Holdings: Magnetic Memory Technology

Magnetic Memory Technology: Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond

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Bibliographic Details
Main Authors:	Tang, Denny D. (Author), Pai, Chi-Feng (Author)
Format:	Electronic eBook
Language:	English
Published:	Hoboken, NJ John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated 2021
Subjects:	Magnetspeicher Spin-transfer torque
Online Access:	FHI01
Item Description:	Description based on publisher supplied metadata and other sources
Physical Description:	1 Online-Ressource (xxiv, 327 Seiten)
ISBN:	9781119562283 9781119562269 9781119562221

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245	1	0	\|a Magnetic Memory Technology \|b Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond \|c Denny D. Tang (Tang Consultancy), Chi-Feng Pai (National Taiwan University)
264		1	\|a Hoboken, NJ \|b John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated \|c 2021
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300			\|a 1 Online-Ressource (xxiv, 327 Seiten)
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505	8		\|a Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Author Biographies -- List of Cited Tables and Figures -- Chapter 1 Basic Electromagnetism -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Magnetic Force, Pole, Field, and Dipole -- 1.3 Magnetic Dipole Moment, Torque, and Energy -- 1.4 Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Induction -- 1.5 Ampère's Circuital Law, Biot-Savart Law, and Magnetic Field from Magnetic Material -- 1.5.1 Ampère's Circuital Law -- 1.5.2 Biot-Savart's Law -- 1.5.3 Magnetic Field from Magnetic Material -- 1.6 Equations, cgs-SI Unit Conversion Tables -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 2 Magnetism and Magnetic Materials -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Origin of Magnetization -- 2.2.1 From Ampère to Einstein -- 2.2.2 Precession -- 2.2.3 Electron Spin -- 2.2.4 Spin-Orbit Interaction -- 2.2.5 Hund's Rules -- 2.3 Classification of Magnetisms -- 2.3.1 Diamagnetism -- 2.3.2 Paramagnetism -- 2.3.3 Ferromagnetism -- 2.3.4 Antiferromagnetism -- 2.3.5 Ferrimagnetism -- 2.4 Exchange Interactions -- 2.4.1 Direct Exchange -- 2.4.2 Indirect Exchange: Superexchange -- 2.4.3 Indirect Exchange: RKKY Interaction -- 2.4.4 Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya Interaction (DMI) -- 2.5 Magnetization in Magnetic Metals and Oxides -- 2.5.1 Slater-Pauling Curve -- 2.5.2 Rigid Band Model -- 2.5.3 Iron Oxides and Iron Garnets -- 2.6 Phenomenology of Magnetic Anisotropy -- 2.6.1 Uniaxial Anisotropy -- 2.6.2 Cubic Anisotropy -- 2.7 Origins of Magnetic Anisotropy -- 2.7.1 Shape Anisotropy -- 2.7.2 Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy (MCA) -- 2.7.3 Perpendicular Magnetic Anisotropy (PMA) -- 2.8 Magnetic Domain and Domain Walls -- 2.8.1 Domain Wall -- 2.8.2 Single Domain and Superparamagnetism -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 3 Magnetic Thin Films -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Magnetic Thin Film Growth -- 3.2.1 Sputter Deposition -- 3.2.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)
505	8		\|a 3.3 Magnetic Thin Film Characterization -- 3.3.1 Vibrating-Sample Magnetometer (VSM) -- 3.3.2 Magneto-Optical Kerr Effect (MOKE) -- References -- Chapter 4 Magnetoresistance Effects -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance (AMR) -- 4.3 Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) -- 4.4 Tunneling Magnetoresistance (TMR) -- 4.5 Contemporary MTJ Designs and Characterization -- 4.5.1 Perpendicular MTJ (p-MTJ) -- 4.5.2 Fully Functional p-MTJ -- 4.5.3 CIPT Approach for TMR Characterization -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 5 Magnetization Switching and Field MRAMs -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Magnetization Reversible Rotation and Irreversible Switching Under External Field -- 5.2.1 Magnetization Rotation Under an External Field in the Hard Axis Direction -- 5.2.2 Magnetization Rotation and Switching Under an external Field in the Easy Axis Direction -- 5.2.3 Magnetization Rotation and Switching Under Two Orthogonal External Fields -- 5.2.4 Magnetization Behavior of a Synthetic Anti-ferromagnetic Film Stack -- 5.3 Field MRAMs -- 5.3.1 MTJ of Field MRAM -- 5.3.2 Half-Select Bit Disturbance Issue -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 6 Spin Current and Spin Dynamics -- 6.1 Introduction to Hall Effects -- 6.1.1 Ordinary Hall Effect -- 6.1.2 Anomalous Hall Effect and Spin Hall Effect -- 6.2 Spin Current -- 6.2.1 Electron Spin Polarization in NM/FM/NM Film Stack -- 6.2.2 Spin Current Injection, Diffusion, and Inverse Spin Hall Effect -- 6.2.3 Generalized Carrier and Spin Current Drift-Diffusion Equation -- 6.3 Spin Dynamics -- 6.3.1 Landau-Lifshitz and Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equations of Motion -- 6.3.2 Ferromagnetic Resonance -- 6.3.3 Spin Pumping and Effective Damping in FM/NM Film Stack -- 6.3.4 FM/NM/FM Coupling Through Spin Current -- 6.4 Interaction Between Polarized Conduction Electrons and Local Magnetization
505	8		\|a 6.4.1 Electron Spin Torque Transfer to Local Magnetic Magnetization -- 6.4.2 Macrospin Model -- 6.4.3 Spin-Torque Transfer in a Spin Valve -- 6.4.3.1 Switching Threshold Current Density -- 6.4.3.2 Switching Time -- 6.4.4 Spin-Torque Transfer Switching in Magnetic Tunnel Junction -- 6.4.5 Spin-Torque Ferromagnetic Resonance and Torkance -- 6.5 Spin Current Interaction with Domain Wall -- 6.5.1 Domain Wall Motion under Spin Current -- 6.5.2 Threshold Current Density -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 7 Spin-Torque-Transfer (STT) MRAM Engineering -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Thermal Stability Energy and Switching Energy -- 7.3 STT Switching Properties -- 7.3.1 Switching Probability and Write Error Rate (WER) -- 7.3.2 Switching Current in Precessional Regime -- 7.3.3 Switching Delay of an STT-MRAM Cell -- 7.3.4 Read Disturb Rate -- 7.3.5 Switching Under a Magnetic Field - Phase Diagram -- 7.3.6 MTJ Switching Abnormality -- 7.3.6.1 Magnetic Back-Hopping -- 7.3.6.2 Bifurcation Switching (Ballooning in WER) -- 7.3.6.3 Domain Mediated Magnetization Reversal -- 7.4 The Integrity of MTJ Tunnel Barrier -- 7.4.1 MgO Degradation Model -- 7.5 Data Retention -- 7.5.1 Retention Determination Based on Bit Switching Probability -- 7.5.2 Energy Barrier Determination Based on Aiding Field -- 7.5.3 Energy Barrier Extraction with Retention Bake at Chip Level -- 7.5.4 Data Retention Fail at the Chip Level -- 7.6 The Cell Design Considerations and Scaling -- 7.6.1 STT-MRAM Bit Cell and Array -- 7.6.2 CMOS Options -- 7.6.3 Cell Switching Efficiency -- 7.6.4 Cell Design Considerations -- 7.6.4.1 WRITE Current and Cell Size -- 7.6.4.2 READ Access Performance and RA Product of MTJ -- 7.6.4.3 READ and WRITE Voltage Margins -- 7.6.4.4 Stray Field Control for Perpendicular MTJ -- 7.6.4.5 Suppress Stochastic Switching Time Variation Ideas -- 7.6.5 The Scaling of MTJ for Memory
