Wartime suffering and survival: the human condition under siege in the blockade of Leningrad, 1941-1944
"This book explores how people survive in the face of incredible odds. When our backs are against the wall, what are our interests, identities, and practices? When are we self-centered, empathetic and altruistic, or ambivalent? How much agency do the desperate have-or want? Such was the situati...
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
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New York, NY
Oxford University Press
[2021]
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| Zusammenfassung: | "This book explores how people survive in the face of incredible odds. When our backs are against the wall, what are our interests, identities, and practices? When are we self-centered, empathetic and altruistic, or ambivalent? How much agency do the desperate have-or want? Such was the situation in the Blockade of Leningrad, nearly 900 days from 1941 to 1944, in which over one million civilians died-but more survived due to gumption and creativity. How did they survive, and how did survival reinforce or reshape identities, practices, and relations under Stalin? Using diaries, recollections, police records, interviews, and state documents from Leningrad, this book shows average Leningraders coping with war, starvation, and extreme uncertainty. Local relations and social distance matter significantly when states and institutions falter under duress. Opportunism and desperation were balanced by empathy and relations. One key to Leningraders' practices was relations to anchors-entities of symbolic and personal significance that anchored Leningraders to each other and a sense of community. Such anchors as food and Others shaped practices of empathy and compassion, and opportunism and egoism. By exploring the state and shadow markets, food, families, gender, class, and death, and suffering, Wartime Suffering and Survival relays Leningraders' stories to show a little-told side of Russian and Soviet history, and to explore the human condition and who we really are. This speaks not only to rethinking the nature of the Soviet Union and Stalinism, but also the nature of social relations, practices, and people more generally"-- |
| Beschreibung: | xx, 411 Seiten Illustrationen, Karte (schwarz-weiß) |
| ISBN: | 9780197514276 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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Contents Tables Pictures Acknowledgments Cursory Timeline of the Blockade ofLeningrad 1. With Our Backs Against the Wall: Politics of Survival and Suffering Who Are We? Survival, the Human Condition, and the Blockade of Leningrad Our Themes Framing the Blockade, War, the USSR, and Social Practice The Stuff of Social Life and Survival: Habits, Anchors, and Fields of Being Underneath It All: Sensations, Distance, and Empathy Crystalized Meaning: Valences and Anchors Crystalized Relations: Fields, “Economies,” and Anchors What ofPower? Innovation and Reproduction, Compelled Rationality, and Tragic Agency From Voices to Narratives: Our Data Our Journey from Here xi xixi xv xix 1 2 5 11 16 19 21 24 29 32 37 PART I: ORDER AND AUTHORITY: BREAKING AND MAKING THE RULES 2. Order Under Assault: Institutions and Authority, Opportunism and Desperation Effervescent Blockade Agency: Institutional Duress, Insider Opportunism, and Shadow Markets Food and Personnel, Capacity and Control: Roots ofAuthority Tested Opportunism Inside the State Blockade Markets and Shadow Exchange Unleashed: The Rynok Coming to Terms with War: Negotiating Agency, Opportunism, and Authority Remaking Internal Authority: Confronting Insider Opportunism and Shadow Supply Remaking the Economic Order: Confronting Shadow Exchange Support Amidst Subversion Coda: Authority Wounded, but Still Alive and Kicking 43 45 46 54 60 68 70 78 85 87
viii CONTENTS 3. Ties That Bind: Distance, Empathy, and Relations of Local Order Local Empathy, Opportunism, and Contention: Social Distance and Survival Perils ofKith and Kin: Navigating Temptation and Empathy, Contention and Compassion Distant Strangers, Uncertain Empathy From Cabbage to Cats. to Cannibalism: Symbolic Structures of “Food” Expediencies and Challenges ofSymbolic Innovations: Reclassifying “Food” Inconceivable Food and Unspeakable Consumption: Cannibalism Distance, Dignity, and Local Order Coda: The Local Order of Things 89 91 92 103 110 111 116 126 128 PART II: DIFFERING EXPERIENCES AND UNEQUAL SURVIVAL: GENDER AND CLASS 4. Gendered Survival and Status: Women and Men in the Blockade 135 Shifting Gender Status: Caregiving, Breadseeking, and the Second Shift Compelled by Habit and Duty: A Gendered Division ofBlockade Labor Worth, Status, and Critical Judgments Civilian Men under Duress Gendered Habits Strike Back: Anchors, Risks, Femininity, Re-entrenchment Risk and Re-equilibration Contested Adjustment and Blockade Intimacy Reproduction via Challenge Coda: Gender Eternal? 5. Durability of Class: Compelled Habits of Survival Cultural Capital and Conflicted Survival: Contradictions ofthe Intelligentsia Privilege and Insecurity Intelligentsia versus Markets: Banality ofBarter and Resentment of the Rynok Pragmatism, Criticism, and Resignation: Blue-Collar Workers Reacting to Class Privilege: Justice, Resentment, and Pragmatism Workers and Shadow Markets: Compelled Pragmatism, Tempered Criticism Habits of Status and Authority: Enterprise and Organizational
Managers Class Under Siege Coda: Class and the Blockade in the Classless Society 139 139 152 159 166 167 171 177 178 180 184 185 190 197 199 205 210 219 221
CONTENTS ЇХ PART III: DARK SIDES OF SURVIVAL: LOSS, SUFFERING, AND TRAGIC AGENCY 6. Valence of the Dead: Expedience, Aesthetics, Opportunity, and Dignity Fields of Power and Labor: Politics, Aesthetics, and Markets of Disposal Conceptualizing, Counting, and Coping with Mass Death: Expediencies and the State Political Authority and Aesthetics versus Physical Labor and Opportunity Fields of Empathy, Compelled Pragmatism, and Moral Economies of Dignity Bearing Witness to Death’s Advance Compelled Calculation and Remorseful Rituals: Expediency, Opportunism, and Dignity In the Shadow of the Leningrad D eath Coda: Fathers and Sons, the Living and the Dead 7. Questioning Suffering, Rethinking the World: Tragic Agency of Blockade Theodicies Theodicy I: Causation, or Who and What Is to Blame? Geopolitical Villains: The Germans, of Course. and Others? Cold, Incompetent, or Unaccountable Authorities Soviet/Russian Culture and Egoistic Human Nature Theodicy II: Contested Communities of Authentic Suffering and Dignity The City Itself: To Stay or to Leave Contested Communities ofAuthentic Suffering Logics of War, Suffering, and Theodicy Coda: Blockade Meaninglessness and Meaning 227 232 233 242 248 249 256 270 274 277 281 282 287 293 298 300 306 314 316 Conclusions Without Closure: Legacies and Lessons of the Blockade? Not Over Yet: Postwar Legacies, Challenges, and Dreams Beyond the Blockade Lessons about Soviet Institutions, Practices, and Civilization Lessons about the Rest of Us Last Coda Notes Bibliography Index 319 321 326 327 330 335 339 387 401
Bibliography Archives Archival materials are systematized as fond (f., collection), opts (op., register), delo (d., file), list (L, page). Pond is absent in GMMOBL. Opis is absent in RNB. GMMOBL RDF·. State Memorial Museum of the Blockade of Leningrad, St, Petersburg. NIASPbll RAN: St. Petersburg Institute of History, Russian Academy of Sciences Fond 332: Diaries and interview transcripts. Prozhito (http://prozhito.org): Online collection of transcribed diaries and similar ar chival materials, currently housed at European University at St. Petersburg. I com pared a sample of these materials and with my notes from the same archival sources; they align. RNB OR: Russian National Library, Written Records Collection, St. Petersburg. Fond 368: Diaries of Mariia Konopleva Fond 1015: Diaries of Anna Ostroumova-Lebedeva Fond 1035: Diaries of Lev Kogan Fond 1273: Reminiscences of the Blockade and World War II TsGA SPb: Central State Archive, St. Petersburg. Fond 2076: Planning Commission, Leningrad City Council Executive Committee (Ispolkom Lengorsovieta) Fond 3200: Administration for Enterprises of Communal Services, Leningrad City Council Executive Committee Fond 3400: BuildingTrust#105, Glavleningradstroi Fond 4965: Leningrad Statistical Administration Fond 7179: Leningrad Oblast Soviet of Peoples Deputies Fond 7384: City Soviet of People’s Deputies Fond 8557: Leningrad City Commission for Establishing and Investigating Atrocities by the German-Fascist Invaders Fond 9156: City Health Committee Fond 9631: Reminiscences of the Great Patriotic War and Blockade of Leningrad TsGAIPD
SPb: Central State Archive of Historical-Political Documents (former Party Archive), St. Petersburg. Fond 5: Communist Party, Nevskii District Committee Fond 24: Communist Party, Leningrad Oblast Committee (Obkom) Fond 25: Communist Party, Leningrad City Committee (Gorkom) Fond 408: Communist Party, Dzerzhinskii District Committee Fond 411: Communist Party, Kuibyshevskii District Committee Fond 415: Communist Party, Moskovskii District Committee Fond 895: Primary Party Organization, Main Department of Food Trade, Oktiabr District
388 BIBLIOGRAPHY Fond 2238: Primary Party Organization, Executive Committee Staff, Lensoviet ofPeople’s Deputies, Oktiabr District Fond 2243: Primary Party Organization, Main Department of the RSFSR Ministry of Justice for Leningrad, Oktiabr District Fond 2307: Primary Party Organization, Main Department of Trade for Lengorispolkom, Oktiabr District Fond 4000: Leningrad Institute for Historical-Political Research (Blockade interviews, diaries, and various memoirs, op, 10,11,12) Fond K-1909: Documentary Materials of Exhibitions of the Komsomol Central Committee on Komsomol and Youth Activities in Leningrad and the Oblast TsGALI SPb: Central State Archive of Literature and the Arts, St. Petersburg. Fond 107: Daniil Granin collection (interviews and diaries for Blokadnaia kniga) Fond 114: Antonina Liubimova collection Fond 157: Vera Kostrovitskaia collection Fond 170: Elena Vechtomova collection Fond 479: Adolf Beilin collection Fond 520: Lazar Magrachev collection Fond 522: Evgeniia Vasiutina collection UFSB LO: FSB Archive, Leningrad Oblast Published Sources These are sources that I cite in the text. I consulted many additional works not cited and excluded here for reasons of space. Extensive bibliographies are available from the author. Russian-language Sources Adamovich, Ales and Daniil Granin. 1982. Blokadnaia kniga. Moscow: Sovietskii Pisatel. Aleksievich, Svetlana. 1988. U voiny ne zhenskoe litso. Moscow: Sovietskii pisatel. Baikov, Valentin. 1989. Pamiat blokadnogopodrostka. Leningrad: Lenizdat. Berggolts, Olga. 2015. Leningradskú dnevnik. Moscow: Eksmo. Bemev, S. K.
