMENT THROUGH EVENT RECORDING . 433 5.6.4 MEASUREMENT BY POSITION DETECTION . 433 5.6.5 SPEED DETERMINATION BY BEATING (STROBOSCOPE) . 433 5.6.6 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS . 434 5.6.6.1 MAGNETIC AND OPTICAL SCANNING . 434 5.6.7 DIGITAL OR AZB INTERFACE (INCREMENTAL ENCODER) . 434 5.7 SPEED . 436 5.7.1 DEFINITION . 436 5.7.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLE SPEED . 437 5.7.3 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS FOR SPEED MEASUREMENT . 437 5.8 ACCELERATION . 439 5.8.1 DEFINITION . 439 5.8.2 FIELDS OF APPLICATION . 440 5.8.3 MEASURING PRINCIPLE LINEAR ACCELERATION . 440 5.8.4 MEASURING PRINCIPLE ANGULAR ACCELERATION . 443 5.8.5 MEASURING ARRANGEMENT FOR MEASURING ACCELERATION . 445 5.9 FLOW RATE (MASS AND VOLUME) . 445 5.9.1 DEFINITION . 445 5.9.2 MASS . 445 5.9.3 VOLUME . 445 5.9.4 VOLUME FLOW . 446 5.9.5 MASS FLOW . 446 5.9.6 MAIN GROUPS . 446 5.9.7 MEASUREMENT METHODS AND APPLICATION . 446 5.9.8 BULK FLOW METER . 447 5.9.9 BAFFLE PLATE SCALES . 448 5.9.10 WEIGHFEEDERS . 448 5.9.11 BELT SCALES . 448 5.9.12 DIFFERENTIAL SCALES . 448 5.9.13 OPTICAL BELT WEIGHER . 449 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 450 CONTENTS XVII 6 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT . 451 EKBERT HERING, GERT SCHONFELDER, MARTIN LIESS, AND LOTHAR MICHALOWSKI 6.1 TEMPERATURE AS PHYSICAL STATE VARIABLE . 451 6.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES AND MEASURING RANGES . 453 6.3 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE . 453 6.3.1 METALS . 453 6.3.2 METALS WITH DEFINED ADDITIVES (ALLOYS) OR LATTICE DEFECTS . 458 6.3.3 ION CONDUCTING MATERIALS FOR HIGH TEMPERATURES . 459 6.3.4 THERMISTORS . 460 6.3.5 CONSTRICTION RESISTOR TEMPERATURE SENSORS (SPREADING RESISTOR) . 461 6.3.6 DIODES . 463 6.4 THERMOELECTRICITY (SEEBECK EFFECT) . 464 6.4.1 THERMOCOUPLES FOR VERY HIGH APPLICATION TEMPERATURES . . . 469 6.4.2 METALLIC THERMOCOUPLES FOR VERY HIGH APPLICATION TEMPERATURES . 469 6.4.3 INORGANIC-NON-METALLIC THERMOCOUPLES FOR VERY HIGH APPLICATION TEMPERATURES . 469 6.5 THERMAL EXPANSION . 470 6.5.1 THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLID BODIES . 470 6.5.2 THERMAL EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS . 472 6.5.3 THERMAL EXPANSION OF GASES . 474 6.6 TEMPERATURE AND FREQUENCY . 474 6.7 THERMOCHROMISM . 475 6.8 SEGER CONE . 476 6.9 NON-CONTACT OPTICAL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT . 477 6.9.1 RADIATION THERMOMETER (PYROMETER) . 477 6.9.2 FIBER OPTIC APPLICATIONS . 479 6.9.2.1 INTRINSIC SENSORS, DTS (DISTRIBUTED TEMPERATURE SENSING) . 479 6.9.2.2 EXTRINSIC SENSORS . 481 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 483 7 ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC MEASURED VARIABLES . 485 GERT SCHONFELDER AND ANDREAS WILDE 7.1 VOLTAGE . 485 7.1.1 DEFINITION . 485 7.1.1.1 AC VOLTAGE . 486 7.1.1.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES . 487 7.1.1.3 CONVERSION INTO AN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD . 488 7.1.1.4 CONVERSION TO HEAT . 488 XVIII CONTENTS 7.1.1.5 CONVERSION INTO A CURRENT . 488 7.1.1.6 MEASUREMENT BY COMPARISON WITH A STANDARD . . . 488 7.1.2 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS . 490 7.1.2.1 MEASUREMENT BY ENERGY EXTRACTION . 490 7.1.2.2 MEASUREMENT THROUGH INTEGRATION . 491 7.1.2.3 MEASUREMENT BY COMPARISON . 492 7.1.2.4 SERVO CONVERTER . 492 7.1.2.5 THE SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION . 492 7.1.2.6 MEASUREMENT OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGES . 494 7.2 AMPERAGE . 495 7.2.1 DEFINITION . 495 7.2.1.1 MEASURING PRINCIPLES . 