505	8		\|a 7.6.5.1 In-Plane MTJ -- 7.6.5.2 Out-of-Plane (Perpendicular) MTJ -- 7.7 MTJ SPICE Models -- 7.7.1 Basic MTJ Equivalent Circuit Model for Circuit Design Simulation -- 7.7.2 MTJ SPICE Circuit Model with Embedded Macrospin Calculator -- 7.8 Test Chip, Test, and Chip-Level Weak Bit Screening -- 7.8.1 Read Marginal Bits -- 7.8.2 Write Marginal Bits -- 7.8.3 Short Retention Bits -- 7.8.4 Low Endurance Bits -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 8 Advanced Switching MRAM Modes -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Current-Induced-Domain-Wall Motion (CIDM) Memory -- 8.2.1 Single-Bit Cell -- 8.2.2 Multibit Cell: Racetrack -- 8.3 Spin-Orbit Torque (SOT) Memory -- 8.3.1 Spin Orbit Torque (SOT) MRAM Cells -- 8.3.1.1 In-Plane SOT Cell -- 8.3.1.1.1 Cell Engineering and Device Properties -- 8.3.1.1.2 Cell Scaling -- 8.3.1.2 Perpendicular SOT Cell -- 8.3.2 Materials Choice for SOT-MRAM Cell -- 8.3.2.1 Transition Metals and their Alloys -- 8.3.2.2 Emergent Materials Systems -- 8.3.2.3 Benchmarking of SOT Switching Efficiency -- 8.4 Magneto-Electric Effect and Voltage-Control Magnetic Anisotropy (VCMA) MRAM -- 8.4.1 Magneto-Electric Effects -- 8.4.2 VCMA-Assisted MRAMs -- 8.4.2.1 VCMA-Assisted Field-MRAM -- 8.4.2.2 VCMA-Assisted Multi-bit-Word SOT-MRAM -- 8.4.2.3 VCMA-Assisted Precession-Toggle MRAM -- 8.5 Relative Merit of Advanced Switching Mode MRAMs -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 9 MRAM Applications and Production -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Intrinsic Characteristics and Product Attributes of Emerging Nonvolatile Memories -- 9.2.1 Intrinsic Properties -- 9.2.2 Product Attributes -- 9.3 Memory Landscape and MRAM Opportunity -- 9.3.1 MRAM as Embedded Memory in Logic Chips -- 9.3.1.1 Integration Issues of Embedded MRAM -- 9.3.1.2 MRAM as Embedded Flash in Microcontroller -- 9.3.1.3 Embedded MRAM Cell Size -- 9.3.1.4 MRAM as Cache Memory in Processor
505	8		\|a 9.3.1.5 Improvement of Access Latency -- 9.3.2 High-Density Discrete MRAM -- 9.3.2.1 Technology Status -- 9.3.2.2 Ideal CMOS Technology for High-Density MRAM -- 9.3.2.3 Improvement to Endurance and Write Error Rate with Error Buffer in Chip Architecture -- 9.3.3 Applications and Market Opportunity of MRAM -- 9.3.3.1 Battery-Backed DRAM Applications -- 9.3.3.2 Internet of Things (IoT) and Cybersecurity Applications -- 9.3.3.3 Applications to In-Memory Computing, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) -- 9.3.3.4 MRAM-Based Memory-Driven Computer -- 9.4 MRAM Production -- 9.4.1 MRAM Production Ecosystem -- 9.4.2 MRAM Product History -- 9.4.2.1 First-Generation MRAM - Field MRAM (Also Called Toggle MRAM) -- 9.4.2.2 The Second-Generation MRAM - STT-MRAM -- 9.4.2.3 The Potential Third-Generation MRAM - SOT MRAM -- Homework -- References -- Appendix A Retention Bake (Including Two-Way Flip) -- Reference -- Appendix B Memory Functionality-Based Scaling -- B.1 Introduction -- B.2 Operating Parameters for Write Endurance Failure Analysis -- B.3 Functional Requirements for Scaling -- B.3.1 Write Function - Switching Current Density -- B.3.2 Read Function - Read Speed and Read Signal -- B.4 Scaling Procedure -- B.5 Scaling Impacts -- B.5.1 VSW and JVSW -- B.5.2 Read Disturb -- B.5.3 Switching Current -- B.5.4 Nonvolatile Function - Data Retention -- B.5.5 Remarks on Temperature -- B.6 Write Endurance and its Lifetime Characterization Method -- B.7 Summary -- References -- Appendix C High-Bandwidth Design Considerations for STT-MRAM -- C.1 Introduction -- C.2 DRAM Fundamentals -- C.2.1 Cell and Sense Amplifier - Basic Operations -- C.2.2 Terminologies -- C.2.3 Basic Approach of High-Bandwidth SDRAM -- C.2.4 SDRAM Operation Mechanism -- C.2.5 SDRAM Performance -- C.3 Random Row Access Performance Analysis -- C.4 STT-MRAM Fundamentals -- C.4.1 Cell and Basic Operation
505	8		\|a C.4.2 On-Chip Error-Correcting Code (ECC)
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contents	Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Author Biographies -- List of Cited Tables and Figures -- Chapter 1 Basic Electromagnetism -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Magnetic Force, Pole, Field, and Dipole -- 1.3 Magnetic Dipole Moment, Torque, and Energy -- 1.4 Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Induction -- 1.5 Ampère's Circuital Law, Biot-Savart Law, and Magnetic Field from Magnetic Material -- 1.5.1 Ampère's Circuital Law -- 1.5.2 Biot-Savart's Law -- 1.5.3 Magnetic Field from Magnetic Material -- 1.6 Equations, cgs-SI Unit Conversion Tables -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 2 Magnetism and Magnetic Materials -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Origin of Magnetization -- 2.2.1 From Ampère to Einstein -- 2.2.2 Precession -- 2.2.3 Electron Spin -- 2.2.4 Spin-Orbit Interaction -- 2.2.5 Hund's Rules -- 2.3 Classification of Magnetisms -- 2.3.1 Diamagnetism -- 2.3.2 Paramagnetism -- 2.3.3 Ferromagnetism -- 2.3.4 Antiferromagnetism -- 2.3.5 Ferrimagnetism -- 2.4 Exchange Interactions -- 2.4.1 Direct Exchange -- 2.4.2 Indirect Exchange: Superexchange -- 2.4.3 Indirect Exchange: RKKY Interaction -- 2.4.4 Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya Interaction (DMI) -- 2.5 Magnetization in Magnetic Metals and Oxides -- 2.5.1 Slater-Pauling Curve -- 2.5.2 Rigid Band Model -- 2.5.3 Iron Oxides and Iron Garnets -- 2.6 Phenomenology of Magnetic Anisotropy -- 2.6.1 Uniaxial Anisotropy -- 2.6.2 Cubic Anisotropy -- 2.7 Origins of Magnetic Anisotropy -- 2.7.1 Shape Anisotropy -- 2.7.2 Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy (MCA) -- 2.7.3 Perpendicular Magnetic Anisotropy (PMA) -- 2.8 Magnetic Domain and Domain Walls -- 2.8.1 Domain Wall -- 2.8.2 Single Domain and Superparamagnetism -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 3 Magnetic Thin Films -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Magnetic Thin Film Growth -- 3.2.1 Sputter Deposition -- 3.2.