and C. V. Chernov (eds.). 2004. Blokadnye dnevniki i dokumenty. St. Petersburg: Evropeiskii Dom. Boldovskii, Kirill. 2018. Padenie “blokadnykh sekretārei.” Partapparat Leningrada do і posle “Leningradskogo dela.” St. Petersburg: Nestor-Istoriia. Boldyrev, Aleksandr Niklolaevich. 1998. Osadnaia zapis (Blokadnyi dnevnik). St. Petersburg: Evropeiskii Dom. Cherepenina, Nadezhda. 2001. “Golod i smert v blokirovannom gorode.” Pp. 35-80 in Zhizn i smert v blokirovannom Leningrade, edited by John Barber and Andrei Dzeniskevich. St. Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin. Cherepenina, Nadezhda. 2006. “Genderskaia statistika blokady.” Pp. 235-244 in Zhenshchina і voina. O roli zhenshchin v oborone Leningrada, edited by M. І. Bozhenkova, А. I. Burlakov, A. R. Dzeniskevich, A. N. Rubtsov, T. A. Postrelova, and I. D. Khodanovich. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University Press. Chistikov, A. N. (ed.). 2017. Stenogrammy zasedami ispolkoma Leningradskogogorodskogo Sovietą. Noiabr 1941-dekabr 1942gg. St. Petersburg: Art-Ekspress. Chistikov, A. N. 2018. Stenogrammy zasedami ispolkoma Leningradskogo gorodskogo Sovietą. Ianvar-dekabr 1943 g. St. Petersburg: Art-Ekspress.
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390 BIBLIOGRAPHY Kross, Boris. 2008. Vospominaniia o Vove. Istoríia moeizhizni. SL Petersburg: Nestor-Istoriia. Kulagin, G. A. 1978. Dnevnik іpamiat. Operezhitom vgody blokady. Leningrad: Lenizdat. Likhachev, Dmitrii. 2006. Izbrmnoe: vospominaniia. St. Petersburg: Logos. Lomagin, Nikita. 2002. Neizvestnaia blokada, vols. 1 and 2. St. Petersburg: NEVA. Lomagin, Nikita. 2005. Leningrad v blokade. Moscow: lauza, Eksmo. Lomagin, Nikita. 2014. V tiskakhgoloda. Blokada Leningrada v dokumentakhgermanskikh spetssluzhb, NKVD і pismakh leningradtsev. St. Petersburg: Avrora-Dizain. Magaeva, Svetlana. 2001. Leningradskaia blokada: psikhosomaticheskie aspekty. Moscow: ABTs. Maksimova, Tatiana. 2002. Vospominaniia o Leningradskoі blockade. St. Petersburg: Zhurnal “Neva.” Manakov, N. A. 1961. V költse blokady. Khoziaistvo i byt osazhdennogo Leningrada. Leningrad: Lenizdat. Mankov, A. G. 2001. Dnevniki 30-kh godov. St. Petersburg: Evropeiskii Dorn. Mikhailov, Boris. 2000. Na dne blokady і voiny. St. Petersburg: VSEGEI. Mikoian, Anastas Ivanovich. 1999. Tak bylo. Rasmyshleniia о minuvshem. Moscow: Vagrius, 1999. Naumova, V. 1993. Zabyt nelzia. St. Petersburg: Kompaniia INVEKO. Neratova, Rimma. 1996. Vdni voiny. Semeinaia khronika. St. Petersburg: Zvezda. Oberderfer, Dmitrii. 2000. Blokada Leningrada głazami ochevidtsa (po vospominaniiam uchastnitsy oborony Leningrada). Omsk: OmGPU. Panina, Natalia. 2002. Istoricheskii vklad zhenshchin v obespechenie stabilnosti tyla i organizatsiiu pomoshchi frontu v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny. Moscow: Moskovskii institut elektroniki і matematiki.
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Index For the benefit ofdigital users, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52-53) may, on occasion, appear on only one of those pages. Tables and figures are indicated by t and/following the page number advertisements (informal) for coffins, 265f for food, 62,112,213 agency, 41,54,132,133-34,159-60, 180-81,195,210,230,297,329-30 compelled, 30-31,54,231-32,334 inequality and, 132 tragic, 31,117,224,230,278-80, 327,331-32 agitation. See agitprop agitprop (agitation and propaganda), 50-51,50n*, 242,278-80, 285,291-93 genderand, 139-42 postwar challenges to, 324 starvation of cadres, 50 alcohol, 201-2,209-10,294 theft of, 56-58,62,322-23 See also vodka All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). See Communist Party altruism, 91,95-97,106,219,296, 330-32 social distance and, 103-4 anchors of valence, 23,40-41,54,207-8, 225,229-32,330-31 class and, 180-82,184r, 201-2,204, 207-8,214,219-21 definition of, 21 genderand, 137-39,159-60,170 inequality and, 132 power and, 31 risk and, 167-70 survival strategies and, 22-23,90 See also gender; class; death Andreenko, Ivan (head of the Food Department), 59-60,59n*, 155,157, 180,189,217-18 popular criticism of, 204 animals. See cats empathy and, 111-12 as food 111-16 symbolic hierarchy of, 112 anti-Semitism, lOOnf 188,311-14 See also Jews “anti-Soviet,” 36,68-69,70-71, 204,279-80 antipathy, 99-102 hunger and, 107-10 suffering and, 281 authenticity, 159-60,281,299-300,306-7, 309,311-12. See also suffering Badaevskii warehouse, 4-5,47-48,58-59 Badaevskii dirt, 111-12 bakeries, 28-29,48,54-55, 58-59,94,192, 219,289-90 See also food theft
Berggolts, Olga, 12-13,186,256,295 Blockade poem by, 1 black market. See shadow economy Blat. See patronage Blockade of Leningrad as a case study, 5-8,327 commemoration of, 1,274-75 end of, 319-20,323-24 historiography of, 11-14 number of civilians experiencing, 47 postwar meanings of, 323-26 and postwar policies, 321-22
402 INDEX Bolshevism Blockade and, 316,328-29 political culture of, 24-25,33 Bourdieu, Pierre class, 181,183n* framework, 16-18,21 bread, 22,90-91,92-93 as a means of exchange, 64-67, 78,92 See also food; food theft; rations; shadow economy breadlines, 109-10 breadseeking, 132,136-38,144-47, 148-51 Burial Trust (Pokhoronnoe Delo), 229-30, 234-40,241,242-45,247 corruption and, 245,245n* cafeterias. See canteens calculation. See instrumental rationality cannibalism, 89 avoidance of as topic, 120 children as victims of, 121,124-26 civilization and, 117,121-22 classifications of, 117-18,122-23 data on, 118-19 dignity and, 117,128 justifications for, 118-20,121-22 law and, 117-18 market trade and, 122-24 meaning of the body and, 117 moral framing and, 122-25 murderand, 116-17,123-24 narratives about, 121-25 punishments for, 117-20,121,123,126 rumors of, 120-21 signs and interpretations of, 120-22 studen (aspic) and, 116-17,120-21, 122-23 tragic agency and, 117 cannibals accounts of, 118-19 confessions by, 119-20,121 canteens (cafeterias), 93,110,115-16, 132,138-39,151,157,164-65, 173-74,178,193-94,246-47 contentious atmosphere and hunger in, 108-9,186,199 feeding procedures, 46,55-56, 72-74, 79-80,83-84 inequality and, 52,181-82,201-2, 211-14,216-17,289-90,309 postwar, 321-22,324 supply of, 217 theft from, 56-60,69,71-72,74-75, 81-83,129-30,192-93,201, 217-18 capital, 17-18,43-44,181 See also class; food; intelligentsia·, state; working class caregiving, 132,136-38,148-51 cats, 27-28,39-40,112-16 reactions to eating, 112-14 censorship, 50 children as anchor of valence, 96-97
cannibalism and, 118-19, 121-23,124-26 death and, 158-59 genderand, 156-57,158-59,160-61 as objects of empathy, 96-97,107,162-63 parents’ sacrifices for, 96-97 selfish behavior and, 97,107 Churchill, Winston, 285-87,317 Civil War (American), 2,110,277-78,327 Civil War (Russian), 24-25,73-74,121-22, 190,213-14,229-30,261,274-75 class capital and, 180-83,184-85,186-87,188, 189,195-96,197,204,210-11,219-20 definition of, 181 diaries and, 183-84 food and, 180-82 intersection with gender, 179,220-21 postwar experiences, 221-22 reproduction of, 133 and responses to duress, 1841 structure of, 133,182 suffering and, 315 typology of, 182-83,1841 coffins, 118-19,227-28,229-30,235-36, 247,256-57 absence of, 257-58,261-62,263-64 advertisement for, 265f as a commodity, 231,236-38,245, 257-58,264-66 dignity and, 231-32,236-38,246, 255-56,257-62,266-67,268,269 symbolism of, 236-38,242-43,244,269
