Faustian bargain: the Soviet-German partnership and the origins of the Second World War
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CONTENTS Acknowledgments ix Note on Transliteration and Translation List ofAbbreviations xv Introduction: A Faustian Bargain 1 PART I. Sowing the Wind 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. The Bolsheviks’ Army 9 Revolution and Reaction 27 The Treaty of Versailles 26 The Polish-Bolshevik War 35 The Corporate Program 41 The Road to Rapallo 47 Poison Gas 53 Coups and Countermeasures 61 The Frunze Era 67 Command of the Air 72 The Wooden Titan 78 New Faces 83 Chemist Gypsies 88 The Junkers Scandal 92 Resetting Relations 96 The Lohmann Scandal 102 The Tanks Arrive 110 Winter of Crisis 119 Machines of the Future 125 Yellow Cross 132 Hunger 137 Schleicher 145 Rearmament 149 PART II. Reaping the Whirlwind 24. The End of an Era 157 25. Enemies Again 165 xiii
26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. Long Knives 172 The End of Versailles 176 Terror 182 The Technological Window Purges and Panic 194 Stormclouds 201 Fulfillment 210 Uneasy Allies 216 Blitzkrieg 222 Whirlwind 229 Conclusion: A Faustian Price Notes 243 Bibliography Index 337 [viii] Contents 315 189 235
BIBLIOGRAPHY ARCHIVES CONSULTED United States HIA Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford, California HRC Harry Ransom Center, Austin, Texas JPI-NY Josef Piłsudski Institute, New York МА-YU Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut NARA National Archives at College Park, Maryland NWC Naval Historical Collection, Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island NYPL New York Public Library Archives, New YorkY-RAPRussian Archives Project, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut Germany BA֊L BA-MA DBCA KA-E MAN PA-AA PCA Federal Archive Berlin—Lichterfelde, Berlin Federal Archive—Military Archive, Freiburg Daimler-Benz Corporate Archives, Stuttgart Thyssen-Krupp Corporate Archives, Essen M.A.N. Corporate Archives, Augsburg Foreign Ministry—Political Archives, Berlin Porsche Corporate Archives, Stuttgart AAN Archiwum Akt Nowych, Warsaw GALO GARF RGAE RGASPI RGVA TsGASO State Archive of Lipetsk Oblast, Lipetsk The State Archive of the Russian Federation, Moscow The Russian State Archive of the Economy The Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History, Moscow The Russian State Military Archives, Moscow The Central State Archive of Samara Oblast, Samara Poland Russia United Kingdom ' BNA JPI-L The National Archives, Kew Josef Piłsudski Institute, London PUBLISHED DOCUMENT COLLECTIONS Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik, 1918-1945 [Documents on German Foreign Policy], Serie A und B. Göttingen: Vondenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1950-1995. Cited as ADAP. Documents in British Foreign Policy, 1919-1939. Series I, II, III. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1948.
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INDEX For the benefit ofdigital users, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52-53) may, on occasion, appear on only one of those pages. Figures are indicated by ƒ following the page number. Adam, Wilhelm, 146 Aerounion, 44 aircraft design and production. See also Fili Aviation Plant chemical aviation, 72-74, 90-91, 139-40 design by German firms, 58-59 in France, 192 in Great Britain, 191 as immediate result of Rapallo, 49-52 impact of Soviet-German alliance on, 4-5 prototype testing at Lipetsk, 126-28 reestablishment of German air power, 168-69 shift to Russia, 44 by Soviets, 94-95 Soviet technological rearmament program, 123-24 technological window, 190-93 testing in Spanish Civil War, 182-84 testing of prototypes at Lipetsk, 86-87 umbrella organization for, 57 Air Force of the Red Army (WS) aircraft production, 147 espionage at Lipetsk, 128-30 first major aviation purchase, 279n.35 German officers as consultants for, 79-80 Lipetsk flight school, establishment of, 75-77 rebuilding of, 67-68 Air Ministry (RLM) name change to Luftwaffe, 174-75 reestablishment of German air power, 168-69 training facilities in Germany, 170-71 Albatros, 58-59,127 alcohol sales in Russia, ban on, 10 Allied powers, 14-15, 37. See also Treaty of Versailles American stock market crash, 120-22 animal testing, 139,142 Arado, 58-59,127 Arado Ar 234-Blitz airplane, 58-59 armored personnel carriers, 277n.79 Astakhov, Georgii, 205-6 Auer, 73-74 Austria, annexation of, 195-96 Baden, Maximilian von, 17 Balkans, 223-24 ban on alcohol sales in Russia, 10 Baranov, Peter Ionovich, 67-68, 77, 81 Battle of
France, 222-23 Bavaria, 22, 62-63 Bayerische Flugzeugwerke, 58-59 Beck, Jozef, 29ІП.16 Beck, Ludwig, 175,194-95,199 Belgium, 222 Beneš, Eduard, 199 Berlin Bacon Aktiengesellschaft, 103 Bersol facility, 59 Bersol company, creation of, 59-60 longterm effects of, 269n.l8 slow progress at, 70, 74 Soviet takeover, 94 Bertoletovoy Soli facility, Soviet Union, 59 Berzin, Ianis, 135-36 Bf-109 aircraft, 58-59,190, 292n.41 Black Reichswehr (Schwarze Reichswehr), 29-30, 33, 62 blind flying exercises, 108-9 Blitzkrieg, 4
Blomberg, Werner von, 171 appointment as chief of Troop Office, 90 approval of Night of the Long Knives, 172 as commander-in-chief of armed forces, 175 end of Soviet-German partnership, 16263,164 Hossbach Conference, 189-90 joint tank training and testing project, 99-100 as minister of defense, 154 purge of office corps, 157-58 resignation of, 194-95 visit to Tomka facility, 107-8 Blum, Leon, 192 Blyukher, Vasily, 197,198 BMW, 65-66,123 Bockelberg, Alfred von, 161 Bolsheviks. See also Russian Civil War; Soviet Union concessionary agreements, 44-46 economic collaboration with Germany, 35-36 Kronstadt rebellion, 41-42 Left SR revolution against, 15-16 New Economic Policy, 42 October Revolution, 10-11 Polish-Bolshevik War, 36-40 Red Army, formation of, 13-16 relationship with Germans, 2 support during German Revolution, 20, 21 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 11-13 Treaty of Rapallo, 47-49 Bór-Komorowski, Tadeusz, 215 Bormann, Ernst, 278n.25 Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 Briand, Aristide, 42-43 Brockdorff-Rantzau, Ulrich von, 26, 27, 54 Brüning, Heinrich, 132,146 ВТ (Fast-Moving Tank) design, 147-48 Bulgaria, 224, 230 Central Aerodynamic Institute (TsGASI), 68,129 Chamberlain, Neville, 188,191,199, 2034, ЗОІп.42 chemical tank prototype, 134 chemical weaponry, 54-60. See also Bersol facility; Tomka facility animal testing, 139,142 chemical aviation, 72-74, 90-91, 139-40 chemical tank prototype, 134 [338] Index cooperation arrangements, 69-70 in First World War, 54, 56, 72 human testing, 140-41 long term effects of testing, 269n.l8 medical treatment for gas victims, testing,
140-41 Pfiffikus testing, 142-43 production facilities in Russia, 56-57, 59-60, 74 reform of VOKhIMU, 68-71 Soviet production of, 68-71,146 testing at Podosinki, 88-91,100-1 umbrella organization for, 57 underground German chemical industry, 55-56, 73-74 Chicherin, Georgy, 47,48 chlorine, 54 Cienciala, Anna, 301-2n.5 civil aviation programs, in Germany, 75 class structure in Russia, 10 collective security strategy, 167,174, 201 collectivization crisis, Soviet, 122-23 Command of the Air, The (Douhet), 72 communism. See also Bolsheviks; Soviet Union in Germany, 20, 35-36, 39-40, 62 Nazi hatred of, 159-61 uprising in Hamburg, Germany, 61-62 Communist Party of Germany (KPD), 20, 35-36, 39-40, 62 concessionary agreements, 44-46, 50, 255Ո.49, 255Ո.51, 256n.25 Condor Legion, 183-84 corporate program, 41-46 Council of Scientific Workers, in Germany, 73-74 Cuno, Wilhelm, 53, 54, 61 Czech Legion, 14-15, 245n.41 Czechoslovakia, ЗОІп.42 German invasion of, 198-200, 202-3, ЗООп.37 Munich Agreement, 196-97 Soviet-Czechoslovak Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 201 Daimler, 110,111-12,117,123,125,170, 292-93Ո.49 Daladier, Edouard, 165-66,199 December Plan, 168 Deep Battle doctrine, 148, 287n.34 Defense Act (1921), 32 Degussa, 73-74 Denikin, Anton, 245n.42 Dimitrov, Georgi, 304n.72 Dirksen, Herbert von, 166-67
disarmament program in Germany, 28-30 dismantling of chemical industry, 55 end of, 93 withdrawal of Germany from League of Nations, 165-66 doctrinal changes in military, impact of Soviet-German alliance on, 4-5 Dornier, 127 Douhet, Giulio, 72 Dubitsky, Ivan, 298n.43 Duranty, Walter, 207 DVP (German People’s Party), 61-62 Eastern politics (Ostpolitik), 35 Ebert, Friedrich, 18-19, 22, 78 Eckhardt, Theodor, 258-59n.37 economic collaboration, Soviet-German, 35 concessionary agreements, 44-46, 50, 255Ո.49, 255Ո.51, 256n.25 as investment for future European war, 39-40 during Polish-Bolshevik War, 37-38 trade agreements, 178, 201-2, 204-9 economy, German Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 hyperinflation crisis in Germany, 61-62 recovery during interwar period, 31 reparations payments, 42-43, 53, 61-62 stock market crash, effect on, 120-22 economy, Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 after Polish-Bolshevik War, 41-42 Eden, Anthony, 176-77 Egorov, Alexander, 167 Ehrhardt, Hermann, 31-32 Ektimov, Else, 102,103-4 Epp, Franz Ritter von, 22 Erzberger, Matthias, 18,19 espionage, Soviet, 128-30 Esso (ship), 219-20 Ethiopia, Italian invasion of, 180 ethnic cleansing, 37,197 Facta, Luigi, 47 Falck, Wolfgang, 138,151-52 Fall of France, 222-23 famine, in Russia, 41-42,122-23,137-38, 163 Fast-Moving Tank (ВТ) design, 147-48 Faustian bargain, 1-5 Fehrenbach, Constantin, 37,42-43 Felmy, Hellmuth, 152 Fest, Joachim, 146 Fiebig, Martin, 70, 79-80, 81 Fili Aviation Plant concessionary agreement with
Junkers, 50-52, 256Ո.25 efforts to revive, 81 investigation of slow progress at, 57-58 production problems at, 65-66 Soviet takeover, 94-95 temporary shutdown of production, 74 Finland, Soviet attack on, 218-19, 221 First World War. See also Treaty of Versailles aircraft in, 68, 26ІП.6 armistice agreement of Germany, 17-19 chemical weaponry in, 54, 56, 72,133 ethnic cleansing advocated in, 37 radio technology in, 282n.54 Russian Empire, fall of, 9-11 tanks in, 96, 97 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 11-13 Fischer, Herbert, 43, 69-70 Fishman, Yakov on chemical aviation, 73 chemical weapons testing at Podosinki, 88, 90, 91 as head of VOKhIMU, 68-71 training in Germany, 81-82 “Fist Strike” (Operation Faustschlag), 12 Fitzpatrick, Sheila, 83-84 Five-Year Plan, 119,120,122 Flandin, Pierre-Etienne, І76 Fleischhauer, Ingeborg, 301-2n.5, 303n.49 flight schools, joint, 70-71. See also Lipetsk flight school Foch, Ferdinand, 28-29 Focke-Wulf Fw-190,127 France efforts to contain German rearmament, 176-78,179-80 Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 177 German invasion of, 222-23 knowledge of German rearmament, 165-66 military weakness of, 177-78 mutual defense pact with Russia, 167 Non-Intervention Agreement in Spanish Civil War, 182 rearmament program of, 192-93 response to rearmament of Rhineland, 180-81 Soviet-Czechoslovak Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 201 Index Í339]