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) 3.3 Magnetic Thin Film Characterization -- 3.3.1 Vibrating-Sample Magnetometer (VSM) -- 3.3.2 Magneto-Optical Kerr Effect (MOKE) -- References -- Chapter 4 Magnetoresistance Effects -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance (AMR) -- 4.3 Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) -- 4.4 Tunneling Magnetoresistance (TMR) -- 4.5 Contemporary MTJ Designs and Characterization -- 4.5.1 Perpendicular MTJ (p-MTJ) -- 4.5.2 Fully Functional p-MTJ -- 4.5.3 CIPT Approach for TMR Characterization -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 5 Magnetization Switching and Field MRAMs -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Magnetization Reversible Rotation and Irreversible Switching Under External Field -- 5.2.1 Magnetization Rotation Under an External Field in the Hard Axis Direction -- 5.2.2 Magnetization Rotation and Switching Under an external Field in the Easy Axis Direction -- 5.2.3 Magnetization Rotation and Switching Under Two Orthogonal External Fields -- 5.2.4 Magnetization Behavior of a Synthetic Anti-ferromagnetic Film Stack -- 5.3 Field MRAMs -- 5.3.1 MTJ of Field MRAM -- 5.3.2 Half-Select Bit Disturbance Issue -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 6 Spin Current and Spin Dynamics -- 6.1 Introduction to Hall Effects -- 6.1.1 Ordinary Hall Effect -- 6.1.2 Anomalous Hall Effect and Spin Hall Effect -- 6.2 Spin Current -- 6.2.1 Electron Spin Polarization in NM/FM/NM Film Stack -- 6.2.2 Spin Current Injection, Diffusion, and Inverse Spin Hall Effect -- 6.2.3 Generalized Carrier and Spin Current Drift-Diffusion Equation -- 6.3 Spin Dynamics -- 6.3.1 Landau-Lifshitz and Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equations of Motion -- 6.3.2 Ferromagnetic Resonance -- 6.3.3 Spin Pumping and Effective Damping in FM/NM Film Stack -- 6.3.4 FM/NM/FM Coupling Through Spin Current -- 6.4 Interaction Between Polarized Conduction Electrons and Local Magnetization 6.4.1 Electron Spin Torque Transfer to Local Magnetic Magnetization -- 6.4.2 Macrospin Model -- 6.4.3 Spin-Torque Transfer in a Spin Valve -- 6.4.3.1 Switching Threshold Current Density -- 6.4.3.2 Switching Time -- 6.4.4 Spin-Torque Transfer Switching in Magnetic Tunnel Junction -- 6.4.5 Spin-Torque Ferromagnetic Resonance and Torkance -- 6.5 Spin Current Interaction with Domain Wall -- 6.5.1 Domain Wall Motion under Spin Current -- 6.5.2 Threshold Current Density -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 7 Spin-Torque-Transfer (STT) MRAM Engineering -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Thermal Stability Energy and Switching Energy -- 7.3 STT Switching Properties -- 7.3.1 Switching Probability and Write Error Rate (WER) -- 7.3.2 Switching Current in Precessional Regime -- 7.3.3 Switching Delay of an STT-MRAM Cell -- 7.3.4 Read Disturb Rate -- 7.3.5 Switching Under a Magnetic Field - Phase Diagram -- 7.3.6 MTJ Switching Abnormality -- 7.3.6.1 Magnetic Back-Hopping -- 7.3.6.2 Bifurcation Switching (Ballooning in WER) -- 7.3.6.3 Domain Mediated Magnetization Reversal -- 7.4 The Integrity of MTJ Tunnel Barrier -- 7.4.1 MgO Degradation Model -- 7.5 Data Retention -- 7.5.1 Retention Determination Based on Bit Switching Probability -- 7.5.2 Energy Barrier Determination Based on Aiding Field -- 7.5.3 Energy Barrier Extraction with Retention Bake at Chip Level -- 7.5.4 Data Retention Fail at the Chip Level -- 7.6 The Cell Design Considerations and Scaling -- 7.6.1 STT-MRAM Bit Cell and Array -- 7.6.2 CMOS Options -- 7.6.3 Cell Switching Efficiency -- 7.6.4 Cell Design Considerations -- 7.6.4.1 WRITE Current and Cell Size -- 7.6.4.2 READ Access Performance and RA Product of MTJ -- 7.6.4.3 READ and WRITE Voltage Margins -- 7.6.4.4 Stray Field Control for Perpendicular MTJ -- 7.6.4.5 Suppress Stochastic Switching Time Variation Ideas -- 7.6.5 The Scaling of MTJ for Memory 7.6.5.1 In-Plane MTJ -- 7.6.5.2 Out-of-Plane (Perpendicular) MTJ -- 7.7 MTJ SPICE Models -- 7.7.1 Basic MTJ Equivalent Circuit Model for Circuit Design Simulation -- 7.7.2 MTJ SPICE Circuit Model with Embedded Macrospin Calculator -- 7.8 Test Chip, Test, and Chip-Level Weak Bit Screening -- 7.8.1 Read Marginal Bits -- 7.8.2 Write Marginal Bits -- 7.8.3 Short Retention Bits -- 7.8.4 Low Endurance Bits -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 8 Advanced Switching MRAM Modes -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Current-Induced-Domain-Wall Motion (CIDM) Memory -- 8.2.1 Single-Bit Cell -- 8.2.2 Multibit Cell: Racetrack -- 8.3 Spin-Orbit Torque (SOT) Memory -- 8.3.1 Spin Orbit Torque (SOT) MRAM Cells -- 8.3.1.1 In-Plane SOT Cell -- 8.3.1.1.1 Cell Engineering and Device Properties -- 8.3.1.1.2 Cell Scaling -- 8.3.1.2 Perpendicular SOT Cell -- 8.3.2 Materials Choice for SOT-MRAM Cell -- 8.3.2.1 Transition Metals and their Alloys -- 8.3.2.2 Emergent Materials Systems -- 8.3.2.3 Benchmarking of SOT Switching Efficiency -- 8.4 Magneto-Electric Effect and Voltage-Control Magnetic Anisotropy (VCMA) MRAM -- 8.4.1 Magneto-Electric Effects -- 8.4.2 VCMA-Assisted MRAMs -- 8.4.2.1 VCMA-Assisted Field-MRAM -- 8.4.2.2 VCMA-Assisted Multi-bit-Word SOT-MRAM -- 8.4.2.3 VCMA-Assisted Precession-Toggle MRAM -- 8.5 Relative Merit of Advanced Switching Mode MRAMs -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 9 MRAM Applications and Production -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Intrinsic Characteristics and Product Attributes of Emerging Nonvolatile Memories -- 9.2.1 Intrinsic Properties -- 9.2.2 Product Attributes -- 9.3 Memory Landscape and MRAM Opportunity -- 9.3.1 MRAM as Embedded Memory in Logic Chips -- 9.3.1.1 Integration Issues of Embedded MRAM -- 9.3.1.2 MRAM as Embedded Flash in Microcontroller -- 9.3.1.3 Embedded MRAM Cell Size -- 9.3.1.4 MRAM as Cache Memory in Processor 9.3.1.5 Improvement of Access Latency -- 9.3.2 High-Density Discrete MRAM -- 9.3.2.1 Technology Status -- 9.3.2.2 Ideal CMOS Technology for High-Density MRAM -- 9.3.2.3 Improvement to Endurance and Write Error Rate with Error Buffer in Chip Architecture -- 9.3.3 Applications and Market Opportunity of MRAM -- 9.3.3.1 Battery-Backed DRAM Applications -- 9.3.3.2 Internet of Things (IoT) and Cybersecurity Applications -- 9.3.3.3 Applications to In-Memory Computing, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) -- 9.3.3.4 MRAM-Based Memory-Driven Computer -- 9.4 MRAM Production -- 9.4.1 MRAM Production Ecosystem -- 9.4.2 MRAM Product History -- 9.4.2.1 First-Generation MRAM - Field MRAM (Also Called Toggle MRAM) -- 9.4.2.2 The Second-Generation MRAM - STT-MRAM -- 9.4.2.3 The Potential Third-Generation MRAM - SOT MRAM -- Homework -- References -- Appendix A Retention Bake (Including Two-Way Flip) -- Reference -- Appendix B Memory Functionality-Based Scaling -- B.1 Introduction -- B.2 Operating Parameters for Write Endurance Failure Analysis -- B.3 Functional Requirements for Scaling -- B.3.1 Write Function - Switching Current Density -- B.3.2 Read Function - Read Speed and Read Signal -- B.4 Scaling Procedure -- B.5 Scaling Impacts -- B.5.1 VSW and JVSW -- B.5.2 Read Disturb -- B.5.3 Switching Current -- B.5.4 Nonvolatile Function - Data Retention -- B.5.5 Remarks on Temperature -- B.6 Write Endurance and its Lifetime Characterization Method -- B.7 Summary -- References -- Appendix C High-Bandwidth Design Considerations for STT-MRAM -- C.1 Introduction -- C.2 DRAM Fundamentals -- C.2.1 Cell and Sense Amplifier - Basic Operations -- C.2.2 Terminologies -- C.2.3 Basic Approach of High-Bandwidth SDRAM -- C.2.4 SDRAM Operation Mechanism -- C.2.5 SDRAM Performance -- C.3 Random Row Access Performance Analysis -- C.4 STT-MRAM Fundamentals -- C.4.1 Cell and Basic Operation C.4.2 On-Chip Error-Correcting Code (ECC)