INDEX Communist Party, 25-26,316 Blockade victory and, 325 as cause of suffering, 287-93 discipline issues in, 51-53,71-72, 86-87,215 enterprise managers and, 324-25 evacuations and, 52,72,135,147-48, 195-96,302 genderand, 141-42,144-47,177 inequality and, 131 membership, 71-72 postwar discipline and, 322-23,324-25 shadow economy and, 71-72 community boundaries of and suffering, 306-14 distance and, 306-7 nation as, 307-9 compassion, 9-10,87-88,89,96-97, 103-4,106-7,161-62,170-71,332 corpses as anchors, 225,229-32,249 dignity and, 231-32,249,255-56, 257,263-64 disposal of (see disposal) hiding, 234-35 transportation of, 235,242-43, 242nf, 249-50,251-52,257-61, 258/262-64 visibility of, 227-28,242-43,249-50, 255-57,262-63 See also death; disposal corruption, 287-93 See also critical discourse; food theft cremation, 239-41,24 In* See also disposal crime, 50-51,52-54,8it, 104 See also cannibalism; corruption; food theft; opportunism; police; shadow economy critical discourse class and, 203-5 genderand, 155-57 suffering and, 287-93 See also shadow talk death ambivalence to, 254-56,257-58, 262-63,271-73,316-17 (see also death: dignity and) 403 anchors of valence and, 225,229-32, 242,252-53 burials (see disposal) causes of, 227-28,233-34 children and, 158-59,251-53,263-64, 273.275 commemoration and, 268-69 dignity and, 231-32,255-56,257-58, 261-62,271 family and, 250-52 fields and, 230-32,242,256 genderand, 152-53 “Leningrad Death,” 232,248-49,270 meanings and, 229-30,231-32,233-34 memories of, 250 numbness to, 252,254-55,262-63, 272.275 prewar rituals, 229-30 rate of,
227-29,232-33,270-71 recording experiences of, 250 reporting, 228-29,234-35 signs of, 249-50 the state and, 228-29,230-31,233-48 strangers and, 254-55 toll, 227-29,270-71 unwitnessed, 253-54 See also cremation; disposal; mass graves Decembrists’ Island Fraternal Cemetery, 236, 237% 242-43,246,255-56,261,275 demographics, 321 genderand, 135 diaries class and, 197,215-16 genderand, 159-60 as a source, 32-33,127 validity of, 35 dignity, 26,231-32,328-29 anchors and, 23,90 class and, 195,217,219 critical shadow talk and, 278-79 death and, 230-33,235,242-43,249,254, 256,257-58,261-62,264-66,267-68, 269-70,274,275 distance and, 110-11 fields and, 26-27 genderand, 138,152 inequality and, 132 power and, 30,31
404 INDEX dignity (cont.) suffering and, 223-25,283-84,299, 310-11,327,332-33 survival and, 9-10,23,102-3,117, 128,333-34 See also death; disposal disposal (of corpses) aesthetics of, 235,242-43,244-47,263-64 civilians and, 256-70 dignity and, 242,242n*, 246-47,263, 264,269 dignity versus expediency, 256-62, 264-68,272-74 market for disposal services, 235-36, 245,258-61,264-70 opportunism and, 236,242,245,245n* pace of, 236-41,243-45,247-48 prices for, 264-67 See also corpses; cremation; death; mass graves distance, 90 antipathy and, 99-102 cooperation and, 95-96 innovations and, 41,90 perceptions of harm and, 19, 27-28,90 physical proximity, 27,41,90 power and, 30-31 social distance, 19-21,102-3,278, 280-81,282,291-93 strangers, 103-4 symbolic distance, 19-21,90,110-12, 278,280-81,282,293,306-7 theft and, 90,93,101,106-7 dogs, 112-14,115Ո.133,120-21,235 dystrophic (distrofik). See dystrophy dystrophy (distrofiia), 153-54,154n*, 167-68,253,281 medical category, 233-34 moral category, 310-11 pity for, 311 egoism, 9-10,185,295-97,330-31 empathy, 19-20,20n*, 41,90,93-94,96, 111-12,166-67,315 family versus friends, 104 as a foundation for relations, 27-28 thieves and pity, 104-5,128 versus self-interest, 40,103-4 Epshtein, Olga (woman worker), 62-63, 71-72,81-82,99-102,112-13,144, 251,254,288-89,297,304-5,309, 311-12,316-17,318,323,326 class and, 200-1 family relations and, 99n*, 130 genderand, 154-55,157-58,168-70, 175-77,178-79 rynok and, 206-8 ethnicity, 282-83, 311-12 See also anti-Semitism; Germans; Jews evacuations children, 47,135,147-48,158-59, 195-96,302,303-4
civilian, 47,101-2,215,270-71, 290-91,305 data on, 47 deliberations about, 300-5 industrial, 47-48 mothers and, 147-48,302-3 re-evacuations, 321 theodicy and, 299-300 timing, 47 Evdokimov, Aleksei (worker and Komsomol member), 102-3,105, 116,121-22,126,129-30,162-64, 199n*, 208,249,252-53,254-55, 270-71,285-86,308-9,316,317 exclusion, 107-8 See also community; patronage factories civilian evacuations and, 52,147-48, 302,304-5 class community and, 197-98 corpse disposal and, 236,239-41 evacuations of, 4 food distribution and, 79-80,96-97, 103,164-65,201-2,204 theňfrom, 57-58, 60-62 women and, 135,138,139-42, 143-44,145/, 148-50,154-55,179 families cooperation versus contention in, 91-95 division of labor and, 93-94,144-47, 151,153 gender relations and, 144-47 separation of, 162-66
INDEX sharing food in, 93-95,162 solidarity and, 95-96 tense relations in, 92-93,99-103 theft and, 93,101 fields, 21 class and, 181,197,205-6,217 death and, 230-32 definition of, 17-18 epistemology and methods, 34-35 field of intimacy, 27-28,41,231-32 field of labor, 26-27,40-41,54,60-61, 68-69,85,205-6,231,232,246-48, 264-67 field of power, 24-26,39-41,43-45, 68-70,85-86,230-31 game theory and field theory, 330-31 intersections of, 28,225,232 food aggregate consumption of, 47-48 as anchor of valence, 24,46,54,68-69, 85-87,90,91,110-11,133-34,136, 180-82,195,199-200,204-5,207-8, 214,219-20,221,287-88 aspic (studen), 111-12 changing forms of, 47-48,110-16,272-73 distribution, 46,48,79-81 (see also rations) ersatz, 110-11 families and, 92-103 as a form of capital, 46,54,58-59, 85-86,133-34 incentives and, 43-44,45-46,55-58, 60-61,62-63,68-69,91,93,94-95, 103-4,107-8,121-22,182-83, 188-89,190,195,264-67,290-91 (see also food theft; instrumental rationality) institutions and, 43-44,47-48,54-60, 64-65,70-73,75,79-81,186, 188-89,211 -14,216֊18,228-29, 290-91 (see also canteens; rynok) loyalty and, 68-69,86-87 measurement and mismeasurement of (obmer, ofives), 56-57 personal worth and, 133-34 production of, 80-81 reserves (city), 47-48 reserves (civilian), 61-62 supply, 47-48,48n\ 80-81 405 See also bread; families; food theft; podsobnoe khoziaistvo; rations; shadow economy Food Commission, 72-73 civilian letters and, 72-74 food theft, 54-55,201-2,217-18,289-91 ambiguous cases of, 59-60,75-78,81 -82 civilian perceptions of, 58-59 combatting, 70-78 gains from, 56-57,62-63,74-75,76/
investigations of, 55-60,62-63,68-69, 70-72,74-78,81-82 justifications for, 101,129 schemes, 56-60,62-63,70-72 structures and networks, 55,56-57, 62-63,65-67 friends, 96-97,104 gender anchors and, 131-32,136,137-39, 166-67,170 city demographics and, 135 death and, 135 dispositions and, 136-37,167-71 division of household labor and, 144-47,150,151,153 historiography and, 136 intersection with class, 179,220-21 intimacy and, 160-61,163-64,166,171-77 postwar perceptions of, 177-79 prewar policies of, 136-37 propaganda and, 139-42 second shift and, 135,136-37 shifts in perceptions of, 137-39 status and, 137-38,152-56,157, 166-67,177-79 theodicy and, 315 See also men; women Germans condemnation of, 283-84 labeling, 282-83 pity for, 283-85 POWs, 284-85 See also Germany Germany as cause ofsuffering, 282-85 labels for, 282-83 military, 283 See also suffering