495 7.2.1.2 CURRENT FLOW THROUGH A RESISTOR . 495 7.2.1.3 THERMAL EFFECT OF CURRENT FLOW . 496 7.2.1.4 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT FLOW . 496 7.2.2 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS . 496 7.3 ELECTRICAL CHARGE AND CAPACITY . 498 7.3.1 DEFINITION . 498 7.3.1.1 MEASURING PRINCIPLE CHARGE . 500 7.3.1.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLE CAPACITY . 501 7.3.2 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS . 503 7.3.2.1 CAPACITY MEASUREMENT THROUGH CHARGE SHARING . 503 7.3.2.2 CAPACITY MEASUREMENT BY RC GENERATORS . 503 7.3.2.3 COMPLEX COMPONENTS FOR CAPACITANCE DETERMINATION . 503 7.4 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY AND SPECIFIC ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE . 504 7.4.1 DEFINITION . 504 7.4.1.1 MEASURING PRINCIPLES FOR RESISTANCE . 506 7.4.2 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS . 506 7.4.2.1 DETERMINATION OF CURRENT AND VOLTAGE AT THE MEASURED OBJECT . 506 7.4.2.2 RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT THROUGH COMPENSATION . 508 7.4.2.3 AC VOLTAGE RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT . 509 7.5 ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH . 509 7.5.1 DEFINITION . 509 7.5.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES FOR THE ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH . 510 7.6 ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER . 511 7.6.1 DEFINITIONS . 511 7.6.1.1 PRACTICAL CASE ACCUMULATOR . 512 CONTENTS XIX 7.6.2 FORMS OF POWER . 512 7.6.2.1 POWER IN DC CIRCUIT . 512 7.6.2.2 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT . 513 7.6.3 MEASURING PRINCIPLES . 515 7.6.3.1 ELECTROMECHANICAL . 515 7.6.3.2 WITH ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS . 515 7.6.3.3 WITH DIGITAL ELECTRONICS . 516 7.6.3.4 WITH STATISTICAL METHODS . 517 7.7 INDUCTANCE . 517 7.7.1 DEFINITION . 517 7.7.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES . 519 7.8 MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH . 520 7.8.1 DEFINITION . 520 7.8.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETIC QUANTITIES . 521 7.8.2.1 HALL SENSOR . 521 7.8.2.2 GMR SENSOR . 521 7.8.2.3 FIELD PLATE . 521 7.8.2.4 SQUID . 521 7.8.3 MEASURING ARRANGEMENTS . 522 7.8.3.1 HALL SWITCH . 522 7.8.3.2 HALL SENSORS . 522 7.8.3.3 ANGLE SENSORS . 522 7.8.3.4 CURRENT SENSORS . 522 7.8.4 MULTIDIMENSIONAL MEASUREMENTS WITH THE HALL EFFECT . 523 7.8.4.1 BASICS . 523 7.8.4.2 APPLICATIONS . 524 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 525 8 RADIO AND PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES . 527 EKBERT HERING AND GERT SCHONFELDER 8.1 RADIOMETRY . 527 8.1.1 RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES . 527 8.1.1.1 ENERGY DENSITY . 527 8.1.1.2 RADIANT POWER O E . 528 8.1.1.3 SOLID ANGLE Q . 528 8.1.1.4 RADIANT INTENSITY LE . 529 8.1.1.5 RADIANCE L E . 530 8.1.2 MEASUREMENT OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION . 531 8.2 PHOTOMETRY . 531 8.2.1 PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES . 532 8.2.1.1 LUMINOUS FLUX Z V . 532 8.2.1.2 LIGHT QUANTITY Q V . 534 XX CONTENTS 8.2.1.3 LUMINOUS INTENSITY 7 V . 534 8.2.1.4 LUMINANCE L V . 534 8.2.1.5 ILLUMINANCE E Y . 535 8.2.1.6 SPECIFIC LIGHT EMISSION M, . 535 8.2.1.7 LUMINOUS EFFICACY T] . 535 8.2.2 MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES . 535 8.3 APPLICATION OF BRIGHTNESS SENSORS . 537 8.4 COLOUR . 540 8.4.1 COLOUR PERCEPTION . 540 8.4.2 COLOUR MODELS . 543 8.4.2.1 OTHER COLOR SPACES . 544 8.4.3 COLOR SYSTEMS . 544 8.4.4 COLOUR FILTERS FOR SENSORS . 545 8.4.4.1 BAYER PATTERN . 545 8.4.4.2 COLOR CORRECTION . 