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Tang (Tang Consultancy), Chi-Feng Pai (National Taiwan University)</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="264" ind1=" " ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Hoboken, NJ</subfield><subfield code="b">John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated</subfield><subfield code="c">2021</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="264" ind1=" " ind2="4"><subfield code="c">©2021</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="300" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">1 Online-Ressource (xxiv, 327 Seiten)</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="336" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">txt</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacontent</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="337" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">c</subfield><subfield code="2">rdamedia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="338" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">cr</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacarrier</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="500" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Description based on publisher supplied metadata and other sources</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="505" ind1="8" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Author Biographies -- List of Cited Tables and Figures -- Chapter 1 Basic Electromagnetism -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Magnetic Force, Pole, Field, and Dipole -- 1.3 Magnetic Dipole Moment, Torque, and Energy -- 1.4 Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Induction -- 1.5 Ampère's Circuital Law, Biot-Savart Law, and Magnetic Field from Magnetic Material -- 1.5.1 Ampère's Circuital Law -- 1.5.2 Biot-Savart's Law -- 1.5.3 Magnetic Field from Magnetic Material -- 1.6 Equations, cgs-SI Unit Conversion Tables -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 2 Magnetism and Magnetic Materials -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Origin of Magnetization -- 2.2.1 From Ampère to Einstein -- 2.2.2 Precession -- 2.2.3 Electron Spin -- 2.2.4 Spin-Orbit Interaction -- 2.2.5 Hund's Rules -- 2.3 Classification of Magnetisms -- 2.3.1 Diamagnetism -- 2.3.2 Paramagnetism -- 2.3.3 Ferromagnetism -- 2.3.4 Antiferromagnetism -- 2.3.5 Ferrimagnetism -- 2.4 Exchange Interactions -- 2.4.1 Direct Exchange -- 2.4.2 Indirect Exchange: Superexchange -- 2.4.3 Indirect Exchange: RKKY Interaction -- 2.4.4 Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya Interaction (DMI) -- 2.5 Magnetization in Magnetic Metals and Oxides -- 2.5.1 Slater-Pauling Curve -- 2.5.2 Rigid Band Model -- 2.5.3 Iron Oxides and Iron Garnets -- 2.6 Phenomenology of Magnetic Anisotropy -- 2.6.1 Uniaxial Anisotropy -- 2.6.2 Cubic Anisotropy -- 2.7 Origins of Magnetic Anisotropy -- 2.7.1 Shape Anisotropy -- 2.7.2 Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy (MCA) -- 2.7.3 Perpendicular Magnetic Anisotropy (PMA) -- 2.8 Magnetic Domain and Domain Walls -- 2.8.1 Domain Wall -- 2.8.2 Single Domain and Superparamagnetism -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 3 Magnetic Thin Films -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Magnetic Thin Film Growth -- 3.2.1 Sputter Deposition -- 3.2.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="505" ind1="8" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">3.3 Magnetic Thin Film Characterization -- 3.3.1 Vibrating-Sample Magnetometer (VSM) -- 3.3.2 Magneto-Optical Kerr Effect (MOKE) -- References -- Chapter 4 Magnetoresistance Effects -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance (AMR) -- 4.3 Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) -- 4.4 Tunneling Magnetoresistance (TMR) -- 4.5 Contemporary MTJ Designs and Characterization -- 4.5.1 Perpendicular MTJ (p-MTJ) -- 4.5.2 Fully Functional p-MTJ -- 4.5.3 CIPT Approach for TMR Characterization -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 5 Magnetization Switching and Field MRAMs -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Magnetization Reversible Rotation and Irreversible Switching Under External Field -- 5.2.1 Magnetization Rotation Under an External Field in the Hard Axis Direction -- 5.2.2 Magnetization Rotation and Switching Under an external Field in the Easy Axis Direction -- 5.2.3 Magnetization Rotation and Switching Under Two Orthogonal External Fields -- 5.2.4 Magnetization Behavior of a Synthetic Anti-ferromagnetic Film Stack -- 5.3 Field MRAMs -- 5.3.1 MTJ of Field MRAM -- 5.3.2 Half-Select Bit Disturbance Issue -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 6 Spin Current and Spin Dynamics -- 6.1 Introduction to Hall Effects -- 6.1.1 Ordinary Hall Effect -- 6.1.2 Anomalous Hall Effect and Spin Hall Effect -- 6.2 Spin Current -- 6.2.1 Electron Spin Polarization in NM/FM/NM Film Stack -- 6.2.2 Spin Current Injection, Diffusion, and Inverse Spin Hall Effect -- 6.2.3 Generalized Carrier and Spin Current Drift-Diffusion Equation -- 6.3 Spin Dynamics -- 6.3.1 Landau-Lifshitz and Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equations of Motion -- 6.3.2 Ferromagnetic Resonance -- 6.3.3 Spin Pumping and Effective Damping in FM/NM Film Stack -- 6.3.4 FM/NM/FM Coupling Through Spin Current -- 6.4 Interaction Between Polarized Conduction Electrons and Local Magnetization</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="505" ind1="8" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">6.4.1 Electron Spin Torque Transfer to Local Magnetic Magnetization -- 6.4.2 Macrospin Model -- 6.4.3 Spin-Torque Transfer in a Spin Valve -- 6.4.3.1 Switching Threshold Current Density -- 6.4.3.2 Switching Time -- 6.4.4 Spin-Torque Transfer Switching in Magnetic Tunnel Junction -- 6.4.5 Spin-Torque Ferromagnetic Resonance and Torkance -- 6.5 Spin Current Interaction with Domain Wall -- 6.5.1 Domain Wall Motion under Spin Current -- 6.5.2 Threshold Current Density -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 7 Spin-Torque-Transfer (STT) MRAM Engineering -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Thermal Stability Energy and Switching Energy -- 7.3 STT Switching Properties -- 7.3.1 Switching Probability and Write Error Rate (WER) -- 7.3.2 Switching Current in Precessional Regime -- 7.3.3 Switching Delay of an STT-MRAM Cell -- 7.3.4 Read Disturb Rate -- 7.3.5 Switching Under a Magnetic Field - Phase Diagram -- 7.3.6 MTJ Switching Abnormality -- 7.3.6.1 Magnetic Back-Hopping -- 7.3.6.2 Bifurcation Switching (Ballooning in WER) -- 7.3.6.3 Domain Mediated Magnetization Reversal -- 7.4 The Integrity of MTJ Tunnel Barrier -- 7.4.1 MgO Degradation Model -- 7.5 Data Retention -- 7.5.1 Retention Determination Based on Bit Switching Probability -- 7.5.2 Energy Barrier Determination Based on Aiding Field -- 7.5.3 Energy Barrier Extraction with Retention Bake at Chip Level -- 7.5.4 Data Retention Fail at the Chip Level -- 7.6 The Cell Design Considerations and Scaling -- 7.6.1 STT-MRAM Bit Cell and Array -- 7.6.2 CMOS Options -- 7.6.3 Cell Switching Efficiency -- 7.6.4 Cell Design Considerations -- 7.6.4.1 WRITE Current and Cell Size -- 7.6.4.2 READ Access Performance and RA Product of MTJ -- 7.6.4.3 READ and WRITE Voltage Margins -- 7.6.4.4 Stray Field Control for Perpendicular MTJ -- 7.6.4.5 Suppress Stochastic Switching Time Variation Ideas -- 7.6.5 The Scaling of MTJ for Memory</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="505" ind1="8" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">7.6.5.1 In-Plane MTJ -- 7.6.5.2 Out-of-Plane (Perpendicular) MTJ -- 7.7 MTJ SPICE Models -- 7.7.1 Basic MTJ Equivalent Circuit Model for Circuit Design Simulation -- 7.7.2 MTJ SPICE Circuit Model with Embedded Macrospin Calculator -- 7.8 Test Chip, Test, and Chip-Level Weak Bit Screening -- 7.8.1 Read Marginal Bits -- 7.8.2 Write Marginal Bits -- 7.8.3 Short Retention Bits -- 7.8.4 Low Endurance Bits -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 8 Advanced Switching MRAM Modes -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Current-Induced-Domain-Wall Motion (CIDM) Memory -- 8.2.1 Single-Bit Cell -- 8.2.2 Multibit Cell: Racetrack -- 8.3 Spin-Orbit Torque (SOT) Memory -- 8.3.1 Spin Orbit Torque (SOT) MRAM Cells -- 8.3.1.1 In-Plane SOT Cell -- 8.3.1.1.1 Cell Engineering and Device Properties -- 8.3.1.1.2 Cell Scaling -- 8.3.1.2 Perpendicular SOT Cell -- 8.3.2 Materials Choice for SOT-MRAM Cell -- 8.3.2.1 Transition Metals and their Alloys -- 8.3.2.2 Emergent Materials Systems -- 8.3.2.3 Benchmarking of SOT Switching Efficiency -- 8.4 Magneto-Electric Effect and Voltage-Control Magnetic Anisotropy (VCMA) MRAM -- 8.4.1 Magneto-Electric Effects -- 8.4.2 VCMA-Assisted MRAMs -- 8.4.2.1 VCMA-Assisted Field-MRAM -- 8.4.2.2 VCMA-Assisted Multi-bit-Word SOT-MRAM -- 8.4.2.3 VCMA-Assisted Precession-Toggle MRAM -- 8.5 Relative Merit of Advanced Switching Mode MRAMs -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 9 MRAM Applications and Production -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Intrinsic Characteristics and Product Attributes of Emerging Nonvolatile Memories -- 9.2.1 Intrinsic Properties -- 9.2.2 Product Attributes -- 9.3 Memory Landscape and MRAM Opportunity -- 9.3.1 MRAM as Embedded Memory in Logic Chips -- 9.3.1.1 Integration Issues of Embedded MRAM -- 9.3.1.2 MRAM as Embedded Flash in Microcontroller -- 9.3.1.3 Embedded MRAM Cell Size -- 9.3.1.4 MRAM as Cache Memory in Processor</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="505" ind1="8" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">9.3.1.5 Improvement of Access Latency -- 9.3.2 High-Density Discrete MRAM -- 9.3.2.1 Technology Status -- 9.3.2.2 Ideal CMOS Technology for High-Density MRAM -- 9.3.2.3 Improvement to Endurance and Write Error Rate with Error Buffer in Chip Architecture -- 9.3.3 Applications and Market Opportunity of MRAM -- 9.3.3.1 Battery-Backed DRAM Applications -- 9.3.3.2 Internet of Things (IoT) and Cybersecurity Applications -- 9.3.3.3 Applications to In-Memory Computing, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) -- 9.3.3.4 MRAM-Based Memory-Driven Computer -- 9.4 MRAM Production -- 9.4.1 MRAM Production Ecosystem -- 9.4.2 MRAM Product History -- 9.4.2.1 First-Generation MRAM - Field MRAM (Also Called Toggle MRAM) -- 9.4.2.2 The Second-Generation MRAM - STT-MRAM -- 9.4.2.3 The Potential Third-Generation MRAM - SOT MRAM -- Homework -- References -- Appendix A Retention Bake (Including Two-Way Flip) -- Reference -- Appendix B Memory Functionality-Based Scaling -- B.1 Introduction -- B.2 Operating Parameters for Write Endurance Failure Analysis -- B.3 Functional Requirements for Scaling -- B.3.1 Write Function - Switching Current Density -- B.3.2 Read Function - Read Speed and Read Signal -- B.4 Scaling Procedure -- B.5 Scaling Impacts -- B.5.1 VSW and JVSW -- B.5.2 Read Disturb -- B.5.3 Switching Current -- B.5.4 Nonvolatile Function - Data Retention -- B.5.5 Remarks on Temperature -- B.6 Write Endurance and its Lifetime Characterization Method -- B.7 Summary -- References -- Appendix C High-Bandwidth Design Considerations for STT-MRAM -- C.1 Introduction -- C.2 DRAM Fundamentals -- C.2.1 Cell and Sense Amplifier - Basic Operations -- C.2.2 Terminologies -- C.2.3 Basic Approach of High-Bandwidth SDRAM -- C.2.4 SDRAM Operation Mechanism -- C.2.5 SDRAM Performance -- C.3 Random Row Access Performance Analysis -- C.4 STT-MRAM Fundamentals -- C.4.1 Cell and Basic Operation</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="505" ind1="8" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">C.4.2 On-Chip Error-Correcting Code (ECC)</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Magnetspeicher</subfield><subfield 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index_date	2024-07-03T18:01:24Z
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spelling	Tang, Denny D. Verfasser (DE-588)143930826 aut Magnetic Memory Technology Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond Denny D. Tang (Tang Consultancy), Chi-Feng Pai (National Taiwan University) Hoboken, NJ John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated 2021 ©2021 1 Online-Ressource (xxiv, 327 Seiten) txt rdacontent c rdamedia cr rdacarrier Description based on publisher supplied metadata and other sources Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Author Biographies -- List of Cited Tables and Figures -- Chapter 1 Basic Electromagnetism -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Magnetic Force, Pole, Field, and Dipole -- 1.3 Magnetic Dipole Moment, Torque, and Energy -- 1.4 Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Induction -- 1.5 Ampère's Circuital Law, Biot-Savart Law, and Magnetic Field from Magnetic Material -- 1.5.1 Ampère's Circuital Law -- 1.5.2 Biot-Savart's Law -- 1.5.3 Magnetic Field from Magnetic Material -- 1.6 Equations, cgs-SI Unit Conversion Tables -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 2 Magnetism and Magnetic Materials -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Origin of Magnetization -- 2.2.1 From Ampère to Einstein -- 2.2.2 Precession -- 2.2.3 Electron Spin -- 2.2.4 Spin-Orbit Interaction -- 2.2.5 Hund's Rules -- 2.3 Classification of Magnetisms -- 2.3.1 Diamagnetism -- 2.3.2 Paramagnetism -- 2.3.3 Ferromagnetism -- 2.3.4 Antiferromagnetism -- 2.3.5 Ferrimagnetism -- 2.4 Exchange Interactions -- 2.4.1 Direct Exchange -- 2.4.2 Indirect Exchange: Superexchange -- 2.4.3 Indirect Exchange: RKKY Interaction -- 2.4.4 Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya Interaction (DMI) -- 2.5 Magnetization in Magnetic Metals and Oxides -- 2.5.1 Slater-Pauling Curve -- 2.5.2 Rigid Band Model -- 2.5.3 Iron Oxides and Iron Garnets -- 2.6 Phenomenology of Magnetic Anisotropy -- 2.6.1 Uniaxial Anisotropy -- 2.6.2 Cubic Anisotropy -- 2.7 Origins of Magnetic Anisotropy -- 2.7.1 Shape Anisotropy -- 2.7.2 Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy (MCA) -- 2.7.3 Perpendicular Magnetic Anisotropy (PMA) -- 2.8 Magnetic Domain and Domain Walls -- 2.8.1 Domain Wall -- 2.8.2 Single Domain and Superparamagnetism -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 3 Magnetic Thin Films -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Magnetic Thin Film Growth -- 3.2.1 Sputter Deposition -- 3.2.