406 INDEX Ginzburg, Lidiia, 298-99 glue, 111-12 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 328n* Gorkom (City Party Committee), 25-26, 40,44-45,51,75,141-42,177, 211-13,214,215,218,233,310 Granin, Daniil materials for Blokadnaia kniga, 33 Great Britain, 282-83 distrust of, 285-86 Great Terror efFects on diaries and perceptions, 35-36 Grushko, Evgenii (Chief of Police), 39-40, 53,55,81-82,87-88,124-25 habit. See habitus habitus, 16,17-18,19,21,40-41 class and, 181,182-83,184í, 184-85, 197-99,210-11 genderand, 136-38,170-71 inequality and, 37,131-32 hatred, 104-5,113-14,115-16,253-54, 283,301-2,317 Health Department, 233-34,240-41,242, 244-45,303 hero-city, 319-20,320n* heroic narrative of the Blockade, 12-13, 33,136,177-78,196,215,240,274, 289,309 heroism, 12-13,142-43,154,220,271-72, 293-94,308,310-11,317,325 Hitler, Adolph, 4-5,278-80,281-83, 285-86,296 Holocaust, 3-4 hospitals, 60,105-6 food theft and, 55-56,57-58,105-6 housing, 130 hunger effects on interests and practices, 27-28, 187,190,257-58,261,293-94 effects on morals, 3-4,39,40,89, 104-5,108-11,112,118-20,121-23, 155-56,181-82,193,199,201,262, 293-94,296-97 effects on relations, 91-94,101, 164-65 effects on state capacity, 48-50,70-71,72 genderand, 144-47,152-54, 160-61,172 heroism and, 11-12,204-6,307 innovation, 31,40-41 distance and, 20-21,27,90 and food policies, 72-73,79-82 and harm to others, 9,20-21,90 and survival, 3,9,110-12,224-25 insider opportunists, 28,54-55,70-72 See also shadow economy; theft institutions, 13-14,16-17,19-21,27, 28-29,43-44,327,331-32 anchors and, 21,333-34 cadres and, 55-60 class and, 182-83,187-89,210-11
crisis and, 10,14-15,16,23,24,29-30, 85-87 defined, 17-18 fields and, 18,23,31 resUience of, 326-28,333-34,334n* shadow practices and, 28,44-45, 69-70,82-83 Soviet institutions, 24-25,44-45,328 suffering and, 282,290-93,297,316 See also shadow economy instrumental rationality, 5-8,9,19,27-28, 69,121-22,128,296,300-1,332-33 class and, 185,188-89,190,195, 198-99,210-11 and fields of power,225,231-32, 239-40,241 genderand, 138-39,166-67, 168,170-71 survival and, 3-4,94-95,272,334-35 See abo pragmatism intelligentsia attitudes to class privilege, 185-90,195 attitudes to rynok, 183,184i, 185, 190-96 composition of, 184,184n* cultural capital and, 184-85,186-87, 188,189,195-96,315 diaries of, 33,183-84 and letters of supplication to Andrei Zhdanov, 189 petit intelligentsia (teachers), 195-97 relations with the state, 184,186,187-88
INDEX responses to duress, 182-83,184r status insecurity of, 185,187-88,315 isolation, 298-99,300-7 Ispolkom (city executive committee, also Lenispolkom), 25-26,40-41,44-45, 46,74-75,79,233,236,239-40, 247-48,270-71 izlishki (food surpluses), 56-59 Jews, 100n+, 102-3,188,275,279-80 and community, 311-12 sympathy for, 311-12,314 Kapustin, Iakov (Gorkom secretary and member of the Military Council), 55-56,56n*, 72-73,215 Kobyzeva, Nina (woman worker), 35,52, 58-59,651,68-69,93-94,98-99,102-4, 107-8,127,153,174,220,254,257-58, 274-72,298-99,303-4,311-12,316 kolkhoz (collective farm) and sovkhoz (state farm), 59-60,80-81,83-84, 86-87,236,289-90 shadow economy and, 84, 191-92,289-90 Komsomol (Communist Party youth league), 33,50-52,53,87-88,99n*, 121-22,136-37,138-39,143, 162-63,164,173-74,177-78,199, 202-3,208,216-17,219,263, 288-89,303,310-11,316,323-24 Kuznetsov, Aleksei (First Secretary of Gorkom), 35-36,44-45,44n+, 51-52, 72-73,78-79,143,177,212-13,215, 310,311,324-25 Lake Ladoga, 4-5,11-12,47-48,80-81, 158-59,215,270,295,298-99 Lazutin, Pëtr (city secretary for industry, trade, and food), 72-73,73n*, 215 Leningrad as anchor and community, 300-5 compared to Moscow, 303-4,308 cultural meanings of, 300-1 juxtaposed to rest of the USSR, 307-9 Leningrad Affair, 311, 321,325,330 letters to authorities, 67-68,73-74 See also Zhdanov: letters to 407 managers attitudes to privilege, 211-17 attitudes to rynok, 183,184t, 213 diaries of, 215-16 food theft and, 56-59,201-2 opportunism and, 211-13 paternalism and, 182-83,211,217-19 responses to duress, 182-83,184r mass graves,
262,264-68,274 aesthetics of, 236-38,257-58,263 civilian attitudes to, 257-58, 263-64,267-68 decision to create, 235-36 problems digging, 236-40,242 space for, 236 work on, 236-40 See also disposal medals, 309 men anchors of valence and, 159-60 caregiving by, 159-61 children and, 160-61 gender status of, 136-37,159-66 labor and, 136-37 perceptions of, 159-66 perceptions of women workers, 143-44 perceptions of womens efforts, 151 war effort and, 161 Military Council of the Leningrad Front, 40-41,44-45,47,78 Military Prosecutor, 52-53,55-57 backlogs and challenges, 75 Military Tribunal, 44-45,60-61, 65-67,69-71 Moscow, 25-26,40-41,44-45,46,52, 187-88,295,308-9 contrasted with Leningrad, 4,303-4,308 focus for historiography on the war, 13-14,13n*, 31 nation, 307-9 maps and battles, 308-9,314 NKVD (People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs), 25-26,26n*, 35-36,40-41, 44-45,50-51,67-68,87n*, 135,147, 201-2,204,215-16,325-26,328 cannibalism and, 118-19 competence and, 51
408 INDEX NKVD (People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs) (cont.) food scarcity and, 50,73,212n* investigations, 51-52,54,68-69,74-75, 83-84,212-13,242-43,242n+, 245, 280η*, 322-23 svodki (reports), 28,34,36,199-200, 203-4,279-80,302,314 nurses, 150-51 OBKhSS (Otdelpo borbe s khishcheniiami sotsialisticheskoi sobstvennosti), 56-57,217 opportunism, 28-29,54-55,60-61,69,84, 93,231 as support for state structures, 85-87 ORS (otdel rabochego snabzheniia), 79 Ostroumova-Lebedeva, Anna (artist), 33, 35-36,39-40,89,110,120,126-27, 153-54,168,186-88,190-91,195, 221,250-51,255-56,257-58,264-66, 272-73,283-84,285-87,290-93,294, 302-3,308-9,312-13,317,319 pain, 223 Pargolovo (suburb), 118-19 patronage (blat), 107-8,187,201-2, 290-91,309 Piskarëvskoe Memorial Cemetery, 1-2, 229/, 236-38,2381,242,243-45, 248/, 274-75 cemetery design, 274-75 podsobnoe khoziaistvo (victory gardens), 80-81,191n*, 270-71,322-23 police, 25-26,26n*, 40-41,117-19, 121-22,124-26,199-200 corruption, 54-55 inefficiency of, 39-40,75,81-83,218 and mass death, 228-29,230-31, 234,236-38,242-45,256, 261-62,263 new wartime duties of, 50-51 public order and, 52-53,87-88,126-27 shadow economy and, 54-55,56-57,59, 61-62,64-68,69, 74-75,81-84,811, 191-93,196,206-7,208,323 starvation and, 50,73 wartime challenges, 51 Popkov, Pëtr (chair ofthe Leningrad city council), 44-45,44nf, 55-56,72-73, 82η*, 187,189,204-5,215,233, 235,236-38,240,241,244-45,247, 279,310 power, 29-30 anchors ofvalence and, 31,331-32 discourse and, 278-80 three dimensions of, 29-30 pragmatism, 9-10,85,87n*, 133,325, 327,332-33 class and,
182-83,1841,185,190, 195-96,198-99,204,205-8,210, 220,315 death and, 249,257-58,262,269, 272-73,302-3 See also instrumental rationality Prisoners’ Dilemma, 15,40,330-31 propaganda. See agitprop proryv (January 1943 breakthrough), 4-5, 83-84,270-71,319-20 prosecutors, 50 Raipishchetorg (food distribution organization), 25-26,54,56-57, 72-73,74-75,79 ration cards (prodovolstvennye kartochki) abuses, 55-56,217 coupons (talony), 46,55 registration of, 235 theft or loss of, 94,103-4,106,188,206 rations abuse of privileges and, 52 amounts of, 46-48,491,61-62 caloric value of, 48 categories of, 46,46n*, 491,55-56 policies about, 46-48,79-80,188 postwar reduction in (1946), 322-23 requests to raise, 50 timing, 46 ratsionnoe pitante, 79-80 Red Army, 4-5,13n+, 46,50-51,52,71-72, 73-74,99-100,114-15,129-30, 167-68,170,185,186,188-89,206, 215,217,218,279-80,283-84,295, 296,301,306,307,308,321-22,323 community of suffering and, 299,314, 328-29