546 8.4.4.3 WHITE BALANCE . 546 8.4.5 COLOUR SENSORS . 547 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 548 9 ACOUSTIC MEASURED VARIABLES . 549 EKBERT HERING 9.1 DEFINITION OF IMPORTANT ACOUSTIC QUANTITIES . 549 9.2 HUMAN PERCEPTION . 551 9.2.1 LEVEL . 551 9.2.2 VOLUME . 553 9.2.3 LOUDNESS . 554 9.3 TRANSDUCER . 555 9.4 FIELDS OF APPLICATION . 557 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 560 10 CLIMATIC AND METEOROLOGICAL MEASURED VARIABLES . 561 GERT SCHONFELDER, ROBERT KRAH, GERD STEPHAN, AND ROLAND WEMECKE 10.1 MOISTURE IN GASES . 561 10.1.1 DEFINITIONS AND EQUATIONS . 561 10.1.1.1 HUMIDITY . 561 10.1.1.2 WATER VAPOUR PARTIAL PRESSURE . 561 10.1.1.3 ABSOLUTE AND SPECIFIC HUMIDITY . 562 10.1.1.4 SATURATION HUMIDITY . 562 10.1.1.5 RELATIVE HUMIDITY P . 562 10.1.1.6 DEWPOINT . 563 10.1.1.7 ENTHALPY . 564 10.1.1.8 MOLLIER DIAGRAM (H-X DIAGRAM) . 564 CONTENTS XXI 10.1.2 HUMIDITY MEASUREMENTS IN GASES . 566 10.1.2.1 PSYCHROMETERS, DESIGN AND FUNCTION . 566 10.1.2.2 DESIGN TYPES AND AREAS OF APPLICATION . 568 10.1.2.3 ASPIRATION PSYCHROMETER . 568 10.1.2.4 SLINGSHOT PSYCHROMETER . 568 10.1.2.5 DEW POINT MIRROR . 569 10.1.2.6 CAPACITIVE HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT . 572 10.1.2.7 INTEGRATED CAPACITIVE HUMIDITY SENSORS WITH BUS OUTPUT . 574 10.2 MOISTURE ANALYSIS IN SOLID AND LIQUID SUBSTANCES . 574 10.2.1 DIRECT METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MATERIAL MOISTURE . 576 10.2.1.1 PERCENTAGE WATER CONTENT OF A MATERIAL SAMPLE . . 576 10.2.1.2 WATER ACTIVITY OF A MATERIAL SAMPLE . 577 10.2.1.3 KARL FISCHER TITRATION . 577 10.2.1.4 CALCIUM CARBIDE METHOD . 579 10.2.1.5 CALCIUM HYDRIDE METHOD . 579 10.2.2 INDIRECT MEASURING METHODS FOR DETERMINING THE MOISTURE CONTENT OF MATERIALS . 579 10.2.2.1 MEASUREMENT OF THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES . 579 10.2.2.2 DETECTION OF THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER AND WATER VAPOUR . 580 10.2.2.3 MEASUREMENT OF THE SUCTION PRESSURE IN MOIST MATERIALS (TENSIOMETRY) . 582 10.2.2.4 MEASUREMENT OF ATOMIC PROPERTIES . 582 10.2.2.5 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE (NMR) METHOD . . . 583 10.2.2.6 MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY . 584 10.3 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION IN OUTDOOR CLIMATE . 585 10.3.1 MEASUREMENT OF THE RELATIVE AIR HUMIDITY . 585 10.3.2 PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT . 585 10.3.3 CONDENSATION MEASUREMENT . 586 10.4 HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT IN CLOSED ROOMS . 587 10.4.1 MEASUREMENT OF THE CLIMATE IN HOMES AND AT WORKPLACES . 587 10.4.2 CLIMATE IN MUSEUMS AND EXHIBITION ROOMS . 588 10.4.3 CLIMATE IN ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS . 591 10.4.4 INFLUENCING THE INDOOR CLIMATE . 591 10.4.4.1 AIR HUMIDIFICATION . 591 10.4.4.2 EVAPORATOR . 591 10.4.4.3 STEAM HUMIDIFIER . 592 10.4.4.4 NEBULIZER . 592 XXII CONTENTS 10.4.4.5 DEHUMIDIFYING ROOMS . 593 10.4.4.6 CONDENSATION DEHUMIDIFICATION . 593 10.4.4.7 ADSORPTION DEHUMIDIFIER . 593 10.4.4.8 ABSORPTION DEHUMIDIFIER . 593 10.5 AIR PRESSURE . 593 10.5.1 FIELDS OF APPLICATION . 593 10.5.2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES . 594 10.5.3 DEFINITIONS . 594 10.6 WIND AND AIR FLOW . 595 10.6.1 DEFINITION . 595 10.6.2 METHODS FOR WIND MEASUREMENT . 595 10.7 WATER FLOW . 600 10.7.1 DEFINITION . 600 10.7.2 DIRECT AND INDIRECT FLOW MEASUREMENT . 601 10.7.2.1 ULTRASONIC MEASUREMENT . 601 10.7.2.2 TERM PRINCIPLE . 601 10.7.2.3 DOPPLER PRINCIPLE . 603 10.7.2.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC MEASURING METHOD . 