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) 3.3 Magnetic Thin Film Characterization -- 3.3.1 Vibrating-Sample Magnetometer (VSM) -- 3.3.2 Magneto-Optical Kerr Effect (MOKE) -- References -- Chapter 4 Magnetoresistance Effects -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance (AMR) -- 4.3 Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) -- 4.4 Tunneling Magnetoresistance (TMR) -- 4.5 Contemporary MTJ Designs and Characterization -- 4.5.1 Perpendicular MTJ (p-MTJ) -- 4.5.2 Fully Functional p-MTJ -- 4.5.3 CIPT Approach for TMR Characterization -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 5 Magnetization Switching and Field MRAMs -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Magnetization Reversible Rotation and Irreversible Switching Under External Field -- 5.2.1 Magnetization Rotation Under an External Field in the Hard Axis Direction -- 5.2.2 Magnetization Rotation and Switching Under an external Field in the Easy Axis Direction -- 5.2.3 Magnetization Rotation and Switching Under Two Orthogonal External Fields -- 5.2.4 Magnetization Behavior of a Synthetic Anti-ferromagnetic Film Stack -- 5.3 Field MRAMs -- 5.3.1 MTJ of Field MRAM -- 5.3.2 Half-Select Bit Disturbance Issue -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 6 Spin Current and Spin Dynamics -- 6.1 Introduction to Hall Effects -- 6.1.1 Ordinary Hall Effect -- 6.1.2 Anomalous Hall Effect and Spin Hall Effect -- 6.2 Spin Current -- 6.2.1 Electron Spin Polarization in NM/FM/NM Film Stack -- 6.2.2 Spin Current Injection, Diffusion, and Inverse Spin Hall Effect -- 6.2.3 Generalized Carrier and Spin Current Drift-Diffusion Equation -- 6.3 Spin Dynamics -- 6.3.1 Landau-Lifshitz and Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equations of Motion -- 6.3.2 Ferromagnetic Resonance -- 6.3.3 Spin Pumping and Effective Damping in FM/NM Film Stack -- 6.3.4 FM/NM/FM Coupling Through Spin Current -- 6.4 Interaction Between Polarized Conduction Electrons and Local Magnetization 6.4.1 Electron Spin Torque Transfer to Local Magnetic Magnetization -- 6.4.2 Macrospin Model -- 6.4.3 Spin-Torque Transfer in a Spin Valve -- 6.4.3.1 Switching Threshold Current Density -- 6.4.3.2 Switching Time -- 6.4.4 Spin-Torque Transfer Switching in Magnetic Tunnel Junction -- 6.4.5 Spin-Torque Ferromagnetic Resonance and Torkance -- 6.5 Spin Current Interaction with Domain Wall -- 6.5.1 Domain Wall Motion under Spin Current -- 6.5.2 Threshold Current Density -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 7 Spin-Torque-Transfer (STT) MRAM Engineering -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Thermal Stability Energy and Switching Energy -- 7.3 STT Switching Properties -- 7.3.1 Switching Probability and Write Error Rate (WER) -- 7.3.2 Switching Current in Precessional Regime -- 7.3.3 Switching Delay of an STT-MRAM Cell -- 7.3.4 Read Disturb Rate -- 7.3.5 Switching Under a Magnetic Field - Phase Diagram -- 7.3.6 MTJ Switching Abnormality -- 7.3.6.1 Magnetic Back-Hopping -- 7.3.6.2 Bifurcation Switching (Ballooning in WER) -- 7.3.6.3 Domain Mediated Magnetization Reversal -- 7.4 The Integrity of MTJ Tunnel Barrier -- 7.4.1 MgO Degradation Model -- 7.5 Data Retention -- 7.5.1 Retention Determination Based on Bit Switching Probability -- 7.5.2 Energy Barrier Determination Based on Aiding Field -- 7.5.3 Energy Barrier Extraction with Retention Bake at Chip Level -- 7.5.4 Data Retention Fail at the Chip Level -- 7.6 The Cell Design Considerations and Scaling -- 7.6.1 STT-MRAM Bit Cell and Array -- 7.6.2 CMOS Options -- 7.6.3 Cell Switching Efficiency -- 7.6.4 Cell Design Considerations -- 7.6.4.1 WRITE Current and Cell Size -- 7.6.4.2 READ Access Performance and RA Product of MTJ -- 7.6.4.3 READ and WRITE Voltage Margins -- 7.6.4.4 Stray Field Control for Perpendicular MTJ -- 7.6.4.5 Suppress Stochastic Switching Time Variation Ideas -- 7.6.5 The Scaling of MTJ for Memory 7.6.5.1 In-Plane MTJ -- 7.6.5.2 Out-of-Plane (Perpendicular) MTJ -- 7.7 MTJ SPICE Models -- 7.7.1 Basic MTJ Equivalent Circuit Model for Circuit Design Simulation -- 7.7.2 MTJ SPICE Circuit Model with Embedded Macrospin Calculator -- 7.8 Test Chip, Test, and Chip-Level Weak Bit Screening -- 7.8.1 Read Marginal Bits -- 7.8.2 Write Marginal Bits -- 7.8.3 Short Retention Bits -- 7.8.4 Low Endurance Bits -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 8 Advanced Switching MRAM Modes -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Current-Induced-Domain-Wall Motion (CIDM) Memory -- 8.2.1 Single-Bit Cell -- 8.2.2 Multibit Cell: Racetrack -- 8.3 Spin-Orbit Torque (SOT) Memory -- 8.3.1 Spin Orbit Torque (SOT) MRAM Cells -- 8.3.1.1 In-Plane SOT Cell -- 8.3.1.1.1 Cell Engineering and Device Properties -- 8.3.1.1.2 Cell Scaling -- 8.3.1.2 Perpendicular SOT Cell -- 8.3.2 Materials Choice for SOT-MRAM Cell -- 8.3.2.1 Transition Metals and their Alloys -- 8.3.2.2 Emergent Materials Systems -- 8.3.2.3 Benchmarking of SOT Switching Efficiency -- 8.4 Magneto-Electric Effect and Voltage-Control Magnetic Anisotropy (VCMA) MRAM -- 8.4.1 Magneto-Electric Effects -- 8.4.2 VCMA-Assisted MRAMs -- 8.4.2.1 VCMA-Assisted Field-MRAM -- 8.4.2.2 VCMA-Assisted Multi-bit-Word SOT-MRAM -- 8.4.2.3 VCMA-Assisted Precession-Toggle MRAM -- 8.5 Relative Merit of Advanced Switching Mode MRAMs -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 9 MRAM Applications and Production -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Intrinsic Characteristics and Product Attributes of Emerging Nonvolatile Memories -- 9.2.1 Intrinsic Properties -- 9.2.2 Product Attributes -- 9.3 Memory Landscape and MRAM Opportunity -- 9.3.1 MRAM as Embedded Memory in Logic Chips -- 9.3.1.1 Integration Issues of Embedded MRAM -- 9.3.1.2 MRAM as Embedded Flash in Microcontroller -- 9.3.1.3 Embedded MRAM Cell Size -- 9.3.1.4 MRAM as Cache Memory in Processor 9.3.1.5 Improvement of Access