Franco, Francisco, 182,183-84 Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 177 Freedom Fighter Comrade Lenin, 97-98 Freikorps (Free Corps) military bands, 20-22 French tanks, 135 Fries, Amos, 73 Fritsch, Werner von, 175,189-90,195 Frunze, Mikhail death of, 83 effort to revive Fili plant, 81 and Lipetsk flight school, 75-77 reorganization of Red Army by, 67-68 report on Trotsky, 65 Frunze Military Academy, 143-44 Fyodorov, Lev, 140 Galland, Adolf, 296n.8 Gatzke, Hans, 267n.l2 GEFU (Society for Promotion of Commercial Enterprise), 57, 59, 85 GELA (Society for Agricultural Products), 89 Genoa summit, 47, 48 George, David Lloyd, 28-29,176 German General Staff model, 4-5 German military. See Reichswehr; Wehrmacht German People’s Party (DVP), 61-62 German Revolution, 19-23 German Social Democrats, 2 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 Germany. See also Hitler, Adolf; rearmament program of Germany; Treaty of Versailles armistice agreement ending First World War, 17-19 Battle of Britain, 224 Battle of France, 222-23 Beer Hall Putsch, 62-63 beginnings of Soviet-German alliance, 23-25 Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 communist uprising in, 61-62 concessionary agreements with Soviets, 44-46 dissolution of relationship with Soviet Union, 161-64 economic collaboration with Soviets, 35, 37-38 German Revolution, 19-23 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 [340] Index hatred of Soviets, 2 invasion of Czechoslovakia, 202-3 invasion of Poland, 212-15 invitation for Soviet Union to join Tripartite Pact, 224-28 Junkers Scandal, 92-95 military expenditures 1928-1929, 249Ո.40
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 3, 208-9, 210-11, 212ƒ Munich Agreement, 198-200 Night of the Long Knives, 172-73 nonaggression pact with Poland, 166-67 officer exchanges, 79-80, 81-82 Operation Barbarossa, 229-34, 237-38 Operation Weserubung, 221 Phoebus Scandal, 102-5 Poland, 1939 partition of, 1-2 Polish-Bolshevik War, role in, 36-40 preparations for war, 174-75 prisoner of war exchanges, 36 purges by Hitler, 194-96 radicalization in, 120-22 rearmament of Rhineland, 180-81 renewal of partnership with Soviet Union, 201-2, 204-9 reparations payments, 42-43, 53, 61-62 rise of Nazism in, 132 Soviet proposal of big program of military cooperation with, 84-85 in Spanish Civil War, 182-84 stock market crash, effect on, 120-22 trade agreement with Soviet Union, 178, 201-2 Treaty of Rapallo, 1-3, 47-49 Treaty of Versailles, 4 underground chemical industry in, 5556, 73-74 withdrawal from League of Nations, 165-66 Gesellschaft für landwirtschaftliche Artikel. See Society for Agricultural Products Gesellschaft zur Förderung gerwerblicher Unternehmungen. See Society for Promotion of Commercial Enterprise Gessler, Otto, 98-99,104 Gilbert, Martin, 28-29 Goebbels, Joseph, 180-81, 211 Gorbatov, Alexander Vasilievich, 185-86, 233, 297Ո.25 Göring, Hermann, 183,189-90,194-95, 296Ո.45 Gorlov, Sergei, 93
grain shortage, in Russia under Lenin, 41-42 under Stalin, 122-23,137-38 Grandsen, James, 312n.l6 Great Britain attempt at trade negotiations by Soviets, 306-7Ո.2 Battle of Britain, 224 efforts to contain German rearmament, 165,176-78 naval agreement with Germany, 178, 179-80 Non-Intervention Agreement in Spanish Civil War, 182 rearmament program of, 191 security guarantee for Poland, 203-4 Soviet purchase of tank designs, 286n.21 warnings to Soviets of German invasion, 231 Great Depression, 120-22, 289n.l0 Great Terror, 184-88 Groener, Wilhelm, 248n.8 end of First World War, 17-18 Freikorps, integration of, 22 as Minister of Defense, 104-5 opposition to Hitler, 145-46 reaction to Treaty of Versailles, 26-27 Second Armaments Program, 289n.9 Grosstraktor prototype design of, 110-12 modifications to, 126 testing of, 116-17,125,130,141 three-man turret design, 134 Grotte, Eduard, 148 Gruhn, Ema, 194-95 Grundherr, Alexander von, 106 Gryaznov, Ivan, 148 Gubanov, N. S., 163 Guderian, Heinz, 97 in Batttle of France, 222-23 in invasion of Poland, 213, 214 in Operation Barbarossa, 232-33 visits to Kama, 130,141 Guernica, Spain, 183-84, 297n.l3 Haber, Fritz, 54-56, 69,133 Hacha, Emil, 202-3 Hackmack, Hans, 89, 91 Hagelloch, Georg, 126,150, 274n.7 Haider, Franz, 229 Hamburg uprising, 61-62 Hammerstein-Equord, Kurt von, 117-18, 162 Harpe, Josef, 112 Hartmann, Otto, 160,161,164 Hasiam, Jonathan, 301-2n.5 Hasse, Otto, 43,47-48, 50 He-111 airplane, 58-59 Heavy Bomber-3 (TB-3), 147 Hefter, Ekkehard, 151-52,183 Heinkel, 127,128, 292n.37 Heinkel, Ernst, 86-87 Heinkel 51 (He-51) aircraft,
168-69, 292Ո.37 Heinkel Flugzeugwerke, 58-59 Heinkel HD-17 airplane, 87 Henrich, Otto, 57 Henschel, 278n.20 Herwarth, Johnnie von, 304n.71 Heye, Wilhelm, 43-44, 90, 99-100 High Command of the Armed Forces (OKW), 195 Hilger, Gustav, 36, 205, 210 Hindenburg, Paul von, 171 appointment of Hitler to chancellorship, 154,157 assumption of presidency, 78-79 death of, 173 end of First World War, 17-18 resignation of Groener, 145-46 resignation of Papen, 153 retirement of Seeckt, 89-90 Hitler, Adolf, 121, ЗОЗп.31 annexation of Austria, 195-96 appointment as chancellor, 154,157 Battle of Britain, 224 Battle of France, 222-23 Beer Hall Putsch, 62-63 beginning of dictatorship, 157-58 Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 diplomatic efforts to contain German rearmament, 176-78 dissolution of relationship with Soviet Union, 161-64 as Führer, 173 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 goal to destroy Soviet Union, 25ІП.20 Hossbach Conference, 189-90 invasion of Czechoslovakia, 202-3 invasion of Poland, 212-15 invitation for Soviet Union to join Tripartite Pact, 224-28 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 210-11, 212f Munich Agreement, 198-200 naval agreement with Great Britain, 178, 179-80 Night of the Long Knives, 172-73 nonaggression pact with Poland, 166-67 Index [341]
Hitler, Adolf (cont.) objectives of, 158 Operation Barbarossa, 229-34, 237-38 Operation Weserubung, 221 plan to invade Czechoslovakia, 196-97, 198-200 plan to invade Poland, 204 preparations for war, 174-75 purges by, 194-96 Rapallo Era, end of, 2-3 rearmament of Rhineland, 180-81 rearmament program, 158-59,168-69, 180 relationship with Soviets in early days, 159-61 renewal of partnership with Soviet Union, 204-9 Second Vienna Award, 224 support from Schleicher, 145-46 support of Spanish Civil War, 182-84 withdrawal of Germany from League of Nations, 165-66 Hoffmann, Johann, 114 Hoffmann, Max, 12,13 Hossbach Conference, 189-90,195-96 human testing in poison gas research, 140-41 Hungary, 224 hydrogen cyanide, 269n.l8 hyperinflation crisis in Germany, 61-62 IACC (Inter-Allied Commission of Control), 28, 93 IAMCC (Inter-Allied Military), 28, 29-30, 53-54, 55, 63 Imperial Germany disintegration of Army, 19 fall of, 17-19 Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD), 18 industrial espionage, 4 industrial firms, German. See also by name aircraft design by, 58-59 concessionary agreements with Soviets, 44-46, 50, 255Ո.49, 255n.51, 256n.25 disarmament program, 29-30 equipment sold to Soviets in 1920, 37-38 shift in manufacturing to Russia, 44-46 trade agreements with Soviets, 178, 201-2, 204-9 underground chemical industry, 55-56, 73-74 Institut für Gasanalyse, 74 [342] Index Inter-Allied Commission of Control (IACC), 28, 93 Inter-Allied Military (IAMCC), 28, 29-30, 53-54, 55, 63 Ipatieff, Vladimir, 56, 74 Isserson, Georgy Samoilovich, 298n.37 Italy diplomatic efforts to contain
German rearmament, 179-80 Munich Agreement, 199 Second Vienna Award, 224 Stresa Front, 176-77,178,179-80 support of Spanish Civil War, 182-83 Tripartite Pact, 224, 230 J-21 airplane design, 52 January Uprising, 20-21 Japanese attack on Soviet Union, 196-98 Ju-52 aircraft, 168-69 Ju-87 Stuka divebombers, 127,169, 22223, 232-33 Junek, Werner, 108 Jung-Märker, 108-9 Junkers, Hugo, 44, 47-48, 50, 94-95, 268Ո.2 Junkers 52 (Ju-52) aircraft, 168-69 Junkers AG, 254n.29 aircraft production, 127 concessionary agreement, 44, 47-48, 256Ո.25 efforts to revive Fili plant, 81 Junkers Scandal, 92-95 production problems at, 57-58, 65-66 shift in manufacturing to Russia, 49-52 temporary shutdown of production, 74 Junkers F-13 aircraft, 49-50 Junkers K-47 aircraft, 150-51,169 Junkers Scandal, 92-95 Junkers W-34 monoplane, 150-51 Kama facility arrival of students, 112-14 arrival of tanks, 116-18 end of German participation in, 162, 163-64 hands-on training, 116-18,149-50 LaS design, 141-42 prototype testing, 125-26 radio technology, 130-31,135-36, 283Ո.37 role in German rearmament, 158-59, 169-70,171 Soviet-German agreement on project, 96-100 tank prototypes for testing at, 110-12
theoretical training, 106-9 three-man turret design, 134-35 Kameradschaft’ 31,151-52 Kandelaki, David, 178,187 Kapp Putsch, 31-32 Kazakov, Alexander, 68 Kazan facility. See Kama facility Keitel, Wilhelm, 194,195, 237-38 Keynes, John Maynard, 29 Khalepsky, Innokenty, 123-24 Kinzel, Eberhard, 312n.ll Kirov, Sergei, 173 Komet (ship), 219-20 Kopp, Viktor, 35-36, 39, 25ІП.23 Koppen, Hans Joachim von, 112-13 Kork, August, 119 Koshkin, Michael, 147-48 Köstring, Ernst, 37, 40, 205, 210 KPD (Communist Party of Germany), 20, 35-36, 39-40, 62 Kravchenko, Andrei Grigorievich, 149-50 Kreb, Hans, 231 Krestinsky, Nikolai, 84, 85 Kristallnacht, ЗОІп.46 Krivoshein, Semyon, 214 Kronstadt rebellion, 41-42 Krupp, Alfred, 45 Krupp, Gustav, 45-46 Krupp Corporation, 169-70 agreement with Reichswehr, 45-46 disarmament program, 29-30 entry in Russia, 45-46 equipment sold to Soviets in 1920, 37-38 LaS tanks, 141-42,150,169 Panzer tanks, 169-70 tank designs by, 110-11,125-26 Kühn, Friedrich, 114, 222 Kuznetsov, Nikolai, 217 lachrymatory agents, 89 Landwirtschaftlicher Schlepper (LaS) design, 141-42,150,169 Laval, Pierre, 177,179 Left Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), 15-16 Leichttraktor prototype, 111-12,125-26, 130,141 Lenin, Vladimir Ilych, 2 concessionary agreements, 44-45 death of, 64-65 economic collaboration with Germany, 35-36 Left SR revolution against, 15-16 New Economic Policy, 42 October Revolution, 10-11 Polish-Bolshevik War, 36-40 Red Army, formation of, 13-15 successors suggested by, 64-65 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 11-13,19 War Communism, 41-42 Lieth-Thomsen, Hermann von der, 58, 76
chemical weapons testing at Podosinki, 88, 91 officer training programs overseen by, 63-64 organization of German ventures in Russia, 85 Lipetsk flight school, 101 alumni participation in Spanish Civil War, 183 end of German participation in, 160, 162,163-64 establishment of, 70-71, 74-77, 80 evaluation of, 85-86 expansion of research and development at, 85-87 famine, effect on, 137-38 fatalities at, 139 first season of activity at, 80-81 Kameradschaft’ 31,151-52 later use of prototypes tested at, 168-69 living conditions as, 138-39 prototype testing at, 126-28,150-52 role in German rearmament, 158, 170-71 Soviet espionage at, 128-30 training program for younger pilots, 108-9 Lipp, Franz, 22 Lippmann, Walter, 211 Lipski, Jozef, 296n.45 Lithuania, 203, 216, 230, 307n.4 escape of Pasha from, 24-25 Litvinov, Maxim, 167,177,187-88, 204-5 Locarno Treaties, 84, 266n.l3 Lohmann, Walther, 102-5, 272n.7 Lücht, Roluf, 87 Ludendorff, Erich, 17-18 Lufthansa, 86, 279n.51 Luftwaffe Battle of Britain, 224 Battle of France, 222-23 creation of, 174-75 invasion of Poland, 212-13 in Spanish Civil War, 182-84, 297n.l3 Luther, Hans, 84 Lutz, Oswald, 141,149 Lützow, Günther, 151-52,183 Lyushkov, Genrikh, 196-97 Index [343 ]