604 10.7.2.5 HYDROMETRIC MEASURING BLADE . 604 10.7.2.6 MEASUREMENT WITH MARKERS (TRACERS) . 605 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 605 11 SELECTED CHEMICAL PARAMETERS . 607 WINFRIED VONAU 11.1 REDOX POTENTIAL . 607 11.1.1 GENERAL . 607 11.1.2 PRECIOUS METAL REDOX ELECTRODES . 610 11.1.3 REDOX GLASS ELECTRODES . 611 11.1.4 REFERENCE ELECTRODES . 613 11.2 IONS INCLUDING HYDRONIUM IONS . 617 11.2.1 GENERAL INFORMATION . 617 11.2.2 PH MEASUREMENT . 618 11.2.3 OTHER IONS . 623 11.3 GASES . 627 11.3.1 GENERAL INFORMATION . 627 11.3.2 GASES IN A PHYSICALLY DISSOLVED STATE OR AT NORMAL TEMPERATURE . 628 11.3.2.1 SOLID ELECTROLYTE SENSORS . 630 11.3.3 SEMICONDUCTOR GAS SENSORS: METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR SENSORS (MOS) . 641 11.3.3.1 SURFACE CONDUCTIVITY . 641 11.3.3.2 VOLUME CONDUCTIVITY . 642 11.3.4 PELLISTORS . 643 CONTENTS XXIII 11.4 ELECTROLYTIC CONDUCTIVITY . 644 11.4.1 GENERAL INFORMATION . 644 11.4.2 KOHLRAUSCH MEASURING CELLS . 644 11.4.3 MULTI-ELECTRODE MEASURING CELLS . 645 11.4.4 ELECTRODELESS CONDUCTIVITY MEASURING CELLS . 646 11.4.5 EXAMPLES FOR THE APPLICATION OF CONDUCTIVITY SENSORS . 647 12 BIOLOGICAL AND MEDICAL SENSORS . 651 ELFRIEDE SIMON 12.1 BIOLOGICAL SENSOR TECHNOLOGY . 651 12.1.1 BIOSENSOR TECHNOLOGY . 651 12.1.2 REAL BIOLOGICAL SENSORS . 653 12.2 FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLES OF BIOSENSORS . 655 12.2.1 CALORIMETRIC SENSORS . 655 12.2.2 MICROGRAVIMETRIC SENSORS . 657 12.2.3 OPTICAL SENSORS . 658 12.2.4 ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSORS . 660 12.2.5 IMMOBILIZATION METHODS . 663 12.3 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SENSORS IN MEDICINE . 664 12.3.1 PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL BLOOD ANALYSES . 665 12.3.2 CLINICAL-CHEMICAL BLOOD ANALYSES . 668 12.4 ENZYMATIC METHODS: ENZYME SENSORS . 669 12.4.1 ENZYME-BASED ANALYTE DETECTION . 672 12.4.2 DETERMINATION OF ENZYME ACTIVITY . 673 12.4.3 APPLICATION FIELDS OF ENZYMATIC TESTS . 674 12.5 IMMUNOLOGICAL METHODS: IMMUNOSENSORS . 675 12.5.1 DIRECT IMMUNOSENSORS . 679 12.5.2 INDIRECT IMMUNOSENSORS . 679 12.5.3 APPLICATION FIELDS OF IMMUNOSENSORS . 681 12.6 DNA-BASED SENSORS . 681 12.6.1 HYBRIDIZATION DIAGNOSTICS . 682 12.6.2 APPLICATION AND USE OF DNA SENSORS . 684 12.7 CELL-BASED SENSOR TECHNOLOGY . 686 12.7.1 METABOLIC CELL CHIP . 687 12.7.2 NEURO-CHIP . 687 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 689 13 MEASURED QUANTITIES FOR IONIZING RADIATION . 691 HARTMUT BARWOLFF 13.1 INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL QUANTITIES . 691 13.2 INTERACTION OF IONISING RADIATION WITH MATTER . 696 XXIV CONTENTS 13.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS . 700 13.4 GAS-FILLED RADIATION SENSORS . 703 13.5 RADIATION SENSORS ACCORDING TO THE EXCITATION PRINCIPLE . 708 13.6 SEMICONDUCTOR SENSORS . 710 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 720 14 PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS . 721 GERT SCHONFELDER AND MARTIN LIESS 14.1 RADIATION . 721 14.2 SCINTILLATORS . 722 14.3 OUTER PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT . 723 14.3.1 PHOTOMULTIPLIER . 723 14.3.2 CHANNEL PHOTOMULTIPLIER . 724 14.3.3 IMAGE PICKUP TUBES . 725 14.4 INTERNAL PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT . 726 14.4.1 PHOTOCONDUCTOR . 726 14.4.2 PHOTODIODES . 728 14.4.3 PHOTOTRANSISTOR, PHOTOTHYRISTOR AND PHOTO-FET . 731 14.4.4 CMOS IMAGE SENSORS . 732 14.4.5 HIGH DYNAMIC CMOS IMAGE SENSORS . 732 14.5 CCD SENSORS . 734 14.5.1 LINE SENSORS . 735 14.5.2 CCD MATRIX SENSORS . 735 14.6 QUANTUM WELL INFRARED PHOTODETECTOR QWIP . 736 14.7 THERMAL OPTICAL DETECTORS . 