INDEX genderand, 137,141-42,154-55, 173-74,177-78 shadow economy and, 45n+, 62 religion, 277,285,294,315-16 resilience, 85-87,326-27 anchors and, 333 roots of in institutions, 328,334 risk, 138-39 anchors ofvalence and, 167-70 Road of Life, 4-5,81-82,228-29,305 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 282-83,286-87 rules breaking, 40-41,60,126-28 rumors. See shadow talk Russia as anchor of identity, 307-9,311-13, 328-29 culture and suffering, 293-96,297 Russian Orthodoxy, 315-16,317-18 Russo-Finnish War (Winter War), 61-62 rynok (farmers’ market), 27,41,44-45,48, 54-55,60-61,63-68,66f, 76f 78-79, 81r, 81-84,85-86,114-15,168,176, 291-93,303-4,313 cannibalism and, 116-17,120-21, 122-23,125 civilian attitudes toward, 67-68,85-86 class and, 183,184i, 185, 190-97,205-10 list of, 64 money versus barter at, 64-65,67,78 police and, 62,64-67,191-93,206-7 postwar, 83-84,221-22, 321-22 prewar, 63 prices at, 64-67,65f 176,196-97, 206-7,208,210,213 rules and practices of, 62,64-65,67, 82-83,84,207-8,209,213 state regulation of, 80-84 structure of, 65-67 survival strategies and, 60-61,62 valuation rules of, 64-65 Sarajevo, 3-4,327 sexuality contentious use of, 173-74,175 desexualization and, 172 409 resexualization and, 172-77 symbols of, 172,173-74,175-76 shadow economy (tenevaia ekonomika), 26-27,28,44-45,62 class and, 182-83,184f, 190-97,205-10 postwar, 221-22,321-23 scale, 44n* state versus, 79-84,85-86 state capacity and, 41,44-45,60-61,75, 78-79,85-87 strategies and structures of, 54-56, 62-63,65-68,71-72,157-58 See also crime; food theft; insider opportunists; NKVD; opportunism; police; rynok;
state shadow exchange. See shadow economy shadow talk, 28 critical, 41,86-87,278-80,280nł, 324 theodicy and, 278-79,280,288-91 Shakhty trial, 184 sharashka, 35,68-69 social distance. See distance soldiers, 13nf, 32n* 44n* 45nf, 47-48, 52,55,60,62, 67,89,124-25,140, 141-43,148-51,159-60,161, 168-69,173-75,191-92,209,209n*, 247,253-54,258-61,263-64,274, 298-99,301, 314, 316,317,322-24, 328,332-33 families of, 52-53,73 wives of, 143,155-56 See also Red Army sovkhoz. See kolkhoz speculation, 67-68,75,78,82-83,102, 190-93,264-66 speculators. See speculation Stakhanovism. See Stakhanovites Stakhanovites, 26-27,71-72,99-100,140, 182,198-99,200-1 See also Epshtein; Olga Stalin, Joseph, 31,162-63, 321,328,330 diaries and, 35-36,299,316 Stalingrad, 1,283-84,308-9,320n* Stalinism, 328-29 state authority and, 68-70 bureaucratic failure and, 327-28 as cause of suffering, 287-93
410 INDEX state (cont.) discipline and, 52-53 human capital and, 48-49,51 institutional resilience of, 328 local structure of, 25-26,40-41,44-45 shadow economy and, 44-45,54-60, 68-73,74-75,79-84 war and, 326-27 See also fields statsionar (special emergency hospital unit), 73-74,74n* 79,84,93-94, 128-29,152,153,162,178-79,193, 249-50,289,303 Status anchors of valence and, 137-39 inequality and, 132-33,136-38 streets corpses on, 254 pre-Revolutionary names returned, 319-20 subjectivity Soviet, 328-29 suffering, 332-33 Allies and, 284-87 atomization and, 224-25,298-99 authenticity, 224-25,281,299,306-7 causes of, 278,280-87 community of, 278,281,306-14 Germany and, 282-84 human nature as cause of, 295-98 meaning and, 224,280-81 officials (state and Party) as causes of, 287-93 pragmatism and, 224 Russian culture as cause of, 293-96 See aho isolation svodki (information reports). See NKVD tax collection, 43 teachers, 148,195-97,289 theft, 28,55-56,104-6,128,129-30,293 post-war, 321-23 See aho food theft theodicy class, gender, and, 315 definition of, 277-78 religion and, 277-78,317-18 shadow talk and, 278-80 See also suffering Torgsin, 44-45 Blockade project, 80-81 United States, 282-83 distrust of, 286-87 second front and, 286 victory gardens. Seepodsobnoe khoziaistvo vodka rations of, 44n* soldiers and, 209 trade in, 65f, 78,84,107-8,209,213, 231,244,245,266-67,269,305 See also alcohol war class and, 180-81,185,186,204-5 duress of, 10-11,99-100,110,193-94, 230,231-32,301,304-5,316-18 genderand, 135,137,139-40,159-60, 161,172,177-78,359-60n.l5 historiography and, 11-14,13n*
nation and, 307-8 states and, 43-45,46,50-51,72,79-80, 321-24,327,333 theodicy and, 277-78,279-80,282-87, 299-300,307-9,314-16 See also World War II women children and, 158-59 critical discourse and, 155-57 evacuation of children and, 147-48 gender status of, 136-38,173-75,177 men’s resentment toward, 161-66,174-75 participation in industry, 135, 139-42,143-44 perceptions of men, 152-55,179 starvation rate of, 152 See aho gender working class attitudes to privilege, 199-205 attitudes to rynok, 183,184f, 198-99,205-10
INDEX Capital and, 197,204 critical discourse of, 203-5 demographic composition of, 183n* diaries and, 197 habitus of, 197-99 internal class differentiation of, 181.198-99 letters to authorities, 204-5 living conditions of, 197-99 relations with the state, 197-99,200-1 responses to duress, 182-83,184i, 197.198-99 World War II (Great Patriotic War) Blockade and, 12-14 historiography of, 11-14 Stalinism and, 328-29,330 Bayettsche Stasísbibííoíhek München 411 theodicy and, 282-87,299-300 See also war Writers’ Union, 95 ZAGS (department for registering acts of civil status), 92 Zhdanov, Andrei (First Secretary for Leningrad and Leningrad Oblast), 44nf, 47n*, 187,213-14, 302-3 death and disposal issues, 236-38 evacuations and, 47,290-91 letters to, 50,55,56,67-68,69,72-73, 80-81,155-57,189,197-98,204, 205-6 zhmykh (pressed seed husks), 47-48, 64-65,78,110-11,150,209-10 |
| adam_txt |
Contents Tables Pictures Acknowledgments Cursory Timeline of the Blockade ofLeningrad 1. With Our Backs Against the Wall: Politics of Survival and Suffering Who Are We? Survival, the Human Condition, and the Blockade of Leningrad Our Themes Framing the Blockade, War, the USSR, and Social Practice The Stuff of Social Life and Survival: Habits, Anchors, and Fields of Being Underneath It All: Sensations, Distance, and Empathy Crystalized Meaning: Valences and Anchors Crystalized Relations: Fields, “Economies,” and Anchors What ofPower? Innovation and Reproduction, Compelled Rationality, and Tragic Agency From Voices to Narratives: Our Data Our Journey from Here xi xixi xv xix 1 2 5 11 16 19 21 24 29 32 37 PART I: ORDER AND AUTHORITY: BREAKING AND MAKING THE RULES 2. Order Under Assault: Institutions and Authority, Opportunism and Desperation Effervescent Blockade Agency: Institutional Duress, Insider Opportunism, and Shadow Markets Food and Personnel, Capacity and Control: Roots ofAuthority Tested Opportunism Inside the State Blockade Markets and Shadow Exchange Unleashed: The Rynok Coming to Terms with War: Negotiating Agency, Opportunism, and Authority Remaking Internal Authority: Confronting Insider Opportunism and Shadow Supply Remaking the Economic Order: Confronting Shadow Exchange Support Amidst Subversion Coda: Authority Wounded, but Still Alive and Kicking 43 45 46 54 60 68 70 78 85 87