MacDonald, Ramsay, 165,176 machine guns, 277n.85, 278n.l6 Mader, Otto, 51-52 Maisky, Ivan, 204-5 Maltzan, Ago von, 35, 48 MAN (Maschinenfabrik AugsburgNürnberg) AG, 170 Manchester Guardian, 92 Manstein, Erich von, 237-38 Martel, Giffard, 299n.l7 Marx, Wilhelm, 93,102 Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg (MAN) AG, 170 Matsuoka, Yosuke, 230-31 medical treatment for gas victims, testing, 140-41 Mein Kampf (Hitler), 63 Merekalov, Alexei, 204 Merker, Otto, 277n.80 Messerschmitt, Wilhelm, 58-59 Messerschmitt Bf 109 airplane, 58-59, 292Ո.41 Metachim, 59 MG S2-100 machine gun, 277n.85, 278Ո.16 Milch, Erhardt, 159,168-69 Military Chemical Directorate (VOKhIMU), 68-71, 90 Mirbach, Wilhelm von, 13,15 Mitchell, Billy, 73 modernization of Red Army, 120,123-24, 137 Mölders, Werner, 183 Molotov, Vyacheslav invitation for Soviet Union to join Tripartite Pact, 224-28 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 207-8 naval agreement with Germany, 217-18 reaction to German invasion of Soviet Union, 234 replacement of Litvinov, 204-5 trade talks with Germans, 205 view of Tukhachevsky, 186 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 303n.49 logic behind, 236-37 signing of, 3,208-9, 210-11 territorial changes, 212f violations of, 223-24 Morozov, Alexander, 147-48 Moscow Aircraft Factory N22, 94-95 Moscow Central end of, 164 expansion of military rearmament work, 105 formation of, 63-64 [344] Index main office of, 275n.34 organization of German ventures, 85 Muller, Klaus, 114-15,135 Munich Agreement, 198-200, 201-2 Muntsch, Otto, 90-91 Mussolini, Benito Munich Agreement, 199 Second Vienna Award, 224 Stresa Front, 176-77,178,179-80
support of Spanish Civil War, 182-83 mustard gas animal testing of, 139 chemical aviation, 91,139-40 human testing, 140-41 limitations on testing in Germany, 74 medical treatment for victims, testing, 140-41 Pfiffikus testing, 142-43 production at Bersol, 59-60, 94 testing at Tomka, 132-34 Nauchnyi Avtomotornyi Institut (Scientific Institute for Engine Research (NAMI)), 79-80 Navy, German, 32 assessment by Groener, 104-5 cooperation with Soviets, 217-18, 219-20 joint cooperation with Soviets, 26263n.40,272-73Ո.18, 273n.24 Phoebus Scandal, 102-5 Navy, Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 217-18 joint cooperation with Germans, 27273n.l8, 273Ո.24 Nazi Party. See also Hitler, Adolf gain of majority in Reichstag, 132 Hitler appointed as chancellor, 152-54, 157 Night of the Long Knives, 172-73 purges by Hitler, 194-96 rise to power, 121,152-54 SA paramilitaries, 171,172-73 support from Schleicher, 145-46 withdrawal of Germany from League of Nations, 165-66 NEP (New Economic Policy), 42 Nesterov, Peter, 68 Netherlands, 222 Neubaufahrzeug (new-built vehicle), 150 Neumann, Wilhelm, 264n.23 Neurath, Konstantin von European disarmament talks, 165 Hossbach Conference, 189-90
Italian-German relationship, 178 nonaggression pact for Poland, 166 remilitarization of Rhineland, 180-81 removal from office, 195-96 new-built vehicle (Neubaufahrzeug), 150 New Economic Policy (NEP), 42 New York Times, 172,181 Nicholas II (Tsar), 9-11 Niedermayer, Ernst von, 63-64, 90,113, 133 Niedermayer, Oskar von, 43-44, 211 Nieuport Delage NiD 29 airplane, 52 Night of the Long Knives, 172-73 NKVD. See Soviet secret police Noliet, Charles, 28, 29 Non-Intervention Agreement, 182 Noske, Gustav, 19-22, 27, 32 October Revolution, 10-11 officers, German as consultants in Russia, 70, 79-80, 81, 143-44 in German Republic military force, 19-20 during interwar period, 31 role of Lipetsk in training, 170-71 in Russian Imperial Army, 10 in Sondergruppe R, 43-44 officers, Soviet Great Terror, 184-88 Red Army, formation of, 13-14 training in Germany, 80, 81-82,101, 143-44 officer training exchanges in Germany, 81-82,101,143 Soviet purge of officers, 184-88 in Soviet Union, 79-80, 81,143-44 OKW (High Command of the Armed Forces), 195 Operation Barbarossa, 229-34, 237-38 Operation Faustschlag (“Fist Strike”), 12 Operation Weserubung, 221 Ostpolitik (Eastern politics), 35 Otto Wolff Aktiengesellschaft, 45 Panzers, 4-5 in Battile of France, 222-23 design of, 169-70, 292-93Ո.49, 293Ո.51 production of, 190,193 Papen, Franz von, 146,153,154 Pasha, Enver, 24-25,40 People’s Republic of Bavaria, 22 Petrograd Soviet, 10-11 Pfiffikus testing, 142-43 Phoebus Scandal, 102-5, 273n.25 phosgene, 59-60, 74 pilot training programs, 68, 70-71. See also Lipetsk flight school Piłsudski, Josef, 36, 39,166
Pirner, Hans, 110, 111, 114,116-17,12526,131 Podosinki, chemical weapons testing at, 88-91,100-1 Pohlmann, Hermann, 127,169 poison gas. See chemical weaponry Poland, 49, 29ІП.16 1939 partition of, 1-2 fear of invasion in 1920, 252n.43 invasion by Germany, 204, 212-15 knowledge of Soviet concessionary agreements, 255n.51 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 208-9, 21011, 212f nonaggression pact with Germany, 166-67 Polish-Bolshevik War, 36-40 security guarantee from Great Britain, 203-4 Polish-Bolshevik War, 36-40 political pause in Soviet-German relations, 93 Popp, Franz Joseph, 65-66 Porsche, Ferdinand, 111, 117 prisoner of war exchanges, 19, 36 Provisional Government, in Russia, 10-11 prussic blue, 269n.l8 purges by Hitler, 172-73,194-96 by Stalin, 173,184-88 Putilov Works, 39 Pyatakov, Georgii, 81 Radek, Karl, 20, 21, 24 Rader-Raupen Kampfwagen M-28, 277Ո.80 radicalization in Germany, 120-22 radio technology development at Kama, 114,130-31, 135-36, 283Ո.37 in First World War, 282n.54 Radusch, Günther, 151-52 Raeder, Erich, 218 Rapallo Era concessionary agreements in, 46 cooperation during, 2-3 joint aviation project after, 49-52 signing of Treaty of Rapaflo, 47-49 Rathenau, Walther, 48, 255n.2 Index [345]
rearmament program of Germany, 235-36 acceleration under Hitler, 158-59,180 diplomatic efforts to contain, 176-78 French knowledge of, 165-66 Panzer tank design and production, 169-70 reestablishment of German air power, 168-69 Second Armaments Program, 289n.9 technological window, 189-93 training facilities in Germany, 170-71 rearmament programs in France, 192-93 in Great Britain, 191 Red Army. See also Kama facility; Lipetsk flight school arms buildup in 1932,146-48 attack on Finland, 218-19, 221 benefits of cooperation with Germany, 161-62, 238-40 chemical weapons testing at Podosinki, 88-91 collectivization crisis, role in, 123 Deep Battle doctrine, 148 end of Russian Civil War, 36 formation of, 13-16 intellectual influence of Reichswehr on, 4-5 invasion of Poland, 213-15 investigation of Trotsky, 65 modernization of, 137 officer exchanges, 79-80, 81-82,143-44 Polish-Bolshevik War, 36-40 purchase of foreign tank designs, 286Ո.21 purges by Stalin, 184-88 radio technology development, 135-36 reorganization and modernization under Stalin, 119-20,123-24 reorganization by Frunze, 67-68 state of upon German invasion, 231-33 tank development by, 97-98 Reese, Roger, 231-32 Reichsluftfahrtministerium. See Air Ministry Reichstag, attack on, 157-58, 288-89n.4 Reichswehr, 249n.52, See also Kama facility; Lipetsk flight school agreement with Junkers AG, 47-48 agreement with Krupp AG, 45-46 chemical weapons testing at Podosinki, 88-91 communist uprising in Hamburg, 62 consequences of Treaty of Versailles on, 30-31 [346] Index contract with Heinkel, 86-87 countermeasures to Treaty of
Versailles, 29-30 departments in, 32 disarmament program, 28-30 economic collaboration with Soviets, 37-38 expansion of military rearmament work in Soviet Union, 105-8,106f Freikorps, incorporation of, 22 intellectual influence on Soviets, 4-5 Junkers Scandal, 92-95 Kapp Putsch, 31-32 name change to Wehrmacht, 174-75 Night of the Long Knives, 172-73 officer consultants in Russia, 70 officer training programs in Soviet Union, 63-64, 79-80, 81-82,143-44 radicalization in, 120-22 rearmament program, 4,158-59 reformation following Treaty of Versailles, 31-34 tension between Nazi SA paramilitaries and, 171 weapon purchases from Soviets, 53-54 Reidenbach, Gottfried, 278n.25 Reinhardt, Walther, 19-20, 26-27, 32 reparations payments by Germany, 42-43, 53, 61-62 reverse-engineering by Soviets, 129-30 Revolutionary Military Council (RVS), 15, 81,123-24 Rheinmetall Corporation, 110,111-12, 125-26 Rhineland, rearmament of, 180-81 Rhineland Program, 168-69 Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 202, 302n.l4 Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 invitation for Soviet Union to join Tripartite Pact, 224-26 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 208-9, 21011, 212f rearmament talks with Britain, 179 Richthofen, Wolfram Freiherr von, 190 Risk Air Force, 168-69 RLM. See Air Ministry Roberts, Geoffrey, 301-2n.5 Rohm, Ernst, 171 Rohrbach, 127 Romania, 203, 223-24 Romanian Bessarabia, 223-24 Rosenberg, Leonid, 233 Rosengoltz, Arkady, 50-51, 58, 65, 66 Ruhr Valley, occupation of, 53
Russgertorg, 45 Russian Civil War, 13,14-16, 36 Russian Empire, fall of, 9-11 Russo-Balt factories, concession to Junkers AG, 50-52 RVS (Revolutionary Military Council), 15, 81,123-24 Scheidemann, Philipp, 18, 27, 92-93 Schleicher, Kurt von, 157, 288n.33, 288Ո.43 appointment as chancellor, 152-54 death of, 172 formation of GEFU, 57 internal division in Reichswehr, 121-22 political strategy of, 145-46 Schmidt, Robert, 35 Schnurre, Karl Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 trade talks with Soviets, 202, 205, 206, 208, 229-30 Schoenebeck, Carl-August von, 108, 127-28 Schubert, Wilhelm, 43 Schulenberg, Friedrich von der, 205-6, 210, 213, 231, 234, 307Ո.4 Schuschnigg, Kurt von, 196 Schüttei, Lothar, 164 Schwarze Reichswehr (Black Reichswehr), 29-30, 33, 62 Scientific Institute for Engine Research (NAMI), 79-80 Second Armaments Program, 289n.9 Second Russo-Balt Automobile Company factory, 50-52 Second Vienna Award, 224 Seeckt, Hans von, 23, 26-27, 235-37 establishment of Sondergruppe Russland, 43-44 formation of officer training programs, 63-64 handling of arbitration threats by Junkers, 65-66 Lipetsk flight school, 74-77 reaction to Kapp Putsch, 32 reformation of Reichswehr, 32-34 reorganization of German ventures in Russia, 85 retirement of, 89-90 Soviet proposal of big program of military cooperation, 84-85 support of Polish-Bolshevik War, 37, 38, 39 tank development project, 96-97 Treaty of Rapallo, 49 weapon purchases from Soviets, 53-54 Shirer, William, 293n.70 Sicherer, Leopold von, 107,133-34 Simon, John, 176,179 Smagin, Vasily, 164 Social Democratic Party (SPD), 2
German Revolution, 19-23 rise to power, 18 Society for Agricultural Products (GELA), 89 Society for Promotion of Commercial Enterprise (GEFU), 57, 59, 85 Söda machine gun, 277n.85, 278n.l6 Sondergruppe Russland (Special Group Russia) establishment of, 43-44 investigation of slow progress at Fili Aviation Plant, 57-58 Junkers AG, negotiations with, 50, 51 Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact, 230-31 Soviet secret police (NKVD), 113,173 Great Terror, 184-88 Soviet Union. See also Kama facility; Lipetsk flight school; Red Army; Stalin, Joseph; Tomka facility attack on Finland, 218-19, 221 benefits of cooperation with Germany, 4-5, 238-40 Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 chemical weapons testing at Podosinki, 88-91 collective security strategy, 167,174, 201 collectivization crisis, 122-23 dissolution of relationship with Germany, 161-64 economic collaboration with Germany, 35-36, 37-38 espionage at Lipetsk, 128-30 expansion of German military rearmament work in, 105-8,106f famine in, 137-38,163 Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 177 German invasion of, 229-34, 237-38 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 Great Terror, 184-88 hatred of Germans, 2 invasion of Baltic states, 223-24 invasion of Poland, 213-15 invitation to join Tripartite Pact, 224-28 Japanese attack on, 196-98 Index [ 347 ]