738 14.7.1 THERMAL PILES . 739 14.7.2 PYROELECTRIC DETECTORS . 741 14.7.3 BOLOMETER . 742 15 SIGNAL PROCESSING AND CALIBRATION . 745 GERT SCHONFELDER 15.1 SIGNAL PROCESSING . 745 15.1.1 ANALOG (DISCRETE) SIGNAL CONDITIONING . 746 15.1.2 SIGNAL CONDITIONING WITH SYSTEM CIRCUITS . 746 15.1.3 SIGNAL CONDITIONING WITH ASICS . 746 15.1.4 SIGNAL CONDITIONING WITH MICROCONTROLLERS . 748 15.2 SENSOR CALIBRATION . 748 15.2.1 PASSIVE COMPENSATION . 749 15.2.2 ADJUSTMENT WITH ANALOG SIGNAL PROCESSING . 750 15.2.3 ADJUSTMENT WITH DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING . 751 15.3 ENERGY MANAGEMENT FOR SENSORS . 753 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 755 CONTENTS XXV 16 INTERFACE . 757 GERT SCHONFELDER 16.1 ANALOGUE INTERFACES . 757 16.1.1 VOLTAGE OUTPUT . 758 16.1.2 RATIOMETRIC VOLTAGE OUTPUT . 759 16.1.3 CURRENT OUTPUT . 759 16.1.4 FREQUENCY OUTPUT AND PULSE WIDTH MODULATION . 760 16.1.5 4-/6-WIRE INTERFACE . 762 16.2 DIGITAL INTERFACES . 762 16.2.1 CAN GROUP . 765 16.2.2 LON . 767 16.2.3 HART . 767 16.2.4 RS485 . 768 16.2.5 LO-LINK . 768 16.2.6 PROFIBUS . 770 16.2.7 I2C . 771 16.2.8 SPI . 772 16.2.9 IEEE 1451 . 773 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 776 17 SAFETY ASPECTS FOR SENSORS . 777 GERT SCHONFELDER AND SORIN FERICEAN 17.1 FEATURES FOR FUNCTION MONITORING . 777 17.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC) . 782 17.3 FUNCTIONAL SAFETY (SIL) . 785 17.4 SENSORS IN EXPLOSIVE ENVIRONMENTS (ATEX) . 787 17.4.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ATEX . 788 17.4.2 IGNITION PROTECTION TYPE INTRINSIC SAFETY . 789 17.4.3 TYPE OF PROTECTION FLAMEPROOF ENCLOSURE . 791 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 791 18 MEASUREMENT ERRORS, MEASUREMENT ACCURACY AND MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS . 793 GERT SCHONFELDER 18.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS ACCORDING TO THEIR CAUSE . . . . 793 18.2 DISPLAY OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS . 795 18.2.1 ARITHMETIC MEAN, ERROR SUM AND STANDARD DEVIATION . 795 18.2.2 ABSOLUTE ERROR . 796 18.2.3 RELATIVE ERROR . 796 18.3 MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS . 799 18.3.1 SCATTERING OF MEASURED VALUES . 800 18.3.2 RESOLUTION OF MEASURED VALUES . 801 18.3.3 SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO AND DYNAMICS OF MEASURED VALUES . . 801 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 802 INDEX . 803
any_adam_object	1
any_adam_object_boolean	1
author2	Hering, Ekbert 1943- Schönfelder, Gert
author2_role	edt edt
author2_variant	e h eh g s gs
author_GND	(DE-588)12263019X (DE-588)1155438760
author_facet	Hering, Ekbert 1943- Schönfelder, Gert
building	Verbundindex
bvnumber	BV047616164
ctrlnum	(OCoLC)1257413083 (DE-599)DNB1235791785
edition	1st edition 2022
format	Book
fullrecord	<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><collection xmlns="http://www.loc.gov/MARC21/slim"><record><leader>02834nam a22007098c 4500</leader><controlfield tag="001">BV047616164</controlfield><controlfield tag="003">DE-604</controlfield><controlfield tag="005">20220228 </controlfield><controlfield tag="007">t</controlfield><controlfield tag="008">211129s2022 gw a\|\|\| \|\|\|\| 00\|\|\| eng d</controlfield><datafield tag="015" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">21,N25</subfield><subfield code="2">dnb</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="016" ind1="7" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">1235791785</subfield><subfield code="2">DE-101</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="020" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">9783658349196</subfield><subfield