viii CONTENTS 3. Ties That Bind: Distance, Empathy, and Relations of Local Order Local Empathy, Opportunism, and Contention: Social Distance and Survival Perils ofKith and Kin: Navigating Temptation and Empathy, Contention and Compassion Distant Strangers, Uncertain Empathy From Cabbage to Cats. to Cannibalism: Symbolic Structures of “Food” Expediencies and Challenges ofSymbolic Innovations: Reclassifying “Food” Inconceivable Food and Unspeakable Consumption: Cannibalism Distance, Dignity, and Local Order Coda: The Local Order of Things 89 91 92 103 110 111 116 126 128 PART II: DIFFERING EXPERIENCES AND UNEQUAL SURVIVAL: GENDER AND CLASS 4. Gendered Survival and Status: Women and Men in the Blockade 135 Shifting Gender Status: Caregiving, Breadseeking, and the Second Shift Compelled by Habit and Duty: A Gendered Division ofBlockade Labor Worth, Status, and Critical Judgments Civilian Men under Duress Gendered Habits Strike Back: Anchors, Risks, Femininity, Re-entrenchment Risk and Re-equilibration Contested Adjustment and Blockade Intimacy Reproduction via Challenge Coda: Gender Eternal? 5. Durability of Class: Compelled Habits of Survival Cultural Capital and Conflicted Survival: Contradictions ofthe Intelligentsia Privilege and Insecurity Intelligentsia versus Markets: Banality ofBarter and Resentment of the Rynok Pragmatism, Criticism, and Resignation: Blue-Collar Workers Reacting to Class Privilege: Justice, Resentment, and Pragmatism Workers and Shadow Markets: Compelled Pragmatism, Tempered Criticism Habits of Status and Authority: Enterprise and Organizational
Managers Class Under Siege Coda: Class and the Blockade in the Classless Society 139 139 152 159 166 167 171 177 178 180 184 185 190 197 199 205 210 219 221
CONTENTS ЇХ PART III: DARK SIDES OF SURVIVAL: LOSS, SUFFERING, AND TRAGIC AGENCY 6. Valence of the Dead: Expedience, Aesthetics, Opportunity, and Dignity Fields of Power and Labor: Politics, Aesthetics, and Markets of Disposal Conceptualizing, Counting, and Coping with Mass Death: Expediencies and the State Political Authority and Aesthetics versus Physical Labor and Opportunity Fields of Empathy, Compelled Pragmatism, and Moral Economies of Dignity Bearing Witness to Death’s Advance Compelled Calculation and Remorseful Rituals: Expediency, Opportunism, and Dignity In the Shadow of the Leningrad D eath Coda: Fathers and Sons, the Living and the Dead 7. Questioning Suffering, Rethinking the World: Tragic Agency of Blockade Theodicies Theodicy I: Causation, or Who and What Is to Blame? Geopolitical Villains: The Germans, of Course. and Others? Cold, Incompetent, or Unaccountable Authorities Soviet/Russian Culture and Egoistic Human Nature Theodicy II: Contested Communities of Authentic Suffering and Dignity The City Itself: To Stay or to Leave Contested Communities ofAuthentic Suffering Logics of War, Suffering, and Theodicy Coda: Blockade Meaninglessness and Meaning 227 232 233 242 248 249 256 270 274 277 281 282 287 293 298 300 306 314 316 Conclusions Without Closure: Legacies and Lessons of the Blockade? Not Over Yet: Postwar Legacies, Challenges, and Dreams Beyond the Blockade Lessons about Soviet Institutions, Practices, and Civilization Lessons about the Rest of Us Last Coda Notes Bibliography Index 319 321 326 327 330 335 339 387 401
Bibliography Archives Archival materials are systematized as fond (f., collection), opts (op., register), delo (d., file), list (L, page). Pond is absent in GMMOBL. Opis is absent in RNB. GMMOBL RDF·. State Memorial Museum of the Blockade of Leningrad, St, Petersburg. NIASPbll RAN: St. Petersburg Institute of History, Russian Academy of Sciences Fond 332: Diaries and interview transcripts. Prozhito (http://prozhito.org): Online collection of transcribed diaries and similar ar chival materials, currently housed at European University at St. Petersburg. I com pared a sample of these materials and with my notes from the same archival sources; they align. RNB OR: Russian National Library, Written Records Collection, St. Petersburg. Fond 368: Diaries of Mariia Konopleva Fond 1015: Diaries of Anna Ostroumova-Lebedeva Fond 1035: Diaries of Lev Kogan Fond 1273: Reminiscences of the Blockade and World War II TsGA SPb: Central State Archive, St. Petersburg. Fond 2076: Planning Commission, Leningrad City Council Executive Committee (Ispolkom Lengorsovieta) Fond 3200: Administration for Enterprises of Communal Services, Leningrad City Council Executive Committee Fond 3400: BuildingTrust#105, Glavleningradstroi Fond 4965: Leningrad Statistical Administration Fond 7179: Leningrad Oblast Soviet of Peoples Deputies Fond 7384: City Soviet of People’s Deputies Fond 8557: Leningrad City Commission for Establishing and Investigating Atrocities by the German-Fascist Invaders Fond 9156: City Health Committee Fond 9631: Reminiscences of the Great Patriotic War and Blockade of Leningrad TsGAIPD
SPb: Central State Archive of Historical-Political Documents (former Party Archive), St. Petersburg. Fond 5: Communist Party, Nevskii District Committee Fond 24: Communist Party, Leningrad Oblast Committee (Obkom) Fond 25: Communist Party, Leningrad City Committee (Gorkom) Fond 408: Communist Party, Dzerzhinskii District Committee Fond 411: Communist Party, Kuibyshevskii District Committee Fond 415: Communist Party, Moskovskii District Committee Fond 895: Primary Party Organization, Main Department of Food Trade, Oktiabr District
388 BIBLIOGRAPHY Fond 2238: Primary Party Organization, Executive Committee Staff, Lensoviet ofPeople’s Deputies, Oktiabr District Fond 2243: Primary Party Organization, Main Department of the RSFSR Ministry of Justice for Leningrad, Oktiabr District Fond 2307: Primary Party Organization, Main Department of Trade for Lengorispolkom, Oktiabr District Fond 4000: Leningrad Institute for Historical-Political Research (Blockade interviews, diaries, and various memoirs, op, 10,11,12) Fond K-1909: Documentary Materials of Exhibitions of the Komsomol Central Committee on Komsomol and Youth Activities in Leningrad and the Oblast TsGALI SPb: Central State Archive of Literature and the Arts, St. Petersburg. Fond 107: Daniil Granin collection (interviews and diaries for Blokadnaia kniga) Fond 114: Antonina Liubimova collection Fond 157: Vera Kostrovitskaia collection Fond 170: Elena Vechtomova collection Fond 479: Adolf Beilin collection Fond 520: Lazar Magrachev collection Fond 522: Evgeniia Vasiutina collection UFSB LO: FSB Archive, Leningrad Oblast Published Sources These are sources that I cite in the text. I consulted many additional works not cited and excluded here for reasons of space. Extensive bibliographies are available from the author. Russian-language Sources Adamovich, Ales and Daniil Granin. 1982. Blokadnaia kniga. Moscow: Sovietskii Pisatel. Aleksievich, Svetlana. 1988. U voiny ne zhenskoe litso. Moscow: Sovietskii pisatel. Baikov, Valentin. 1989. Pamiat blokadnogopodrostka. Leningrad: Lenizdat. Berggolts, Olga. 2015. Leningradskú dnevnik. Moscow: Eksmo. Bemev, S. K.