Soviet Union (cont.) Junkers Scandal, 92-95 modernization of Red Army, 137 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 3, 208-9, 210-11, 212f October Revolution, 10-11 officer exchanges, 79-80, 81-82 poison gas production facilities in, 5657, 59-60 Poland, 1939 partition of, 1-2 prisoner of war exchanges, 36 proposal of big program of military cooperation with Germany, 84-85 purchase of foreign tank designs, 286Ո.21 purges in, 173,184-88 relationship with Germany in early days of Hitler, 159-61 renewal of partnership with Germany, 201-2, 204-9 Soviet-Czechoslovak Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 201 Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact, 230-31 support of Spanish Civil War, 182-83 tank production facilities, 286n.23 trade agreement with Germany, 178, 201-2 Treaty of Berlin, 85 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 11-13 Treaty of Rapallo, 1-3, 47-49 weapon purchases by Germans, 53-54 Spa Conference, 37 Spain Spanish Civil War, 182-84, 297n.l3 use of chemical weapons by, 55-56 Spartacists, 20-21 SPD. See Social Democratic Party Special Group Russia. See Sondergruppe Russland Speidel, Wilhelm, 4-5, 86,129,138-39 Sperrle, Hugo, 85-86,183 SRs (Left Socialist Revolutionaries), 15-16 Stahr, Walter, 76-77 Stalin, Joseph, 62, 260n.9, 304n.72 approval of Night of Long Knives, 173 Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 collectivization crisis, 122-23 Five-Year Plan, 119,122 Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 177 German invasion of Soviet Union, 229-34 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 [ 348 ] Index Great Terror, 184-88 invasion of Poland, 213-15 Japanese attack on Soviet Union, 196-98 Molotov-Ribbentrop
Pact, 210-11, 212f in Polish-Bolshevik War, 39, 40 purges by, 173,184-88 Red Army reorganization and modernization, 119-20 relationship with Germany in early days of Hitler, 159-61 renewal of partnership with Germany, 204-9 suggested as successor to Lenin, 64-65 support of Spanish Civil War, 182-83 tension between Trotsky and, 65 stock market crash (1929), 120-22 Stolzenberg, Hugo, 55-57, 59, 70 Stoßtruppen (Stormtroopers), 20 Stresa Front, 177-78,179-80 Stresemann, Gustav, 61-62, 63, 267n.l2 death of, 120-21 joint tank training and testing project, 98-100 reaction to Soviet proposals of cooperation, 84 Treaty of Berlin, 85 Student, Kurt, 58-59, 86-87, 88 Stülpnagel, Otto von, 130 Svechin, Igor, 313n.27 tactics classes at Kama, 114 Tank, Kurt, 127 tank design and production, 270n.l6, See also Grosstraktor prototype; Kama facility; Panzers agreement on joint training and testing project, 96, 98-100 Batttle of France, 222 chemical tank prototype, 134 in France, 192 German development of, 96-97 hands-on training, 116-18 impact of Soviet-German alliance on, 4-5 LaS design, 141-42,150,169 Leichttraktor prototype, 111-12,12526,130,141 Neubaufahrzeug, 150 for offensive action, 39 in Operation Barbarossa, 232-33 simulation exercises, 33 Soviet production of, 97-98, 286n.23 Soviet purchase of foreign designs, 286Ո.21
Soviet technological rearmament, 12324,147-48 technological window, 190-93 theoretical training on, 106-9 three-man turret, 134-35 two-man turret, 283n.27 tank mechanics courses at Kama, 114 TB-3 (Heavy Bomber-3), 147 tear gas, 89 technological window, 189-93 test pilots, at Lipetsk, 127-28 Thorbeck, Kurt, 23 three-echelon system, 276n.66, 276-77Ո.70 three-man turret design, 134-35 Thuy, Emil, 127-28 Tomka facility, 105-8 animal testing at, 139 aviation testing at, 139-40 chemical defense and medical treatment testing, 140-41 chemical tank prototype, 134 end of German participation in, 161, 162,163 human testing, 140-41 mustard gas testing, 132-34 Pfiffikus testing, 142-43 role in German rearmament program, 159 work interrupted in 1932,146 trade agreements, Soviet-German, 178, 201-2, 204-9 training facilities in Germany, 170-71 training program for Soviet officers in Germany, 80,81-82,101 Trautloft, Hannes, 151-52,183 Treaty of Berlin, 85 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 15,19 Treaty of Nonaggression between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 3 Treaty of Rapallo, 1-3 creation of, 47-49 joint aviation project after, 49-52 reaction to, 47-49 Treaty of Versailles, 2, 4 consequences on German military, 30-31 disarmament program, 28-30, 49, 93 effect on German military technology development, 191 German reaction to, 26-27 Germany after, 30ƒ rearmament of Rhineland, 180-81 reformation of Reichswehr after, 31-34 reparations payments, 42-43, 53, 61-62 Second World War and, 29-30 terms in, 26-28 Trepper, Wilhelm von, 106,107,134, 139-41 Triandafillov, Vladimir, 115,120,
276n.66, 276-77Ո.70 Tripartite Pact, 224-28, 230 Troop Office (Truppenamt), 32 Trotsky, Leon meeting with Pasha, 40 October Revolution, 11 Red Army, formation of, 13-16 suggested as successor to Lenin, 64-65 tension between Stalin and, 65 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 11-13,19 view on Poland, 36 Truppenamt (Troop Office), 32 Tschunke, Fritz, 24-25, 43, 258֊59n.37 TsGASI (Central Aerodynamic Institute), 68,129 Tukhachevsky, Mikhail, 14, 266n.30 Deep Battle doctrine, 148, 287n.34 on German rearmament, 178-79 Kronstadt rebellion, 41-42 modernization of Red Army, 120 in Polish-Bolshevik War, 36-37, 38, 39, 40 Soviet arms buildup in 1932,146-47 strategic thinking of, 115, 276n.63, 278Ո.10 training in Germany, 82 trial and death of, 184-85,186,188 visit of Bockelberg to Russia, 161 visit to Germany, 152-53 Tupolev, Andrei, 94-95,147, 269n.25 Ukraine, 36-40 Umbau Plan, 153 underground German chemical industry, 73-74 Unified Military Doctrine, 67 United States, 73,120-22 Unschlikht, Iosef, 69, 84-85, 91, 93-94 USPD (Independent Social Democratic Party), 18 Vansittart, Robert, 165-66,176-77, 294Ո.8, 295Ո.35 Vickers-Armstrong Corporation, 286n.21 Voenno-Khimicheskogo Upravleniia. See Military Chemical Directorate Voenno-Vozdushnyi Sili RKKA (Air Force of the Red Army). See Air Force of the Red Army Index [349]
VOKhIMU (Military Chemical Directorate), 68-71, 90 Volckheim, Emst, 97 von Kühlmann, Richard, 12 Voroshilov, Kliment, 83-84,107-8,11718,119,166-67 WS. See Air Force of the Red Army Waffenamt (Weapons Office), 32,126-28, 141-42 Wa.Priif 8, 87 War Communism, 41 war-guilt clause in Treaty of Versailles, 26-27 Watt, Donald Cameron, 301-2n.5 Weapons Office (Waffenamt), 32,126-28, 141-42 Wehrmacht, 174-75 annexation of Austria, 195-96 Battile of France, 222-23 invasion of Poland, 212-13 Operation Barbarossa, 229-34, 237-38 plan to invade Czechoslovakia, 198-200 Weimar Republic. See also Treaty of Versailles Beer Hall Putsch, 62-63 communist uprising in Hamburg, 62 Reichswehr, relationship with, 31-32 Treaty of Berlin, 85 Treaty of Rapallo, 47-49 ґ [350] White Russian forces, 14-15, 36, 245n.42 Wilberg, Helmuth, 57-58, 74-75, 85-86, 126 Wilhelm II (Kaiser), 17-18 Wilson, Woodrow, 26 Wimmer, Wilhelm, 87,169 Winter War, 218-19 Wirth, Fritz, 74,105-6 Wirth, Joseph, 42-43, 48 Woelfert, Erich Grosstraktor prototype, 110-11 LaS tank design, 141-42,150,169 Panzer design and production, 169-70, 190 testing prototypes in Kama, 125-26 Wurtzbacher, Ludwig, 50, 57 Yakir, Iona, 185 Yellow Cross, 133-34 Young Marks, 108-9 Yugoslavia, 230 Yurenev, Konstantin, 187 Zaloga, Steven J., 312n.l6 Zeidler, Manfred, 243n.6 Zhigur, Jan Matiseevich, 140-41, 284n.29 Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy, 79-80 Zindel, Ernst, 51-52,168-69, 257n.38 Zinoviev, Grigory, 41-42 Zyklon В, 73-74, 269n.l8 n ; Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Index v֊ München J
When Nazi Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, launching World War Two, its military might was literally overwhelming. The Luftwaffe bombed towns and cities across the country; fifty divisions of the Wehrmacht crossed the border. Yet only two decades earlier, at the end of World War One, Germany had been an utterly and abjectly defeated military power. Foreign troops occupied its industrial heartland and the Treaty of Versailles had reduced its vaunted army to a fraction of its size, banning it from developing new military technologies. When Hitler came to power in 1933, these strictures were still in effect. By 1939, however, he had at his disposal a fighting force of 4.2 million men, armed with the most advanced weapons in the world. How could this seemingly miraculous turnaround have happened? As Ian Ona Johnson establishes beyond question in Faustian Bargain, the answer lies in Soviet Russia. Beginning in the years immediately after the First World War and continuing for more than a decade, the German military and the Soviet Union, despite having been bitter enemies, entered into a partnership designed to overturn the order in Europe. Centering on economic and military co operation, the arrangement led to the establishment of a network of military bas es and industrial facilities on Soviet soil, away from the oversight established by Versailles. Through their alliance, which . (continued on back flap) .
(continued from front flap) continued for over a decade. Germany gained the space to rebuild its army. In return, the Soviet Union received vital military, technological, and economic assistance. Both became military powers capable of mass destruction—one that was eventually directed against the other. Drawing from archives տ five countries, including new collections of declassified Russian documents, Faustian Bargain offers the most authoritative exploration to date of this secret pact and its cataclysmic results. |
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CONTENTS Acknowledgments ix Note on Transliteration and Translation List ofAbbreviations xv Introduction: A Faustian Bargain 1 PART I. Sowing the Wind 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. The Bolsheviks’ Army 9 Revolution and Reaction 27 The Treaty of Versailles 26 The Polish-Bolshevik War 35 The Corporate Program 41 The Road to Rapallo 47 Poison Gas 53 Coups and Countermeasures 61 The Frunze Era 67 Command of the Air 72 The Wooden Titan 78 New Faces 83 Chemist Gypsies 88 The Junkers Scandal 92 Resetting Relations 96 The Lohmann Scandal 102 The Tanks Arrive 110 Winter of Crisis 119 Machines of the Future 125 Yellow Cross 132 Hunger 137 Schleicher 145 Rearmament 149 PART II. Reaping the Whirlwind 24. The End of an Era 157 25. Enemies Again 165 xiii
26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. Long Knives 172 The End of Versailles 176 Terror 182 The Technological Window Purges and Panic 194 Stormclouds 201 Fulfillment 210 Uneasy Allies 216 Blitzkrieg 222 Whirlwind 229 Conclusion: A Faustian Price Notes 243 Bibliography Index 337 [viii] Contents 315 189 235
BIBLIOGRAPHY ARCHIVES CONSULTED United States HIA Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford, California HRC Harry Ransom Center, Austin, Texas JPI-NY Josef Piłsudski Institute, New York МА-YU Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut NARA National Archives at College Park, Maryland NWC Naval Historical Collection, Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island NYPL New York Public Library Archives, New YorkY-RAPRussian Archives Project, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut Germany BA֊L BA-MA DBCA KA-E MAN PA-AA PCA Federal Archive Berlin—Lichterfelde, Berlin Federal Archive—Military Archive, Freiburg Daimler-Benz Corporate Archives, Stuttgart Thyssen-Krupp Corporate Archives, Essen M.A.N. Corporate Archives, Augsburg Foreign Ministry—Political Archives, Berlin Porsche Corporate Archives, Stuttgart AAN Archiwum Akt Nowych, Warsaw GALO GARF RGAE RGASPI RGVA TsGASO State Archive of Lipetsk Oblast, Lipetsk The State Archive of the Russian Federation, Moscow The Russian State Archive of the Economy The Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History, Moscow The Russian State Military Archives, Moscow The Central State Archive of Samara Oblast, Samara Poland Russia United Kingdom ' BNA JPI-L The National Archives, Kew Josef Piłsudski Institute, London PUBLISHED DOCUMENT COLLECTIONS Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik, 1918-1945 [Documents on German Foreign Policy], Serie A und B. Göttingen: Vondenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1950-1995. Cited as ADAP. Documents in British Foreign Policy, 1919-1939. Series I, II, III. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1948.