Latency -- 9.3.2 High-Density Discrete MRAM -- 9.3.2.1 Technology Status -- 9.3.2.2 Ideal CMOS Technology for High-Density MRAM -- 9.3.2.3 Improvement to Endurance and Write Error Rate with Error Buffer in Chip Architecture -- 9.3.3 Applications and Market Opportunity of MRAM -- 9.3.3.1 Battery-Backed DRAM Applications -- 9.3.3.2 Internet of Things (IoT) and Cybersecurity Applications -- 9.3.3.3 Applications to In-Memory Computing, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) -- 9.3.3.4 MRAM-Based Memory-Driven Computer -- 9.4 MRAM Production -- 9.4.1 MRAM Production Ecosystem -- 9.4.2 MRAM Product History -- 9.4.2.1 First-Generation MRAM - Field MRAM (Also Called Toggle MRAM) -- 9.4.2.2 The Second-Generation MRAM - STT-MRAM -- 9.4.2.3 The Potential Third-Generation MRAM - SOT MRAM -- Homework -- References -- Appendix A Retention Bake (Including Two-Way Flip) -- Reference -- Appendix B Memory Functionality-Based Scaling -- B.1 Introduction -- B.2 Operating Parameters for Write Endurance Failure Analysis -- B.3 Functional Requirements for Scaling -- B.3.1 Write Function - Switching Current Density -- B.3.2 Read Function - Read Speed and Read Signal -- B.4 Scaling Procedure -- B.5 Scaling Impacts -- B.5.1 VSW and JVSW -- B.5.2 Read Disturb -- B.5.3 Switching Current -- B.5.4 Nonvolatile Function - Data Retention -- B.5.5 Remarks on Temperature -- B.6 Write Endurance and its Lifetime Characterization Method -- B.7 Summary -- References -- Appendix C High-Bandwidth Design Considerations for STT-MRAM -- C.1 Introduction -- C.2 DRAM Fundamentals -- C.2.1 Cell and Sense Amplifier - Basic Operations -- C.2.2 Terminologies -- C.2.3 Basic Approach of High-Bandwidth SDRAM -- C.2.4 SDRAM Operation Mechanism -- C.2.5 SDRAM Performance -- C.3 Random Row Access Performance Analysis -- C.4 STT-MRAM Fundamentals -- C.4.1 Cell and Basic Operation C.4.2 On-Chip Error-Correcting Code (ECC) Magnetspeicher (DE-588)4168608-1 gnd rswk-swf Spin-transfer torque (DE-588)1167066898 gnd rswk-swf Magnetspeicher (DE-588)4168608-1 s Spin-transfer torque (DE-588)1167066898 s DE-604 Pai, Chi-Feng Verfasser aut Erscheint auch als Druck-Ausgabe Tang, Denny D. Magnetic Memory Technology Newark : John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated,c2021 9781119562238
spellingShingle	Tang, Denny D. Pai, Chi-Feng Magnetic Memory Technology Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Author Biographies -- List of Cited Tables and Figures -- Chapter 1 Basic Electromagnetism -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Magnetic Force, Pole, Field, and Dipole -- 1.3 Magnetic Dipole Moment, Torque, and Energy -- 1.4 Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Induction -- 1.5 Ampère's Circuital Law, Biot-Savart Law, and Magnetic Field from Magnetic Material -- 1.5.1 Ampère's Circuital Law -- 1.5.2 Biot-Savart's Law -- 1.5.3 Magnetic Field from Magnetic Material -- 1.6 Equations, cgs-SI Unit Conversion Tables -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 2 Magnetism and Magnetic Materials -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Origin of Magnetization -- 2.2.1 From Ampère to Einstein -- 2.2.2 Precession -- 2.2.3 Electron Spin -- 2.2.4 Spin-Orbit Interaction -- 2.2.5 Hund's Rules -- 2.3 Classification of Magnetisms -- 2.3.1 Diamagnetism -- 2.3.2 Paramagnetism -- 2.3.3 Ferromagnetism -- 2.3.4 Antiferromagnetism -- 2.3.5 Ferrimagnetism -- 2.4 Exchange Interactions -- 2.4.1 Direct Exchange -- 2.4.2 Indirect Exchange: Superexchange -- 2.4.3 Indirect Exchange: RKKY Interaction -- 2.4.4 Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya Interaction (DMI) -- 2.5 Magnetization in Magnetic Metals and Oxides -- 2.5.1 Slater-Pauling Curve -- 2.5.2 Rigid Band Model -- 2.5.3 Iron Oxides and Iron Garnets -- 2.6 Phenomenology of Magnetic Anisotropy -- 2.6.1 Uniaxial Anisotropy -- 2.6.2 Cubic Anisotropy -- 2.7 Origins of Magnetic Anisotropy -- 2.7.1 Shape Anisotropy -- 2.7.2 Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy (MCA) -- 2.7.3 Perpendicular Magnetic Anisotropy (PMA) -- 2.8 Magnetic Domain and Domain Walls -- 2.8.1 Domain Wall -- 2.8.2 Single Domain and Superparamagnetism -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 3 Magnetic Thin Films -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Magnetic Thin Film Growth -- 3.2.1 Sputter Deposition -- 3.2.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) 3.3 Magnetic Thin Film Characterization -- 3.3.1 Vibrating-Sample Magnetometer (VSM) -- 3.3.2 Magneto-Optical Kerr Effect (MOKE) -- References -- Chapter 4 Magnetoresistance Effects -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance (AMR) -- 4.3 Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) -- 4.4 Tunneling Magnetoresistance (TMR) -- 4.5 Contemporary MTJ Designs and Characterization -- 4.5.1 Perpendicular MTJ (p-MTJ) -- 4.5.2 Fully Functional p-MTJ -- 4.5.3 CIPT Approach for TMR Characterization -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 5 Magnetization Switching and Field MRAMs -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Magnetization Reversible Rotation and Irreversible Switching Under External Field -- 5.2.1 Magnetization Rotation Under an External Field in the Hard Axis Direction -- 5.2.2 Magnetization Rotation and Switching Under an external Field in the Easy Axis Direction -- 5.2.3 Magnetization Rotation and Switching Under Two Orthogonal External Fields -- 5.2.4 Magnetization Behavior of a Synthetic Anti-ferromagnetic Film Stack -- 5.3 Field MRAMs -- 5.3.1 MTJ of Field MRAM -- 5.3.2 Half-Select Bit Disturbance Issue -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 6 Spin Current and Spin Dynamics -- 6.1 Introduction to Hall Effects -- 6.1.1 Ordinary Hall Effect -- 6.1.2 Anomalous Hall Effect and Spin Hall Effect -- 6.2 Spin Current -- 6.2.1 Electron Spin Polarization in NM/FM/NM Film Stack -- 6.2.2 Spin Current Injection, Diffusion, and Inverse Spin Hall Effect -- 6.2.3 Generalized Carrier and Spin Current Drift-Diffusion Equation -- 6.3 Spin Dynamics -- 6.3.1 Landau-Lifshitz and Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equations of Motion -- 6.3.2 Ferromagnetic Resonance -- 6.3.3 Spin Pumping and Effective Damping in FM/NM Film Stack -- 6.3.4 FM/NM/FM Coupling Through Spin Current -- 6.4 Interaction Between Polarized Conduction Electrons and Local Magnetization 6.4.1 Electron Spin Torque Transfer to Local Magnetic Magnetization -- 6.4.2 Macrospin Model -- 6.4.3 Spin-Torque Transfer in a Spin Valve -- 6.4.3.1 Switching Threshold Current Density -- 6.4.3.2 Switching Time -- 6.4.4 Spin-Torque Transfer Switching in Magnetic Tunnel Junction -- 6.4.5 Spin-Torque Ferromagnetic Resonance and Torkance -- 6.5 Spin Current Interaction with Domain Wall -- 6.5.1 Domain Wall Motion under Spin Current -- 6.5.2 Threshold Current Density -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 