code="c">Festeinband : circa EUR 128.39 (DE) (freier Preis), circa EUR 131.99 (AT) (freier Preis), circa CHF 141.50 (freier Preis), circa EUR 119.99</subfield><subfield code="9">978-3-658-34919-6</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="024" ind1="3" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">9783658349196</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="028" ind1="5" ind2="2"><subfield code="a">Bestellnummer: 89075568</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="028" ind1="5" ind2="2"><subfield code="a">Bestellnummer: 978-3-658-34919-6</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(OCoLC)1257413083</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(DE-599)DNB1235791785</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="040" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-604</subfield><subfield code="b">ger</subfield><subfield code="e">rda</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="041" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">eng</subfield><subfield code="h">ger</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="044" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">gw</subfield><subfield code="c">XA-DE-HE</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="049" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-29T</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="084" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="8">1\p</subfield><subfield code="a">621.3</subfield><subfield code="2">23sdnb</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="130" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Sensoren in Wissenschaft und Technik</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="245" ind1="1" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Sensors in science and technology</subfield><subfield code="b">functionality and application areas</subfield><subfield code="c">Ekbert Hering, Gert Schönfelder, editors</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="250" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">1st edition 2022</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="264" ind1=" " ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Wiesbaden</subfield><subfield code="b">Springer</subfield><subfield code="c">[2022]</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="300" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">xxviii, 816 Seiten</subfield><subfield code="b">Illustrationen, Diagramme</subfield><subfield code="c">24 cm x 16.8 cm</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="336" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">txt</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacontent</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="337" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">n</subfield><subfield code="2">rdamedia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="338" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">nc</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacarrier</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Sensortechnik</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4121663-5</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Sensor</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4038824-4</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Acoustical sensors</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Automation</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Biological sensors</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Calibration</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Chemical