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Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918-1945. Series C, Volumes I-IV, and Series D, Volumes I-VĪ. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1949-1964. Cited as DGFP. Dyakov, Yuri, and Tatyana Bushuyeva, eds. and trans. The Red Army and the Wehrmacht: How the Soviets Militarized Germany and Paved the Way for Fascism, from the Secret Archives of the Former Soviet Union. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1995. Eudin, Xenia Joukoff, and Harold Henry Fisher. Soviet Russia and the West, 1920-1927: A Documentary Survey. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1957. Getty, J. Arch, and Oleg V. Naumov, eds. The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks. Translated by Benjamin Sher. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999. Nuremberg Trial Proceedings. Vols. 1, 9,12, 20.1945-1946. The Avalon Project, https:// avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/imt.asp. Orenstein, Harold S., trans. The Evolution of Soviet Operational Art 1927-1991: The Documentary Basis, Vol. 1. London: Frank Cass, 1995. Proceedings of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Conference: The Peace Negotiations between Russia and the Central Powers, 21 November, 1917-3 March, 1918. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918. Seeckt, Hans von. Gedanken eines Soldaten. Leipzig: K. F. Koehler, 1935. Seidel, Alfred, ed. Die Beziehungen zwischen Deutschland und der Sowjetunion, 19391941 : Dokumente des Auswärtigen Amtes [Relations between Germany and the Soviet Union, 1939-1941: Documents from the German Foreign Office], Edited by Alfred Seidl. Tübingen: H. Laupp’sche Buchhandlung, 1949. Cited as BZDS.
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INDEX For the benefit ofdigital users, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52-53) may, on occasion, appear on only one of those pages. Figures are indicated by ƒ following the page number. Adam, Wilhelm, 146 Aerounion, 44 aircraft design and production. See also Fili Aviation Plant chemical aviation, 72-74, 90-91, 139-40 design by German firms, 58-59 in France, 192 in Great Britain, 191 as immediate result of Rapallo, 49-52 impact of Soviet-German alliance on, 4-5 prototype testing at Lipetsk, 126-28 reestablishment of German air power, 168-69 shift to Russia, 44 by Soviets, 94-95 Soviet technological rearmament program, 123-24 technological window, 190-93 testing in Spanish Civil War, 182-84 testing of prototypes at Lipetsk, 86-87 umbrella organization for, 57 Air Force of the Red Army (WS) aircraft production, 147 espionage at Lipetsk, 128-30 first major aviation purchase, 279n.35 German officers as consultants for, 79-80 Lipetsk flight school, establishment of, 75-77 rebuilding of, 67-68 Air Ministry (RLM) name change to Luftwaffe, 174-75 reestablishment of German air power, 168-69 training facilities in Germany, 170-71 Albatros, 58-59,127 alcohol sales in Russia, ban on, 10 Allied powers, 14-15, 37. See also Treaty of Versailles American stock market crash, 120-22 animal testing, 139,142 Arado, 58-59,127 Arado Ar 234-Blitz airplane, 58-59 armored personnel carriers, 277n.79 Astakhov, Georgii, 205-6 Auer, 73-74 Austria, annexation of, 195-96 Baden, Maximilian von, 17 Balkans, 223-24 ban on alcohol sales in Russia, 10 Baranov, Peter Ionovich, 67-68, 77, 81 Battle of
France, 222-23 Bavaria, 22, 62-63 Bayerische Flugzeugwerke, 58-59 Beck, Jozef, 29ІП.16 Beck, Ludwig, 175,194-95,199 Belgium, 222 Beneš, Eduard, 199 Berlin Bacon Aktiengesellschaft, 103 Bersol facility, 59 Bersol company, creation of, 59-60 longterm effects of, 269n.l8 slow progress at, 70, 74 Soviet takeover, 94 Bertoletovoy Soli facility, Soviet Union, 59 Berzin, Ianis, 135-36 Bf-109 aircraft, 58-59,190, 292n.41 Black Reichswehr (Schwarze Reichswehr), 29-30, 33, 62 blind flying exercises, 108-9 Blitzkrieg, 4
Blomberg, Werner von, 171 appointment as chief of Troop Office, 90 approval of Night of the Long Knives, 172 as commander-in-chief of armed forces, 175 end of Soviet-German partnership, 16263,164 Hossbach Conference, 189-90 joint tank training and testing project, 99-100 as minister of defense, 154 purge of office corps, 157-58 resignation of, 194-95 visit to Tomka facility, 107-8 Blum, Leon, 192 Blyukher, Vasily, 197,198 BMW, 65-66,123 Bockelberg, Alfred von, 161 Bolsheviks. See also Russian Civil War; Soviet Union concessionary agreements, 44-46 economic collaboration with Germany, 35-36 Kronstadt rebellion, 41-42 Left SR revolution against, 15-16 New Economic Policy, 42 October Revolution, 10-11 Polish-Bolshevik War, 36-40 Red Army, formation of, 13-16 relationship with Germans, 2 support during German Revolution, 20, 21 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 11-13 Treaty of Rapallo, 47-49 Bór-Komorowski, Tadeusz, 215 Bormann, Ernst, 278n.25 Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 Briand, Aristide, 42-43 Brockdorff-Rantzau, Ulrich von, 26, 27, 54 Brüning, Heinrich, 132,146 ВТ (Fast-Moving Tank) design, 147-48 Bulgaria, 224, 230 Central Aerodynamic Institute (TsGASI), 68,129 Chamberlain, Neville, 188,191,199, 2034, ЗОІп.42 chemical tank prototype, 134 chemical weaponry, 54-60. See also Bersol facility; Tomka facility animal testing, 139,142 chemical aviation, 72-74, 90-91, 139-40 chemical tank prototype, 134 [338] Index cooperation arrangements, 69-70 in First World War, 54, 56, 72 human testing, 140-41 long term effects of testing, 269n.l8 medical treatment for gas victims, testing,
140-41 Pfiffikus testing, 142-43 production facilities in Russia, 56-57, 59-60, 74 reform of VOKhIMU, 68-71 Soviet production of, 68-71,146 testing at Podosinki, 88-91,100-1 umbrella organization for, 57 underground German chemical industry, 55-56, 73-74 Chicherin, Georgy, 47,48 chlorine, 54 Cienciala, Anna, 301-2n.5 civil aviation programs, in Germany, 75 class structure in Russia, 10 collective security strategy, 167,174, 201 collectivization crisis, Soviet, 122-23 Command of the Air, The (Douhet), 72 communism. See also Bolsheviks; Soviet Union in Germany, 20, 35-36, 39-40, 62 Nazi hatred of, 159-61 uprising in Hamburg, Germany, 61-62 Communist Party of Germany (KPD), 20, 35-36, 39-40, 62 concessionary agreements, 44-46, 50, 255Ո.49, 255Ո.51, 256n.25 Condor Legion, 183-84 corporate program, 41-46 Council of Scientific Workers, in Germany, 73-74 Cuno, Wilhelm, 53, 54, 61 Czech Legion, 14-15, 245n.41 Czechoslovakia, ЗОІп.42 German invasion of, 198-200, 202-3, ЗООп.37 Munich Agreement, 196-97 Soviet-Czechoslovak Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 201 Daimler, 110,111-12,117,123,125,170, 292-93Ո.49 Daladier, Edouard, 165-66,199 December Plan, 168 Deep Battle doctrine, 148, 287n.34 Defense Act (1921), 32 Degussa, 73-74 Denikin, Anton, 245n.42 Dimitrov, Georgi, 304n.72 Dirksen, Herbert von, 166-67
disarmament program in Germany, 28-30 dismantling of chemical industry, 55 end of, 93 withdrawal of Germany from League of Nations, 165-66 doctrinal changes in military, impact of Soviet-German alliance on, 4-5 Dornier, 127 Douhet, Giulio, 72 Dubitsky, Ivan, 298n.43 Duranty, Walter, 207 DVP (German People’s Party), 61-62 Eastern politics (Ostpolitik), 35 Ebert, Friedrich, 18-19, 22, 78 Eckhardt, Theodor, 258-59n.37 economic collaboration, Soviet-German, 35 concessionary agreements, 44-46, 50, 255Ո.49, 255Ո.51, 256n.25 as investment for future European war, 39-40 during Polish-Bolshevik War, 37-38 trade agreements, 178, 201-2, 204-9 economy, German Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 hyperinflation crisis in Germany, 61-62 recovery during interwar period, 31 reparations payments, 42-43, 53, 61-62 stock market crash, effect on, 120-22 economy, Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 after Polish-Bolshevik War, 41-42 Eden, Anthony, 176-77 Egorov, Alexander, 167 Ehrhardt, Hermann, 31-32 Ektimov, Else, 102,103-4 Epp, Franz Ritter von, 22 Erzberger, Matthias, 18,19 espionage, Soviet, 128-30 Esso (ship), 219-20 Ethiopia, Italian invasion of, 180 ethnic cleansing, 37,197 Facta, Luigi, 47 Falck, Wolfgang, 138,151-52 Fall of France, 222-23 famine, in Russia, 41-42,122-23,137-38, 163 Fast-Moving Tank (ВТ) design, 147-48 Faustian bargain, 1-5 Fehrenbach, Constantin, 37,42-43 Felmy, Hellmuth, 152 Fest, Joachim, 146 Fiebig, Martin, 70, 79-80, 81 Fili Aviation Plant concessionary agreement with
Junkers, 50-52, 256Ո.25 efforts to revive, 81 investigation of slow progress at, 57-58 production problems at, 65-66 Soviet takeover, 94-95 temporary shutdown of production, 74 Finland, Soviet attack on, 218-19, 221 First World War. See also Treaty of Versailles aircraft in, 68, 26ІП.6 armistice agreement of Germany, 17-19 chemical weaponry in, 54, 56, 72,133 ethnic cleansing advocated in, 37 radio technology in, 282n.54 Russian Empire, fall of, 9-11 tanks in, 96, 97 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 11-13 Fischer, Herbert, 43, 69-70 Fishman, Yakov on chemical aviation, 73 chemical weapons testing at Podosinki, 88, 90, 91 as head of VOKhIMU, 68-71 training in Germany, 81-82 “Fist Strike” (Operation Faustschlag), 12 Fitzpatrick, Sheila, 83-84 Five-Year Plan, 119,120,122 Flandin, Pierre-Etienne, І76 Fleischhauer, Ingeborg, 301-2n.5, 303n.49 flight schools, joint, 70-71. See also Lipetsk flight school Foch, Ferdinand, 28-29 Focke-Wulf Fw-190,127 France efforts to contain German rearmament, 176-78,179-80 Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 177 German invasion of, 222-23 knowledge of German rearmament, 165-66 military weakness of, 177-78 mutual defense pact with Russia, 167 Non-Intervention Agreement in Spanish Civil War, 182 rearmament program of, 192-93 response to rearmament of Rhineland, 180-81 Soviet-Czechoslovak Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 201 Index Í339]
Franco, Francisco, 182,183-84 Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 177 Freedom Fighter Comrade Lenin, 97-98 Freikorps (Free Corps) military bands, 20-22 French tanks, 135 Fries, Amos, 73 Fritsch, Werner von, 175,189-90,195 Frunze, Mikhail death of, 83 effort to revive Fili plant, 81 and Lipetsk flight school, 75-77 reorganization of Red Army by, 67-68 report on Trotsky, 65 Frunze Military Academy, 143-44 Fyodorov, Lev, 140 Galland, Adolf, 296n.8 Gatzke, Hans, 267n.l2 GEFU (Society for Promotion of Commercial Enterprise), 57, 59, 85 GELA (Society for Agricultural Products), 89 Genoa summit, 47, 48 George, David Lloyd, 28-29,176 German General Staff model, 4-5 German military. See Reichswehr; Wehrmacht German People’s Party (DVP), 61-62 German Revolution, 19-23 German Social Democrats, 2 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 Germany. See also Hitler, Adolf; rearmament program of Germany; Treaty of Versailles armistice agreement ending First World War, 17-19 Battle of Britain, 224 Battle of France, 222-23 Beer Hall Putsch, 62-63 beginnings of Soviet-German alliance, 23-25 Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 communist uprising in, 61-62 concessionary agreements with Soviets, 44-46 dissolution of relationship with Soviet Union, 161-64 economic collaboration with Soviets, 35, 37-38 German Revolution, 19-23 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 [340] Index hatred of Soviets, 2 invasion of Czechoslovakia, 202-3 invasion of Poland, 212-15 invitation for Soviet Union to join Tripartite Pact, 224-28 Junkers Scandal, 92-95 military expenditures 1928-1929, 249Ո.40