7 Spin-Torque-Transfer (STT) MRAM Engineering -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Thermal Stability Energy and Switching Energy -- 7.3 STT Switching Properties -- 7.3.1 Switching Probability and Write Error Rate (WER) -- 7.3.2 Switching Current in Precessional Regime -- 7.3.3 Switching Delay of an STT-MRAM Cell -- 7.3.4 Read Disturb Rate -- 7.3.5 Switching Under a Magnetic Field - Phase Diagram -- 7.3.6 MTJ Switching Abnormality -- 7.3.6.1 Magnetic Back-Hopping -- 7.3.6.2 Bifurcation Switching (Ballooning in WER) -- 7.3.6.3 Domain Mediated Magnetization Reversal -- 7.4 The Integrity of MTJ Tunnel Barrier -- 7.4.1 MgO Degradation Model -- 7.5 Data Retention -- 7.5.1 Retention Determination Based on Bit Switching Probability -- 7.5.2 Energy Barrier Determination Based on Aiding Field -- 7.5.3 Energy Barrier Extraction with Retention Bake at Chip Level -- 7.5.4 Data Retention Fail at the Chip Level -- 7.6 The Cell Design Considerations and Scaling -- 7.6.1 STT-MRAM Bit Cell and Array -- 7.6.2 CMOS Options -- 7.6.3 Cell Switching Efficiency -- 7.6.4 Cell Design Considerations -- 7.6.4.1 WRITE Current and Cell Size -- 7.6.4.2 READ Access Performance and RA Product of MTJ -- 7.6.4.3 READ and WRITE Voltage Margins -- 7.6.4.4 Stray Field Control for Perpendicular MTJ -- 7.6.4.5 Suppress Stochastic Switching Time Variation Ideas -- 7.6.5 The Scaling of MTJ for Memory 7.6.5.1 In-Plane MTJ -- 7.6.5.2 Out-of-Plane (Perpendicular) MTJ -- 7.7 MTJ SPICE Models -- 7.7.1 Basic MTJ Equivalent Circuit Model for Circuit Design Simulation -- 7.7.2 MTJ SPICE Circuit Model with Embedded Macrospin Calculator -- 7.8 Test Chip, Test, and Chip-Level Weak Bit Screening -- 7.8.1 Read Marginal Bits -- 7.8.2 Write Marginal Bits -- 7.8.3 Short Retention Bits -- 7.8.4 Low Endurance Bits -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 8 Advanced Switching MRAM Modes -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Current-Induced-Domain-Wall Motion (CIDM) Memory -- 8.2.1 Single-Bit Cell -- 8.2.2 Multibit Cell: Racetrack -- 8.3 Spin-Orbit Torque (SOT) Memory -- 8.3.1 Spin Orbit Torque (SOT) MRAM Cells -- 8.3.1.1 In-Plane SOT Cell -- 8.3.1.1.1 Cell Engineering and Device Properties -- 8.3.1.1.2 Cell Scaling -- 8.3.1.2 Perpendicular SOT Cell -- 8.3.2 Materials Choice for SOT-MRAM Cell -- 8.3.2.1 Transition Metals and their Alloys -- 8.3.2.2 Emergent Materials Systems -- 8.3.2.3 Benchmarking of SOT Switching Efficiency -- 8.4 Magneto-Electric Effect and Voltage-Control Magnetic Anisotropy (VCMA) MRAM -- 8.4.1 Magneto-Electric Effects -- 8.4.2 VCMA-Assisted MRAMs -- 8.4.2.1 VCMA-Assisted Field-MRAM -- 8.4.2.2 VCMA-Assisted Multi-bit-Word SOT-MRAM -- 8.4.2.3 VCMA-Assisted Precession-Toggle MRAM -- 8.5 Relative Merit of Advanced Switching Mode MRAMs -- Homework -- References -- Chapter 9 MRAM Applications and Production -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Intrinsic Characteristics and Product Attributes of Emerging Nonvolatile Memories -- 9.2.1 Intrinsic Properties -- 9.2.2 Product Attributes -- 9.3 Memory Landscape and MRAM Opportunity -- 9.3.1 MRAM as Embedded Memory in Logic Chips -- 9.3.1.1 Integration Issues of Embedded MRAM -- 9.3.1.2 MRAM as Embedded Flash in Microcontroller -- 9.3.1.3 Embedded MRAM Cell Size -- 9.3.1.4 MRAM as Cache Memory in Processor 9.3.1.5 Improvement of Access Latency -- 9.3.2 High-Density Discrete MRAM -- 9.3.2.1 Technology Status -- 9.3.2.2 Ideal CMOS Technology for High-Density MRAM -- 9.3.2.3 Improvement to Endurance and Write Error Rate with Error Buffer in Chip Architecture -- 9.3.3 Applications and Market Opportunity of MRAM -- 9.3.3.1 Battery-Backed DRAM Applications -- 9.3.3.2 Internet of Things (IoT) and Cybersecurity Applications -- 9.3.3.3 Applications to In-Memory Computing, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) -- 9.3.3.4 MRAM-Based Memory-Driven Computer -- 9.4 MRAM Production -- 9.4.1 MRAM Production Ecosystem -- 9.4.2 MRAM Product History -- 9.4.2.1 First-Generation MRAM - Field MRAM (Also Called Toggle MRAM) -- 9.4.2.2 The Second-Generation MRAM - STT-MRAM -- 9.4.2.3 The Potential Third-Generation MRAM - SOT MRAM -- Homework -- References -- Appendix A Retention Bake (Including Two-Way Flip) -- Reference -- Appendix B Memory Functionality-Based Scaling -- B.1 Introduction -- B.2 Operating Parameters for Write Endurance Failure Analysis -- B.3 Functional Requirements for Scaling -- B.3.1 Write Function - Switching Current Density -- B.3.2 Read Function - Read Speed and Read Signal -- B.4 Scaling Procedure -- B.5 Scaling Impacts -- B.5.1 VSW and JVSW -- B.5.2 Read Disturb -- B.5.3 Switching Current -- B.5.4 Nonvolatile Function - Data Retention -- B.5.5 Remarks on Temperature -- B.6 Write Endurance and its Lifetime Characterization Method -- B.7 Summary -- References -- Appendix C High-Bandwidth Design Considerations for STT-MRAM -- C.1 Introduction -- C.2 DRAM Fundamentals -- C.2.1 Cell and Sense Amplifier - Basic Operations -- C.2.2 Terminologies -- C.2.3 Basic Approach of High-Bandwidth SDRAM -- C.2.4 SDRAM Operation Mechanism -- C.2.5 SDRAM Performance -- C.3 Random Row Access Performance Analysis -- C.4 STT-MRAM Fundamentals -- C.4.1 Cell and Basic Operation C.4.2 On-Chip Error-Correcting Code (ECC) Magnetspeicher (DE-588)4168608-1 gnd Spin-transfer torque (DE-588)1167066898 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4168608-1 (DE-588)1167066898
title	Magnetic Memory Technology Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond
title_auth	Magnetic Memory Technology Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond
title_exact_search	Magnetic Memory Technology Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond
title_exact_search_txtP	Magnetic Memory Technology Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond
title_full	Magnetic Memory Technology Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond Denny D. Tang (Tang Consultancy), Chi-Feng Pai (National Taiwan University)
title_fullStr	Magnetic Memory Technology Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond Denny D. Tang (Tang Consultancy), Chi-Feng Pai (National Taiwan University)
title_full_unstemmed	Magnetic Memory Technology Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond Denny D. Tang (Tang Consultancy), Chi-Feng Pai (National Taiwan University)
title_short	Magnetic Memory Technology
title_sort	magnetic memory technology spin transfer torque mram and beyond
title_sub	Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond
topic	Magnetspeicher (DE-588)4168608-1 gnd Spin-transfer torque (DE-588)1167066898 gnd
topic_facet	Magnetspeicher Spin-transfer torque
work_keys_str_mv	AT tangdennyd magneticmemorytechnologyspintransfertorquemramandbeyond AT paichifeng magneticmemorytechnologyspintransfertorquemramandbeyond

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