sensors</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Climate sensors</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Control engineering</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Electrical and magnetic sensors</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Electrical engineering</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Measurement</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Mechanical engineering</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Medical sensors</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Physical sensors</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Robotics</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Safety aspects</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Sensor applications</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Sensor systems</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Sensor</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4038824-4</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Sensortechnik</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4121663-5</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="5">DE-604</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="700" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Hering, Ekbert</subfield><subfield code="d">1943-</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)12263019X</subfield><subfield code="4">edt</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="700" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Schönfelder, Gert</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)1155438760</subfield><subfield code="4">edt</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="710" ind1="2" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)1043386068</subfield><subfield code="4">pbl</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="776" ind1="0" ind2="8"><subfield code="i">Erscheint auch als</subfield><subfield code="n">Online-Ausgabe</subfield><subfield code="z">978-3-658-34920-2</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">X:MVB</subfield><subfield code="q">text/html</subfield><subfield code="u">http://deposit.dnb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?id=66946341edd942f8ab515bc024eeb94a&prov=M&dok_var=1&dok_ext=htm</subfield><subfield code="3">Inhaltstext</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">X:MVB</subfield><subfield code="u">http://www.springer.com/</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">DNB Datenaustausch</subfield><subfield code="q">application/pdf</subfield><subfield code="u">http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033000879&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</subfield><subfield code="3">Inhaltsverzeichnis</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="999" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-033000879</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="883" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="8">1\p</subfield><subfield code="a">vlb</subfield><subfield code="d">20210619</subfield><subfield code="q">DE-101</subfield><subfield code="u">https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#vlb</subfield></datafield></record></collection>
id	DE-604.BV047616164
illustrated	Illustrated
index_date	2024-07-03T18:41:47Z
indexdate	2024-07-10T09:17:16Z
institution	BVB
institution_GND	(DE-588)1043386068
isbn	9783658349196
language	English German
oai_aleph_id	oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-033000879
oclc_num	1257413083
open_access_boolean
owner	DE-29T
owner_facet	DE-29T