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 3, 208-9, 210-11, 212ƒ Munich Agreement, 198-200 Night of the Long Knives, 172-73 nonaggression pact with Poland, 166-67 officer exchanges, 79-80, 81-82 Operation Barbarossa, 229-34, 237-38 Operation Weserubung, 221 Phoebus Scandal, 102-5 Poland, 1939 partition of, 1-2 Polish-Bolshevik War, role in, 36-40 preparations for war, 174-75 prisoner of war exchanges, 36 purges by Hitler, 194-96 radicalization in, 120-22 rearmament of Rhineland, 180-81 renewal of partnership with Soviet Union, 201-2, 204-9 reparations payments, 42-43, 53, 61-62 rise of Nazism in, 132 Soviet proposal of big program of military cooperation with, 84-85 in Spanish Civil War, 182-84 stock market crash, effect on, 120-22 trade agreement with Soviet Union, 178, 201-2 Treaty of Rapallo, 1-3, 47-49 Treaty of Versailles, 4 underground chemical industry in, 5556, 73-74 withdrawal from League of Nations, 165-66 Gesellschaft für landwirtschaftliche Artikel. See Society for Agricultural Products Gesellschaft zur Förderung gerwerblicher Unternehmungen. See Society for Promotion of Commercial Enterprise Gessler, Otto, 98-99,104 Gilbert, Martin, 28-29 Goebbels, Joseph, 180-81, 211 Gorbatov, Alexander Vasilievich, 185-86, 233, 297Ո.25 Göring, Hermann, 183,189-90,194-95, 296Ո.45 Gorlov, Sergei, 93
grain shortage, in Russia under Lenin, 41-42 under Stalin, 122-23,137-38 Grandsen, James, 312n.l6 Great Britain attempt at trade negotiations by Soviets, 306-7Ո.2 Battle of Britain, 224 efforts to contain German rearmament, 165,176-78 naval agreement with Germany, 178, 179-80 Non-Intervention Agreement in Spanish Civil War, 182 rearmament program of, 191 security guarantee for Poland, 203-4 Soviet purchase of tank designs, 286n.21 warnings to Soviets of German invasion, 231 Great Depression, 120-22, 289n.l0 Great Terror, 184-88 Groener, Wilhelm, 248n.8 end of First World War, 17-18 Freikorps, integration of, 22 as Minister of Defense, 104-5 opposition to Hitler, 145-46 reaction to Treaty of Versailles, 26-27 Second Armaments Program, 289n.9 Grosstraktor prototype design of, 110-12 modifications to, 126 testing of, 116-17,125,130,141 three-man turret design, 134 Grotte, Eduard, 148 Gruhn, Ema, 194-95 Grundherr, Alexander von, 106 Gryaznov, Ivan, 148 Gubanov, N. S., 163 Guderian, Heinz, 97 in Batttle of France, 222-23 in invasion of Poland, 213, 214 in Operation Barbarossa, 232-33 visits to Kama, 130,141 Guernica, Spain, 183-84, 297n.l3 Haber, Fritz, 54-56, 69,133 Hacha, Emil, 202-3 Hackmack, Hans, 89, 91 Hagelloch, Georg, 126,150, 274n.7 Haider, Franz, 229 Hamburg uprising, 61-62 Hammerstein-Equord, Kurt von, 117-18, 162 Harpe, Josef, 112 Hartmann, Otto, 160,161,164 Hasiam, Jonathan, 301-2n.5 Hasse, Otto, 43,47-48, 50 He-111 airplane, 58-59 Heavy Bomber-3 (TB-3), 147 Hefter, Ekkehard, 151-52,183 Heinkel, 127,128, 292n.37 Heinkel, Ernst, 86-87 Heinkel 51 (He-51) aircraft,
168-69, 292Ո.37 Heinkel Flugzeugwerke, 58-59 Heinkel HD-17 airplane, 87 Henrich, Otto, 57 Henschel, 278n.20 Herwarth, Johnnie von, 304n.71 Heye, Wilhelm, 43-44, 90, 99-100 High Command of the Armed Forces (OKW), 195 Hilger, Gustav, 36, 205, 210 Hindenburg, Paul von, 171 appointment of Hitler to chancellorship, 154,157 assumption of presidency, 78-79 death of, 173 end of First World War, 17-18 resignation of Groener, 145-46 resignation of Papen, 153 retirement of Seeckt, 89-90 Hitler, Adolf, 121, ЗОЗп.31 annexation of Austria, 195-96 appointment as chancellor, 154,157 Battle of Britain, 224 Battle of France, 222-23 Beer Hall Putsch, 62-63 beginning of dictatorship, 157-58 Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 diplomatic efforts to contain German rearmament, 176-78 dissolution of relationship with Soviet Union, 161-64 as Führer, 173 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 goal to destroy Soviet Union, 25ІП.20 Hossbach Conference, 189-90 invasion of Czechoslovakia, 202-3 invasion of Poland, 212-15 invitation for Soviet Union to join Tripartite Pact, 224-28 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 210-11, 212f Munich Agreement, 198-200 naval agreement with Great Britain, 178, 179-80 Night of the Long Knives, 172-73 nonaggression pact with Poland, 166-67 Index [341]
Hitler, Adolf (cont.) objectives of, 158 Operation Barbarossa, 229-34, 237-38 Operation Weserubung, 221 plan to invade Czechoslovakia, 196-97, 198-200 plan to invade Poland, 204 preparations for war, 174-75 purges by, 194-96 Rapallo Era, end of, 2-3 rearmament of Rhineland, 180-81 rearmament program, 158-59,168-69, 180 relationship with Soviets in early days, 159-61 renewal of partnership with Soviet Union, 204-9 Second Vienna Award, 224 support from Schleicher, 145-46 support of Spanish Civil War, 182-84 withdrawal of Germany from League of Nations, 165-66 Hoffmann, Johann, 114 Hoffmann, Max, 12,13 Hossbach Conference, 189-90,195-96 human testing in poison gas research, 140-41 Hungary, 224 hydrogen cyanide, 269n.l8 hyperinflation crisis in Germany, 61-62 IACC (Inter-Allied Commission of Control), 28, 93 IAMCC (Inter-Allied Military), 28, 29-30, 53-54, 55, 63 Imperial Germany disintegration of Army, 19 fall of, 17-19 Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD), 18 industrial espionage, 4 industrial firms, German. See also by name aircraft design by, 58-59 concessionary agreements with Soviets, 44-46, 50, 255Ո.49, 255n.51, 256n.25 disarmament program, 29-30 equipment sold to Soviets in 1920, 37-38 shift in manufacturing to Russia, 44-46 trade agreements with Soviets, 178, 201-2, 204-9 underground chemical industry, 55-56, 73-74 Institut für Gasanalyse, 74 [342] Index Inter-Allied Commission of Control (IACC), 28, 93 Inter-Allied Military (IAMCC), 28, 29-30, 53-54, 55, 63 Ipatieff, Vladimir, 56, 74 Isserson, Georgy Samoilovich, 298n.37 Italy diplomatic efforts to contain
German rearmament, 179-80 Munich Agreement, 199 Second Vienna Award, 224 Stresa Front, 176-77,178,179-80 support of Spanish Civil War, 182-83 Tripartite Pact, 224, 230 J-21 airplane design, 52 January Uprising, 20-21 Japanese attack on Soviet Union, 196-98 Ju-52 aircraft, 168-69 Ju-87 Stuka divebombers, 127,169, 22223, 232-33 Junek, Werner, 108 Jung-Märker, 108-9 Junkers, Hugo, 44, 47-48, 50, 94-95, 268Ո.2 Junkers 52 (Ju-52) aircraft, 168-69 Junkers AG, 254n.29 aircraft production, 127 concessionary agreement, 44, 47-48, 256Ո.25 efforts to revive Fili plant, 81 Junkers Scandal, 92-95 production problems at, 57-58, 65-66 shift in manufacturing to Russia, 49-52 temporary shutdown of production, 74 Junkers F-13 aircraft, 49-50 Junkers K-47 aircraft, 150-51,169 Junkers Scandal, 92-95 Junkers W-34 monoplane, 150-51 Kama facility arrival of students, 112-14 arrival of tanks, 116-18 end of German participation in, 162, 163-64 hands-on training, 116-18,149-50 LaS design, 141-42 prototype testing, 125-26 radio technology, 130-31,135-36, 283Ո.37 role in German rearmament, 158-59, 169-70,171 Soviet-German agreement on project, 96-100 tank prototypes for testing at, 110-12
theoretical training, 106-9 three-man turret design, 134-35 Kameradschaft’ 31,151-52 Kandelaki, David, 178,187 Kapp Putsch, 31-32 Kazakov, Alexander, 68 Kazan facility. See Kama facility Keitel, Wilhelm, 194,195, 237-38 Keynes, John Maynard, 29 Khalepsky, Innokenty, 123-24 Kinzel, Eberhard, 312n.ll Kirov, Sergei, 173 Komet (ship), 219-20 Kopp, Viktor, 35-36, 39, 25ІП.23 Koppen, Hans Joachim von, 112-13 Kork, August, 119 Koshkin, Michael, 147-48 Köstring, Ernst, 37, 40, 205, 210 KPD (Communist Party of Germany), 20, 35-36, 39-40, 62 Kravchenko, Andrei Grigorievich, 149-50 Kreb, Hans, 231 Krestinsky, Nikolai, 84, 85 Kristallnacht, ЗОІп.46 Krivoshein, Semyon, 214 Kronstadt rebellion, 41-42 Krupp, Alfred, 45 Krupp, Gustav, 45-46 Krupp Corporation, 169-70 agreement with Reichswehr, 45-46 disarmament program, 29-30 entry in Russia, 45-46 equipment sold to Soviets in 1920, 37-38 LaS tanks, 141-42,150,169 Panzer tanks, 169-70 tank designs by, 110-11,125-26 Kühn, Friedrich, 114, 222 Kuznetsov, Nikolai, 217 lachrymatory agents, 89 Landwirtschaftlicher Schlepper (LaS) design, 141-42,150,169 Laval, Pierre, 177,179 Left Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), 15-16 Leichttraktor prototype, 111-12,125-26, 130,141 Lenin, Vladimir Ilych, 2 concessionary agreements, 44-45 death of, 64-65 economic collaboration with Germany, 35-36 Left SR revolution against, 15-16 New Economic Policy, 42 October Revolution, 10-11 Polish-Bolshevik War, 36-40 Red Army, formation of, 13-15 successors suggested by, 64-65 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 11-13,19 War Communism, 41-42 Lieth-Thomsen, Hermann von der, 58, 76
chemical weapons testing at Podosinki, 88, 91 officer training programs overseen by, 63-64 organization of German ventures in Russia, 85 Lipetsk flight school, 101 alumni participation in Spanish Civil War, 183 end of German participation in, 160, 162,163-64 establishment of, 70-71, 74-77, 80 evaluation of, 85-86 expansion of research and development at, 85-87 famine, effect on, 137-38 fatalities at, 139 first season of activity at, 80-81 Kameradschaft’ 31,151-52 later use of prototypes tested at, 168-69 living conditions as, 138-39 prototype testing at, 126-28,150-52 role in German rearmament, 158, 170-71 Soviet espionage at, 128-30 training program for younger pilots, 108-9 Lipp, Franz, 22 Lippmann, Walter, 211 Lipski, Jozef, 296n.45 Lithuania, 203, 216, 230, 307n.4 escape of Pasha from, 24-25 Litvinov, Maxim, 167,177,187-88, 204-5 Locarno Treaties, 84, 266n.l3 Lohmann, Walther, 102-5, 272n.7 Lücht, Roluf, 87 Ludendorff, Erich, 17-18 Lufthansa, 86, 279n.51 Luftwaffe Battle of Britain, 224 Battle of France, 222-23 creation of, 174-75 invasion of Poland, 212-13 in Spanish Civil War, 182-84, 297n.l3 Luther, Hans, 84 Lutz, Oswald, 141,149 Lützow, Günther, 151-52,183 Lyushkov, Genrikh, 196-97 Index [343 ]
MacDonald, Ramsay, 165,176 machine guns, 277n.85, 278n.l6 Mader, Otto, 51-52 Maisky, Ivan, 204-5 Maltzan, Ago von, 35, 48 MAN (Maschinenfabrik AugsburgNürnberg) AG, 170 Manchester Guardian, 92 Manstein, Erich von, 237-38 Martel, Giffard, 299n.l7 Marx, Wilhelm, 93,102 Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg (MAN) AG, 170 Matsuoka, Yosuke, 230-31 medical treatment for gas victims, testing, 140-41 Mein Kampf (Hitler), 63 Merekalov, Alexei, 204 Merker, Otto, 277n.80 Messerschmitt, Wilhelm, 58-59 Messerschmitt Bf 109 airplane, 58-59, 292Ո.41 Metachim, 59 MG S2-100 machine gun, 277n.85, 278Ո.16 Milch, Erhardt, 159,168-69 Military Chemical Directorate (VOKhIMU), 68-71, 90 Mirbach, Wilhelm von, 13,15 Mitchell, Billy, 73 modernization of Red Army, 120,123-24, 137 Mölders, Werner, 183 Molotov, Vyacheslav invitation for Soviet Union to join Tripartite Pact, 224-28 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 207-8 naval agreement with Germany, 217-18 reaction to German invasion of Soviet Union, 234 replacement of Litvinov, 204-5 trade talks with Germans, 205 view of Tukhachevsky, 186 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 303n.49 logic behind, 236-37 signing of, 3,208-9, 210-11 territorial changes, 212f violations of, 223-24 Morozov, Alexander, 147-48 Moscow Aircraft Factory N22, 94-95 Moscow Central end of, 164 expansion of military rearmament work, 105 formation of, 63-64 [344] Index main office of, 275n.34 organization of German ventures, 85 Muller, Klaus, 114-15,135 Munich Agreement, 198-200, 201-2 Muntsch, Otto, 90-91 Mussolini, Benito Munich Agreement, 199 Second Vienna Award, 224 Stresa Front, 176-77,178,179-80
support of Spanish Civil War, 182-83 mustard gas animal testing of, 139 chemical aviation, 91,139-40 human testing, 140-41 limitations on testing in Germany, 74 medical treatment for victims, testing, 140-41 Pfiffikus testing, 142-43 production at Bersol, 59-60, 94 testing at Tomka, 132-34 Nauchnyi Avtomotornyi Institut (Scientific Institute for Engine Research (NAMI)), 79-80 Navy, German, 32 assessment by Groener, 104-5 cooperation with Soviets, 217-18, 219-20 joint cooperation with Soviets, 26263n.40,272-73Ո.18, 273n.24 Phoebus Scandal, 102-5 Navy, Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 217-18 joint cooperation with Germans, 27273n.l8, 273Ո.24 Nazi Party. See also Hitler, Adolf gain of majority in Reichstag, 132 Hitler appointed as chancellor, 152-54, 157 Night of the Long Knives, 172-73 purges by Hitler, 194-96 rise to power, 121,152-54 SA paramilitaries, 171,172-73 support from Schleicher, 145-46 withdrawal of Germany from League of Nations, 165-66 NEP (New Economic Policy), 42 Nesterov, Peter, 68 Netherlands, 222 Neubaufahrzeug (new-built vehicle), 150 Neumann, Wilhelm, 264n.23 Neurath, Konstantin von European disarmament talks, 165 Hossbach Conference, 189-90