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Index For the benefit ofdigital users, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52-53) may, on occasion, appear on only one of those pages. Tables and figures are indicated by t and/following the page number advertisements (informal) for coffins, 265f for food, 62,112,213 agency, 41,54,132,133-34,159-60, 180-81,195,210,230,297,329-30 compelled, 30-31,54,231-32,334 inequality and, 132 tragic, 31,117,224,230,278-80, 327,331-32 agitation. See agitprop agitprop (agitation and propaganda), 50-51,50n*, 242,278-80, 285,291-93 genderand, 139-42 postwar challenges to, 324 starvation of cadres, 50 alcohol, 201-2,209-10,294 theft of, 56-58,62,322-23 See also vodka All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). See Communist Party altruism, 91,95-97,106,219,296, 330-32 social distance and, 103-4 anchors of valence, 23,40-41,54,207-8, 225,229-32,330-31 class and, 180-82,184r, 201-2,204, 207-8,214,219-21 definition of, 21 genderand, 137-39,159-60,170 inequality and, 132 power and, 31 risk and, 167-70 survival strategies and, 22-23,90 See also gender; class; death Andreenko, Ivan (head of the Food Department), 59-60,59n*, 155,157, 180,189,217-18 popular criticism of, 204 animals. See cats empathy and, 111-12 as food 111-16 symbolic hierarchy of, 112 anti-Semitism, lOOnf 188,311-14 See also Jews “anti-Soviet,” 36,68-69,70-71, 204,279-80 antipathy, 99-102 hunger and, 107-10 suffering and, 281 authenticity, 159-60,281,299-300,306-7, 309,311-12. See also suffering Badaevskii warehouse, 4-5,47-48,58-59 Badaevskii dirt, 111-12 bakeries, 28-29,48,54-55, 58-59,94,192, 219,289-90 See also food theft
Berggolts, Olga, 12-13,186,256,295 Blockade poem by, 1 black market. See shadow economy Blat. See patronage Blockade of Leningrad as a case study, 5-8,327 commemoration of, 1,274-75 end of, 319-20,323-24 historiography of, 11-14 number of civilians experiencing, 47 postwar meanings of, 323-26 and postwar policies, 321-22
402 INDEX Bolshevism Blockade and, 316,328-29 political culture of, 24-25,33 Bourdieu, Pierre class, 181,183n* framework, 16-18,21 bread, 22,90-91,92-93 as a means of exchange, 64-67, 78,92 See also food; food theft; rations; shadow economy breadlines, 109-10 breadseeking, 132,136-38,144-47, 148-51 Burial Trust (Pokhoronnoe Delo), 229-30, 234-40,241,242-45,247 corruption and, 245,245n* cafeterias. See canteens calculation. See instrumental rationality cannibalism, 89 avoidance of as topic, 120 children as victims of, 121,124-26 civilization and, 117,121-22 classifications of, 117-18,122-23 data on, 118-19 dignity and, 117,128 justifications for, 118-20,121-22 law and, 117-18 market trade and, 122-24 meaning of the body and, 117 moral framing and, 122-25 murderand, 116-17,123-24 narratives about, 121-25 punishments for, 117-20,121,123,126 rumors of, 120-21 signs and interpretations of, 120-22 studen (aspic) and, 116-17,120-21, 122-23 tragic agency and, 117 cannibals accounts of, 118-19 confessions by, 119-20,121 canteens (cafeterias), 93,110,115-16, 132,138-39,151,157,164-65, 173-74,178,193-94,246-47 contentious atmosphere and hunger in, 108-9,186,199 feeding procedures, 46,55-56, 72-74, 79-80,83-84 inequality and, 52,181-82,201-2, 211-14,216-17,289-90,309 postwar, 321-22,324 supply of, 217 theft from, 56-60,69,71-72,74-75, 81-83,129-30,192-93,201, 217-18 capital, 17-18,43-44,181 See also class; food; intelligentsia·, state; working class caregiving, 132,136-38,148-51 cats, 27-28,39-40,112-16 reactions to eating, 112-14 censorship, 50 children as anchor of valence, 96-97
cannibalism and, 118-19, 121-23,124-26 death and, 158-59 genderand, 156-57,158-59,160-61 as objects of empathy, 96-97,107,162-63 parents’ sacrifices for, 96-97 selfish behavior and, 97,107 Churchill, Winston, 285-87,317 Civil War (American), 2,110,277-78,327 Civil War (Russian), 24-25,73-74,121-22, 190,213-14,229-30,261,274-75 class capital and, 180-83,184-85,186-87,188, 189,195-96,197,204,210-11,219-20 definition of, 181 diaries and, 183-84 food and, 180-82 intersection with gender, 179,220-21 postwar experiences, 221-22 reproduction of, 133 and responses to duress, 1841 structure of, 133,182 suffering and, 315 typology of, 182-83,1841 coffins, 118-19,227-28,229-30,235-36, 247,256-57 absence of, 257-58,261-62,263-64 advertisement for, 265f as a commodity, 231,236-38,245, 257-58,264-66 dignity and, 231-32,236-38,246, 255-56,257-62,266-67,268,269 symbolism of, 236-38,242-43,244,269
INDEX Communist Party, 25-26,316 Blockade victory and, 325 as cause of suffering, 287-93 discipline issues in, 51-53,71-72, 86-87,215 enterprise managers and, 324-25 evacuations and, 52,72,135,147-48, 195-96,302 genderand, 141-42,144-47,177 inequality and, 131 membership, 71-72 postwar discipline and, 322-23,324-25 shadow economy and, 71-72 community boundaries of and suffering, 306-14 distance and, 306-7 nation as, 307-9 compassion, 9-10,87-88,89,96-97, 103-4,106-7,161-62,170-71,332 corpses as anchors, 225,229-32,249 dignity and, 231-32,249,255-56, 257,263-64 disposal of (see disposal) hiding, 234-35 transportation of, 235,242-43, 242nf, 249-50,251-52,257-61, 258/262-64 visibility of, 227-28,242-43,249-50, 255-57,262-63 See also death; disposal corruption, 287-93 See also critical discourse; food theft cremation, 239-41,24 In* See also disposal crime, 50-51,52-54,8it, 104 See also cannibalism; corruption; food theft; opportunism; police; shadow economy critical discourse class and, 203-5 genderand, 155-57 suffering and, 287-93 See also shadow talk death ambivalence to, 254-56,257-58, 262-63,271-73,316-17 (see also death: dignity and) 403 anchors of valence and, 225,229-32, 242,252-53 burials (see disposal) causes of, 227-28,233-34 children and, 158-59,251-53,263-64, 273.275 commemoration and, 268-69 dignity and, 231-32,255-56,257-58, 261-62,271 family and, 250-52 fields and, 230-32,242,256 genderand, 152-53 “Leningrad Death,” 232,248-49,270 meanings and, 229-30,231-32,233-34 memories of, 250 numbness to, 252,254-55,262-63, 272.275 prewar rituals, 229-30 rate of,
227-29,232-33,270-71 recording experiences of, 250 reporting, 228-29,234-35 signs of, 249-50 the state and, 228-29,230-31,233-48 strangers and, 254-55 toll, 227-29,270-71 unwitnessed, 253-54 See also cremation; disposal; mass graves Decembrists’ Island Fraternal Cemetery, 236, 237% 242-43,246,255-56,261,275 demographics, 321 genderand, 135 diaries class and, 197,215-16 genderand, 159-60 as a source, 32-33,127 validity of, 35 dignity, 26,231-32,328-29 anchors and, 23,90 class and, 195,217,219 critical shadow talk and, 278-79 death and, 230-33,235,242-43,249,254, 256,257-58,261-62,264-66,267-68, 269-70,274,275 distance and, 110-11 fields and, 26-27 genderand, 138,152 inequality and, 132 power and, 30,31
404 INDEX dignity (cont.) suffering and, 223-25,283-84,299, 310-11,327,332-33 survival and, 9-10,23,102-3,117, 128,333-34 See also death; disposal disposal (of corpses) aesthetics of, 235,242-43,244-47,263-64 civilians and, 256-70 dignity and, 242,242n*, 246-47,263, 264,269 dignity versus expediency, 256-62, 264-68,272-74 market for disposal services, 235-36, 245,258-61,264-70 opportunism and, 236,242,245,245n* pace of, 236-41,243-45,247-48 prices for, 264-67 See also corpses; cremation; death; mass graves distance, 90 antipathy and, 99-102 cooperation and, 95-96 innovations and, 41,90 perceptions of harm and, 19, 27-28,90 physical proximity, 27,41,90 power and, 30-31 social distance, 19-21,102-3,278, 280-81,282,291-93 strangers, 103-4 symbolic distance, 19-21,90,110-12, 278,280-81,282,293,306-7 theft and, 90,93,101,106-7 dogs, 112-14,115Ո.133,120-21,235 dystrophic (distrofik). See dystrophy dystrophy (distrofiia), 153-54,154n*, 167-68,253,281 medical category, 233-34 moral category, 310-11 pity for, 311 egoism, 9-10,185,295-97,330-31 empathy, 19-20,20n*, 41,90,93-94,96, 111-12,166-67,315 family versus friends, 104 as a foundation for relations, 27-28 thieves and pity, 104-5,128 versus self-interest, 40,103-4 Epshtein, Olga (woman worker), 62-63, 71-72,81-82,99-102,112-13,144, 251,254,288-89,297,304-5,309, 311-12,316-17,318,323,326 class and, 200-1 family relations and, 99n*, 130 genderand, 154-55,157-58,168-70, 175-77,178-79 rynok and, 206-8 ethnicity, 282-83, 311-12 See also anti-Semitism; Germans; Jews evacuations children, 47,135,147-48,158-59, 195-96,302,303-4