physical	xxviii, 816 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme 24 cm x 16.8 cm
publishDate	2022
publishDateSearch	2022
publishDateSort	2022
publisher	Springer
record_format	marc
spelling	Sensoren in Wissenschaft und Technik Sensors in science and technology functionality and application areas Ekbert Hering, Gert Schönfelder, editors 1st edition 2022 Wiesbaden Springer [2022] xxviii, 816 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme 24 cm x 16.8 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Sensortechnik (DE-588)4121663-5 gnd rswk-swf Sensor (DE-588)4038824-4 gnd rswk-swf Acoustical sensors Automation Biological sensors Calibration Chemical sensors Climate sensors Control engineering Electrical and magnetic sensors Electrical engineering Measurement Mechanical engineering Medical sensors Physical sensors Robotics Safety aspects Sensor applications Sensor systems Sensor (DE-588)4038824-4 s Sensortechnik (DE-588)4121663-5 s DE-604 Hering, Ekbert 1943- (DE-588)12263019X edt Schönfelder, Gert (DE-588)1155438760 edt Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden (DE-588)1043386068 pbl Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe 978-3-658-34920-2 X:MVB text/html http://deposit.dnb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?id=66946341edd942f8ab515bc024eeb94a&prov=M&dok_var=1&dok_ext=htm Inhaltstext X:MVB http://www.springer.com/ DNB Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033000879&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p vlb 20210619 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#vlb
spellingShingle	Sensors in science and technology functionality and application areas Sensortechnik (DE-588)4121663-5 gnd Sensor (DE-588)4038824-4 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4121663-5 (DE-588)4038824-4
title	Sensors in science and technology functionality and application areas
title_alt	Sensoren in Wissenschaft und Technik
title_auth	Sensors in science and technology functionality and application areas
title_exact_search	Sensors in science and technology functionality and application areas
title_exact_search_txtP	Sensors in science and technology functionality and application areas
title_full	Sensors in science and technology functionality and application areas Ekbert Hering, Gert Schönfelder, editors
title_fullStr	Sensors in science and technology functionality and application areas Ekbert Hering, Gert Schönfelder, editors
title_full_unstemmed	Sensors in science and technology functionality and application areas Ekbert Hering, Gert Schönfelder, editors
title_short	Sensors in science and technology
title_sort	sensors in science and technology functionality and application areas
title_sub	functionality and application areas
topic	Sensortechnik (DE-588)4121663-5 gnd Sensor (DE-588)4038824-4 gnd
topic_facet	Sensortechnik Sensor
url	http://deposit.dnb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?id=66946341edd942f8ab515bc024eeb94a&prov=M&dok_var=1&dok_ext=htm http://www.springer.com/ http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=033000879&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
work_keys_str_mv	UT sensoreninwissenschaftundtechnik AT heringekbert sensorsinscienceandtechnologyfunctionalityandapplicationareas AT schonfeldergert sensorsinscienceandtechnologyfunctionalityandapplicationareas AT springerfachmedienwiesbaden sensorsinscienceandtechnologyfunctionalityandapplicationareas

Verfügbarkeit

Es ist kein Print-Exemplar vorhanden.

Fernleihe Bestellen Achtung: Nicht im THWS-Bestand! Beschreibung

MARC

Datensatz im Suchindex

Es ist kein Print-Exemplar vorhanden.

Ähnliche Einträge