Italian-German relationship, 178 nonaggression pact for Poland, 166 remilitarization of Rhineland, 180-81 removal from office, 195-96 new-built vehicle (Neubaufahrzeug), 150 New Economic Policy (NEP), 42 New York Times, 172,181 Nicholas II (Tsar), 9-11 Niedermayer, Ernst von, 63-64, 90,113, 133 Niedermayer, Oskar von, 43-44, 211 Nieuport Delage NiD 29 airplane, 52 Night of the Long Knives, 172-73 NKVD. See Soviet secret police Noliet, Charles, 28, 29 Non-Intervention Agreement, 182 Noske, Gustav, 19-22, 27, 32 October Revolution, 10-11 officers, German as consultants in Russia, 70, 79-80, 81, 143-44 in German Republic military force, 19-20 during interwar period, 31 role of Lipetsk in training, 170-71 in Russian Imperial Army, 10 in Sondergruppe R, 43-44 officers, Soviet Great Terror, 184-88 Red Army, formation of, 13-14 training in Germany, 80, 81-82,101, 143-44 officer training exchanges in Germany, 81-82,101,143 Soviet purge of officers, 184-88 in Soviet Union, 79-80, 81,143-44 OKW (High Command of the Armed Forces), 195 Operation Barbarossa, 229-34, 237-38 Operation Faustschlag (“Fist Strike”), 12 Operation Weserubung, 221 Ostpolitik (Eastern politics), 35 Otto Wolff Aktiengesellschaft, 45 Panzers, 4-5 in Battile of France, 222-23 design of, 169-70, 292-93Ո.49, 293Ո.51 production of, 190,193 Papen, Franz von, 146,153,154 Pasha, Enver, 24-25,40 People’s Republic of Bavaria, 22 Petrograd Soviet, 10-11 Pfiffikus testing, 142-43 Phoebus Scandal, 102-5, 273n.25 phosgene, 59-60, 74 pilot training programs, 68, 70-71. See also Lipetsk flight school Piłsudski, Josef, 36, 39,166
Pirner, Hans, 110, 111, 114,116-17,12526,131 Podosinki, chemical weapons testing at, 88-91,100-1 Pohlmann, Hermann, 127,169 poison gas. See chemical weaponry Poland, 49, 29ІП.16 1939 partition of, 1-2 fear of invasion in 1920, 252n.43 invasion by Germany, 204, 212-15 knowledge of Soviet concessionary agreements, 255n.51 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 208-9, 21011, 212f nonaggression pact with Germany, 166-67 Polish-Bolshevik War, 36-40 security guarantee from Great Britain, 203-4 Polish-Bolshevik War, 36-40 political pause in Soviet-German relations, 93 Popp, Franz Joseph, 65-66 Porsche, Ferdinand, 111, 117 prisoner of war exchanges, 19, 36 Provisional Government, in Russia, 10-11 prussic blue, 269n.l8 purges by Hitler, 172-73,194-96 by Stalin, 173,184-88 Putilov Works, 39 Pyatakov, Georgii, 81 Radek, Karl, 20, 21, 24 Rader-Raupen Kampfwagen M-28, 277Ո.80 radicalization in Germany, 120-22 radio technology development at Kama, 114,130-31, 135-36, 283Ո.37 in First World War, 282n.54 Radusch, Günther, 151-52 Raeder, Erich, 218 Rapallo Era concessionary agreements in, 46 cooperation during, 2-3 joint aviation project after, 49-52 signing of Treaty of Rapaflo, 47-49 Rathenau, Walther, 48, 255n.2 Index [345]
rearmament program of Germany, 235-36 acceleration under Hitler, 158-59,180 diplomatic efforts to contain, 176-78 French knowledge of, 165-66 Panzer tank design and production, 169-70 reestablishment of German air power, 168-69 Second Armaments Program, 289n.9 technological window, 189-93 training facilities in Germany, 170-71 rearmament programs in France, 192-93 in Great Britain, 191 Red Army. See also Kama facility; Lipetsk flight school arms buildup in 1932,146-48 attack on Finland, 218-19, 221 benefits of cooperation with Germany, 161-62, 238-40 chemical weapons testing at Podosinki, 88-91 collectivization crisis, role in, 123 Deep Battle doctrine, 148 end of Russian Civil War, 36 formation of, 13-16 intellectual influence of Reichswehr on, 4-5 invasion of Poland, 213-15 investigation of Trotsky, 65 modernization of, 137 officer exchanges, 79-80, 81-82,143-44 Polish-Bolshevik War, 36-40 purchase of foreign tank designs, 286Ո.21 purges by Stalin, 184-88 radio technology development, 135-36 reorganization and modernization under Stalin, 119-20,123-24 reorganization by Frunze, 67-68 state of upon German invasion, 231-33 tank development by, 97-98 Reese, Roger, 231-32 Reichsluftfahrtministerium. See Air Ministry Reichstag, attack on, 157-58, 288-89n.4 Reichswehr, 249n.52, See also Kama facility; Lipetsk flight school agreement with Junkers AG, 47-48 agreement with Krupp AG, 45-46 chemical weapons testing at Podosinki, 88-91 communist uprising in Hamburg, 62 consequences of Treaty of Versailles on, 30-31 [346] Index contract with Heinkel, 86-87 countermeasures to Treaty of
Versailles, 29-30 departments in, 32 disarmament program, 28-30 economic collaboration with Soviets, 37-38 expansion of military rearmament work in Soviet Union, 105-8,106f Freikorps, incorporation of, 22 intellectual influence on Soviets, 4-5 Junkers Scandal, 92-95 Kapp Putsch, 31-32 name change to Wehrmacht, 174-75 Night of the Long Knives, 172-73 officer consultants in Russia, 70 officer training programs in Soviet Union, 63-64, 79-80, 81-82,143-44 radicalization in, 120-22 rearmament program, 4,158-59 reformation following Treaty of Versailles, 31-34 tension between Nazi SA paramilitaries and, 171 weapon purchases from Soviets, 53-54 Reidenbach, Gottfried, 278n.25 Reinhardt, Walther, 19-20, 26-27, 32 reparations payments by Germany, 42-43, 53, 61-62 reverse-engineering by Soviets, 129-30 Revolutionary Military Council (RVS), 15, 81,123-24 Rheinmetall Corporation, 110,111-12, 125-26 Rhineland, rearmament of, 180-81 Rhineland Program, 168-69 Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 202, 302n.l4 Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 invitation for Soviet Union to join Tripartite Pact, 224-26 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 208-9, 21011, 212f rearmament talks with Britain, 179 Richthofen, Wolfram Freiherr von, 190 Risk Air Force, 168-69 RLM. See Air Ministry Roberts, Geoffrey, 301-2n.5 Rohm, Ernst, 171 Rohrbach, 127 Romania, 203, 223-24 Romanian Bessarabia, 223-24 Rosenberg, Leonid, 233 Rosengoltz, Arkady, 50-51, 58, 65, 66 Ruhr Valley, occupation of, 53
Russgertorg, 45 Russian Civil War, 13,14-16, 36 Russian Empire, fall of, 9-11 Russo-Balt factories, concession to Junkers AG, 50-52 RVS (Revolutionary Military Council), 15, 81,123-24 Scheidemann, Philipp, 18, 27, 92-93 Schleicher, Kurt von, 157, 288n.33, 288Ո.43 appointment as chancellor, 152-54 death of, 172 formation of GEFU, 57 internal division in Reichswehr, 121-22 political strategy of, 145-46 Schmidt, Robert, 35 Schnurre, Karl Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 trade talks with Soviets, 202, 205, 206, 208, 229-30 Schoenebeck, Carl-August von, 108, 127-28 Schubert, Wilhelm, 43 Schulenberg, Friedrich von der, 205-6, 210, 213, 231, 234, 307Ո.4 Schuschnigg, Kurt von, 196 Schüttei, Lothar, 164 Schwarze Reichswehr (Black Reichswehr), 29-30, 33, 62 Scientific Institute for Engine Research (NAMI), 79-80 Second Armaments Program, 289n.9 Second Russo-Balt Automobile Company factory, 50-52 Second Vienna Award, 224 Seeckt, Hans von, 23, 26-27, 235-37 establishment of Sondergruppe Russland, 43-44 formation of officer training programs, 63-64 handling of arbitration threats by Junkers, 65-66 Lipetsk flight school, 74-77 reaction to Kapp Putsch, 32 reformation of Reichswehr, 32-34 reorganization of German ventures in Russia, 85 retirement of, 89-90 Soviet proposal of big program of military cooperation, 84-85 support of Polish-Bolshevik War, 37, 38, 39 tank development project, 96-97 Treaty of Rapallo, 49 weapon purchases from Soviets, 53-54 Shirer, William, 293n.70 Sicherer, Leopold von, 107,133-34 Simon, John, 176,179 Smagin, Vasily, 164 Social Democratic Party (SPD), 2
German Revolution, 19-23 rise to power, 18 Society for Agricultural Products (GELA), 89 Society for Promotion of Commercial Enterprise (GEFU), 57, 59, 85 Söda machine gun, 277n.85, 278n.l6 Sondergruppe Russland (Special Group Russia) establishment of, 43-44 investigation of slow progress at Fili Aviation Plant, 57-58 Junkers AG, negotiations with, 50, 51 Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact, 230-31 Soviet secret police (NKVD), 113,173 Great Terror, 184-88 Soviet Union. See also Kama facility; Lipetsk flight school; Red Army; Stalin, Joseph; Tomka facility attack on Finland, 218-19, 221 benefits of cooperation with Germany, 4-5, 238-40 Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 chemical weapons testing at Podosinki, 88-91 collective security strategy, 167,174, 201 collectivization crisis, 122-23 dissolution of relationship with Germany, 161-64 economic collaboration with Germany, 35-36, 37-38 espionage at Lipetsk, 128-30 expansion of German military rearmament work in, 105-8,106f famine in, 137-38,163 Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 177 German invasion of, 229-34, 237-38 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 Great Terror, 184-88 hatred of Germans, 2 invasion of Baltic states, 223-24 invasion of Poland, 213-15 invitation to join Tripartite Pact, 224-28 Japanese attack on, 196-98 Index [ 347 ]
Soviet Union (cont.) Junkers Scandal, 92-95 modernization of Red Army, 137 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 3, 208-9, 210-11, 212f October Revolution, 10-11 officer exchanges, 79-80, 81-82 poison gas production facilities in, 5657, 59-60 Poland, 1939 partition of, 1-2 prisoner of war exchanges, 36 proposal of big program of military cooperation with Germany, 84-85 purchase of foreign tank designs, 286Ո.21 purges in, 173,184-88 relationship with Germany in early days of Hitler, 159-61 renewal of partnership with Germany, 201-2, 204-9 Soviet-Czechoslovak Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 201 Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact, 230-31 support of Spanish Civil War, 182-83 tank production facilities, 286n.23 trade agreement with Germany, 178, 201-2 Treaty of Berlin, 85 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 11-13 Treaty of Rapallo, 1-3, 47-49 weapon purchases by Germans, 53-54 Spa Conference, 37 Spain Spanish Civil War, 182-84, 297n.l3 use of chemical weapons by, 55-56 Spartacists, 20-21 SPD. See Social Democratic Party Special Group Russia. See Sondergruppe Russland Speidel, Wilhelm, 4-5, 86,129,138-39 Sperrle, Hugo, 85-86,183 SRs (Left Socialist Revolutionaries), 15-16 Stahr, Walter, 76-77 Stalin, Joseph, 62, 260n.9, 304n.72 approval of Night of Long Knives, 173 Boundary and Friendship Treaty, 216-18 collectivization crisis, 122-23 Five-Year Plan, 119,122 Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 177 German invasion of Soviet Union, 229-34 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, 220-21 [ 348 ] Index Great Terror, 184-88 invasion of Poland, 213-15 Japanese attack on Soviet Union, 196-98 Molotov-Ribbentrop
Pact, 210-11, 212f in Polish-Bolshevik War, 39, 40 purges by, 173,184-88 Red Army reorganization and modernization, 119-20 relationship with Germany in early days of Hitler, 159-61 renewal of partnership with Germany, 204-9 suggested as successor to Lenin, 64-65 support of Spanish Civil War, 182-83 tension between Trotsky and, 65 stock market crash (1929), 120-22 Stolzenberg, Hugo, 55-57, 59, 70 Stoßtruppen (Stormtroopers), 20 Stresa Front, 177-78,179-80 Stresemann, Gustav, 61-62, 63, 267n.l2 death of, 120-21 joint tank training and testing project, 98-100 reaction to Soviet proposals of cooperation, 84 Treaty of Berlin, 85 Student, Kurt, 58-59, 86-87, 88 Stülpnagel, Otto von, 130 Svechin, Igor, 313n.27 tactics classes at Kama, 114 Tank, Kurt, 127 tank design and production, 270n.l6, See also Grosstraktor prototype; Kama facility; Panzers agreement on joint training and testing project, 96, 98-100 Batttle of France, 222 chemical tank prototype, 134 in France, 192 German development of, 96-97 hands-on training, 116-18 impact of Soviet-German alliance on, 4-5 LaS design, 141-42,150,169 Leichttraktor prototype, 111-12,12526,130,141 Neubaufahrzeug, 150 for offensive action, 39 in Operation Barbarossa, 232-33 simulation exercises, 33 Soviet production of, 97-98, 286n.23 Soviet purchase of foreign designs, 286Ո.21
Soviet technological rearmament, 12324,147-48 technological window, 190-93 theoretical training on, 106-9 three-man turret, 134-35 two-man turret, 283n.27 tank mechanics courses at Kama, 114 TB-3 (Heavy Bomber-3), 147 tear gas, 89 technological window, 189-93 test pilots, at Lipetsk, 127-28 Thorbeck, Kurt, 23 three-echelon system, 276n.66, 276-77Ո.70 three-man turret design, 134-35 Thuy, Emil, 127-28 Tomka facility, 105-8 animal testing at, 139 aviation testing at, 139-40 chemical defense and medical treatment testing, 140-41 chemical tank prototype, 134 end of German participation in, 161, 162,163 human testing, 140-41 mustard gas testing, 132-34 Pfiffikus testing, 142-43 role in German rearmament program, 159 work interrupted in 1932,146 trade agreements, Soviet-German, 178, 201-2, 204-9 training facilities in Germany, 170-71 training program for Soviet officers in Germany, 80,81-82,101 Trautloft, Hannes, 151-52,183 Treaty of Berlin, 85 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 15,19 Treaty of Nonaggression between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 3 Treaty of Rapallo, 1-3 creation of, 47-49 joint aviation project after, 49-52 reaction to, 47-49 Treaty of Versailles, 2, 4 consequences on German military, 30-31 disarmament program, 28-30, 49, 93 effect on German military technology development, 191 German reaction to, 26-27 Germany after, 30ƒ rearmament of Rhineland, 180-81 reformation of Reichswehr after, 31-34 reparations payments, 42-43, 53, 61-62 Second World War and, 29-30 terms in, 26-28 Trepper, Wilhelm von, 106,107,134, 139-41 Triandafillov, Vladimir, 115,120,
276n.66, 276-77Ո.70 Tripartite Pact, 224-28, 230 Troop Office (Truppenamt), 32 Trotsky, Leon meeting with Pasha, 40 October Revolution, 11 Red Army, formation of, 13-16 suggested as successor to Lenin, 64-65 tension between Stalin and, 65 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 11-13,19 view on Poland, 36 Truppenamt (Troop Office), 32 Tschunke, Fritz, 24-25, 43, 258֊59n.37 TsGASI (Central Aerodynamic Institute), 68,129 Tukhachevsky, Mikhail, 14, 266n.30 Deep Battle doctrine, 148, 287n.34 on German rearmament, 178-79 Kronstadt rebellion, 41-42 modernization of Red Army, 120 in Polish-Bolshevik War, 36-37, 38, 39, 40 Soviet arms buildup in 1932,146-47 strategic thinking of, 115, 276n.63, 278Ո.10 training in Germany, 82 trial and death of, 184-85,186,188 visit of Bockelberg to Russia, 161 visit to Germany, 152-53 Tupolev, Andrei, 94-95,147, 269n.25 Ukraine, 36-40 Umbau Plan, 153 underground German chemical industry, 73-74 Unified Military Doctrine, 67 United States, 73,120-22 Unschlikht, Iosef, 69, 84-85, 91, 93-94 USPD (Independent Social Democratic Party), 18 Vansittart, Robert, 165-66,176-77, 294Ո.8, 295Ո.35 Vickers-Armstrong Corporation, 286n.21 Voenno-Khimicheskogo Upravleniia. See Military Chemical Directorate Voenno-Vozdushnyi Sili RKKA (Air Force of the Red Army). See Air Force of the Red Army Index [349]
VOKhIMU (Military Chemical Directorate), 68-71, 90 Volckheim, Emst, 97 von Kühlmann, Richard, 12 Voroshilov, Kliment, 83-84,107-8,11718,119,166-67 WS. See Air Force of the Red Army Waffenamt (Weapons Office), 32,126-28, 141-42 Wa.Priif 8, 87 War Communism, 41 war-guilt clause in Treaty of Versailles, 26-27 Watt, Donald Cameron, 301-2n.5 Weapons Office (Waffenamt), 32,126-28, 141-42 Wehrmacht, 174-75 annexation of Austria, 195-96 Battile of France, 222-23 invasion of Poland, 212-13 Operation Barbarossa, 229-34, 237-38 plan to invade Czechoslovakia, 198-200 Weimar Republic. See also Treaty of Versailles Beer Hall Putsch, 62-63 communist uprising in Hamburg, 62 Reichswehr, relationship with, 31-32 Treaty of Berlin, 85 Treaty of Rapallo, 47-49 ґ [350] White Russian forces, 14-15, 36, 245n.42 Wilberg, Helmuth, 57-58, 74-75, 85-86, 126 Wilhelm II (Kaiser), 17-18 Wilson, Woodrow, 26 Wimmer, Wilhelm, 87,169 Winter War, 218-19 Wirth, Fritz, 74,105-6 Wirth, Joseph, 42-43, 48 Woelfert, Erich Grosstraktor prototype, 110-11 LaS tank design, 141-42,150,169 Panzer design and production, 169-70, 190 testing prototypes in Kama, 125-26 Wurtzbacher, Ludwig, 50, 57 Yakir, Iona, 185 Yellow Cross, 133-34 Young Marks, 108-9 Yugoslavia, 230 Yurenev, Konstantin, 187 Zaloga, Steven J., 312n.l6 Zeidler, Manfred, 243n.6 Zhigur, Jan Matiseevich, 140-41, 284n.29 Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy, 79-80 Zindel, Ernst, 51-52,168-69, 257n.38 Zinoviev, Grigory, 41-42 Zyklon В, 73-74, 269n.l8 n ; Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Index v֊ München J
When Nazi Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, launching World War Two, its military might was literally overwhelming. The Luftwaffe bombed towns and cities across the country; fifty divisions of the Wehrmacht crossed the border. Yet only two decades earlier, at the end of World War One, Germany had been an utterly and abjectly defeated military power. Foreign troops occupied its industrial heartland and the Treaty of Versailles had reduced its vaunted army to a fraction of its size, banning it from developing new military technologies. When Hitler came to power in 1933, these strictures were still in effect. By 1939, however, he had at his disposal a fighting force of 4.2 million men, armed with the most advanced weapons in the world. How could this seemingly miraculous turnaround have happened? As Ian Ona Johnson establishes beyond question in Faustian Bargain, the answer lies in Soviet Russia. Beginning in the years immediately after the First World War and continuing for more than a decade, the German military and the Soviet Union, despite having been bitter enemies, entered into a partnership designed to overturn the order in Europe. Centering on economic and military co operation, the arrangement led to the establishment of a network of military bas es and industrial facilities on Soviet soil, away from the oversight established by Versailles. Through their alliance, which . (continued on back flap) .
(continued from front flap) continued for over a decade. Germany gained the space to rebuild its army. In return, the Soviet Union received vital military, technological, and economic assistance. Both became military powers capable of mass destruction—one that was eventually directed against the other. Drawing from archives տ five countries, including new collections of declassified Russian documents, Faustian Bargain offers the most authoritative exploration to date of this secret pact and its cataclysmic results. |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Johnson, Ian Ona |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1246980991 |
| author_facet | Johnson, Ian Ona |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Johnson, Ian Ona |
| author_variant | i o j io ioj |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV047398592 |
| classification_rvk | NK 7222 NQ 2468 NQ 2770 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1294739698 (DE-599)BVBBV047398592 |
| discipline | Geschichte |
| discipline_str_mv | Geschichte |
| era | Geschichte 1918-1941 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1918-1941 |
| format | Thesis Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV047398592 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T17:51:44Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-20T03:23:17Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780190675141 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-032799744 |
| oclc_num | 1294739698 |
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| physical | xvii, 350 Seiten, 16 ungezählte Seiten Illustrationen, Karten |
| psigel | BSB_NED_20220131 DHB_BSB_FID DHB_IFZ BSBWK1 |
| publishDate | 2021 |
| publishDateSearch | 2021 |
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| publisher | Oxford University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Johnson, Ian Ona Verfasser (DE-588)1246980991 aut Faustian bargain the Soviet-German partnership and the origins of the Second World War Ian Ona Johnson New York, NY Oxford University Press [2021] © 2021 xvii, 350 Seiten, 16 ungezählte Seiten Illustrationen, Karten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Dissertation Ohio State University 2016 Geschichte 1918-1941 gnd rswk-swf Militärische Kooperation (DE-588)4039338-0 gnd rswk-swf Rüstung (DE-588)4050894-8 gnd rswk-swf Deutschland (DE-588)4011882-4 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd rswk-swf Soviet Union / Military relations / Germany Germany / Military relations / Soviet Union Soviet Union / History, Military Germany / History, Military / 20th century Military relations Germany Soviet Union HISTORY / Europe / Eastern 1900-1999 Military history (DE-588)4113937-9 Hochschulschrift gnd-content Deutschland (DE-588)4011882-4 g Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 g Militärische Kooperation (DE-588)4039338-0 s Rüstung (DE-588)4050894-8 s Geschichte 1918-1941 z DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, EPUB 978-0-19-067517-2 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032799744&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032799744&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032799744&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register Digitalisierung UB Augsburg - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032799744&sequence=000007&line_number=0004&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Klappentext |
| spellingShingle | Johnson, Ian Ona Faustian bargain the Soviet-German partnership and the origins of the Second World War Militärische Kooperation (DE-588)4039338-0 gnd Rüstung (DE-588)4050894-8 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4039338-0 (DE-588)4050894-8 (DE-588)4011882-4 (DE-588)4077548-3 (DE-588)4113937-9 |
| title | Faustian bargain the Soviet-German partnership and the origins of the Second World War |
| title_auth | Faustian bargain the Soviet-German partnership and the origins of the Second World War |
| title_exact_search | Faustian bargain the Soviet-German partnership and the origins of the Second World War |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Faustian bargain the Soviet-German partnership and the origins of the Second World War |
| title_full | Faustian bargain the Soviet-German partnership and the origins of the Second World War Ian Ona Johnson |
| title_fullStr | Faustian bargain the Soviet-German partnership and the origins of the Second World War Ian Ona Johnson |
| title_full_unstemmed | Faustian bargain the Soviet-German partnership and the origins of the Second World War Ian Ona Johnson |
| title_short | Faustian bargain |
| title_sort | faustian bargain the soviet german partnership and the origins of the second world war |
| title_sub | the Soviet-German partnership and the origins of the Second World War |
| topic | Militärische Kooperation (DE-588)4039338-0 gnd Rüstung (DE-588)4050894-8 gnd |
| topic_facet | Militärische Kooperation Rüstung Deutschland Sowjetunion Hochschulschrift |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032799744&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032799744&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032799744&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032799744&sequence=000007&line_number=0004&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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