civilian, 47,101-2,215,270-71, 290-91,305 data on, 47 deliberations about, 300-5 industrial, 47-48 mothers and, 147-48,302-3 re-evacuations, 321 theodicy and, 299-300 timing, 47 Evdokimov, Aleksei (worker and Komsomol member), 102-3,105, 116,121-22,126,129-30,162-64, 199n*, 208,249,252-53,254-55, 270-71,285-86,308-9,316,317 exclusion, 107-8 See also community; patronage factories civilian evacuations and, 52,147-48, 302,304-5 class community and, 197-98 corpse disposal and, 236,239-41 evacuations of, 4 food distribution and, 79-80,96-97, 103,164-65,201-2,204 theňfrom, 57-58, 60-62 women and, 135,138,139-42, 143-44,145/, 148-50,154-55,179 families cooperation versus contention in, 91-95 division of labor and, 93-94,144-47, 151,153 gender relations and, 144-47 separation of, 162-66
INDEX sharing food in, 93-95,162 solidarity and, 95-96 tense relations in, 92-93,99-103 theft and, 93,101 fields, 21 class and, 181,197,205-6,217 death and, 230-32 definition of, 17-18 epistemology and methods, 34-35 field of intimacy, 27-28,41,231-32 field of labor, 26-27,40-41,54,60-61, 68-69,85,205-6,231,232,246-48, 264-67 field of power, 24-26,39-41,43-45, 68-70,85-86,230-31 game theory and field theory, 330-31 intersections of, 28,225,232 food aggregate consumption of, 47-48 as anchor of valence, 24,46,54,68-69, 85-87,90,91,110-11,133-34,136, 180-82,195,199-200,204-5,207-8, 214,219-20,221,287-88 aspic (studen), 111-12 changing forms of, 47-48,110-16,272-73 distribution, 46,48,79-81 (see also rations) ersatz, 110-11 families and, 92-103 as a form of capital, 46,54,58-59, 85-86,133-34 incentives and, 43-44,45-46,55-58, 60-61,62-63,68-69,91,93,94-95, 103-4,107-8,121-22,182-83, 188-89,190,195,264-67,290-91 (see also food theft; instrumental rationality) institutions and, 43-44,47-48,54-60, 64-65,70-73,75,79-81,186, 188-89,211 -14,216֊18,228-29, 290-91 (see also canteens; rynok) loyalty and, 68-69,86-87 measurement and mismeasurement of (obmer, ofives), 56-57 personal worth and, 133-34 production of, 80-81 reserves (city), 47-48 reserves (civilian), 61-62 supply, 47-48,48n\ 80-81 405 See also bread; families; food theft; podsobnoe khoziaistvo; rations; shadow economy Food Commission, 72-73 civilian letters and, 72-74 food theft, 54-55,201-2,217-18,289-91 ambiguous cases of, 59-60,75-78,81 -82 civilian perceptions of, 58-59 combatting, 70-78 gains from, 56-57,62-63,74-75,76/
investigations of, 55-60,62-63,68-69, 70-72,74-78,81-82 justifications for, 101,129 schemes, 56-60,62-63,70-72 structures and networks, 55,56-57, 62-63,65-67 friends, 96-97,104 gender anchors and, 131-32,136,137-39, 166-67,170 city demographics and, 135 death and, 135 dispositions and, 136-37,167-71 division of household labor and, 144-47,150,151,153 historiography and, 136 intersection with class, 179,220-21 intimacy and, 160-61,163-64,166,171-77 postwar perceptions of, 177-79 prewar policies of, 136-37 propaganda and, 139-42 second shift and, 135,136-37 shifts in perceptions of, 137-39 status and, 137-38,152-56,157, 166-67,177-79 theodicy and, 315 See also men; women Germans condemnation of, 283-84 labeling, 282-83 pity for, 283-85 POWs, 284-85 See also Germany Germany as cause ofsuffering, 282-85 labels for, 282-83 military, 283 See also suffering
406 INDEX Ginzburg, Lidiia, 298-99 glue, 111-12 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 328n* Gorkom (City Party Committee), 25-26, 40,44-45,51,75,141-42,177, 211-13,214,215,218,233,310 Granin, Daniil materials for Blokadnaia kniga, 33 Great Britain, 282-83 distrust of, 285-86 Great Terror efFects on diaries and perceptions, 35-36 Grushko, Evgenii (Chief of Police), 39-40, 53,55,81-82,87-88,124-25 habit. See habitus habitus, 16,17-18,19,21,40-41 class and, 181,182-83,184í, 184-85, 197-99,210-11 genderand, 136-38,170-71 inequality and, 37,131-32 hatred, 104-5,113-14,115-16,253-54, 283,301-2,317 Health Department, 233-34,240-41,242, 244-45,303 hero-city, 319-20,320n* heroic narrative of the Blockade, 12-13, 33,136,177-78,196,215,240,274, 289,309 heroism, 12-13,142-43,154,220,271-72, 293-94,308,310-11,317,325 Hitler, Adolph, 4-5,278-80,281-83, 285-86,296 Holocaust, 3-4 hospitals, 60,105-6 food theft and, 55-56,57-58,105-6 housing, 130 hunger effects on interests and practices, 27-28, 187,190,257-58,261,293-94 effects on morals, 3-4,39,40,89, 104-5,108-11,112,118-20,121-23, 155-56,181-82,193,199,201,262, 293-94,296-97 effects on relations, 91-94,101, 164-65 effects on state capacity, 48-50,70-71,72 genderand, 144-47,152-54, 160-61,172 heroism and, 11-12,204-6,307 innovation, 31,40-41 distance and, 20-21,27,90 and food policies, 72-73,79-82 and harm to others, 9,20-21,90 and survival, 3,9,110-12,224-25 insider opportunists, 28,54-55,70-72 See also shadow economy; theft institutions, 13-14,16-17,19-21,27, 28-29,43-44,327,331-32 anchors and, 21,333-34 cadres and, 55-60 class and, 182-83,187-89,210-11
crisis and, 10,14-15,16,23,24,29-30, 85-87 defined, 17-18 fields and, 18,23,31 resUience of, 326-28,333-34,334n* shadow practices and, 28,44-45, 69-70,82-83 Soviet institutions, 24-25,44-45,328 suffering and, 282,290-93,297,316 See also shadow economy instrumental rationality, 5-8,9,19,27-28, 69,121-22,128,296,300-1,332-33 class and, 185,188-89,190,195, 198-99,210-11 and fields of power,225,231-32, 239-40,241 genderand, 138-39,166-67, 168,170-71 survival and, 3-4,94-95,272,334-35 See abo pragmatism intelligentsia attitudes to class privilege, 185-90,195 attitudes to rynok, 183,184i, 185, 190-96 composition of, 184,184n* cultural capital and, 184-85,186-87, 188,189,195-96,315 diaries of, 33,183-84 and letters of supplication to Andrei Zhdanov, 189 petit intelligentsia (teachers), 195-97 relations with the state, 184,186,187-88
INDEX responses to duress, 182-83,184r status insecurity of, 185,187-88,315 isolation, 298-99,300-7 Ispolkom (city executive committee, also Lenispolkom), 25-26,40-41,44-45, 46,74-75,79,233,236,239-40, 247-48,270-71 izlishki (food surpluses), 56-59 Jews, 100n+, 102-3,188,275,279-80 and community, 311-12 sympathy for, 311-12,314 Kapustin, Iakov (Gorkom secretary and member of the Military Council), 55-56,56n*, 72-73,215 Kobyzeva, Nina (woman worker), 35,52, 58-59,651,68-69,93-94,98-99,102-4, 107-8,127,153,174,220,254,257-58, 274-72,298-99,303-4,311-12,316 kolkhoz (collective farm) and sovkhoz (state farm), 59-60,80-81,83-84, 86-87,236,289-90 shadow economy and, 84, 191-92,289-90 Komsomol (Communist Party youth league), 33,50-52,53,87-88,99n*, 121-22,136-37,138-39,143, 162-63,164,173-74,177-78,199, 202-3,208,216-17,219,263, 288-89,303,310-11,316,323-24 Kuznetsov, Aleksei (First Secretary of Gorkom), 35-36,44-45,44n+, 51-52, 72-73,78-79,143,177,212-13,215, 310,311,324-25 Lake Ladoga, 4-5,11-12,47-48,80-81, 158-59,215,270,295,298-99 Lazutin, Pëtr (city secretary for industry, trade, and food), 72-73,73n*, 215 Leningrad as anchor and community, 300-5 compared to Moscow, 303-4,308 cultural meanings of, 300-1 juxtaposed to rest of the USSR, 307-9 Leningrad Affair, 311, 321,325,330 letters to authorities, 67-68,73-74 See also Zhdanov: letters to 407 managers attitudes to privilege, 211-17 attitudes to rynok, 183,184t, 213 diaries of, 215-16 food theft and, 56-59,201-2 opportunism and, 211-13 paternalism and, 182-83,211,217-19 responses to duress, 182-83,184r mass graves,
262,264-68,274 aesthetics of, 236-38,257-58,263 civilian attitudes to, 257-58, 263-64,267-68 decision to create, 235-36 problems digging, 236-40,242 space for, 236 work on, 236-40 See also disposal medals, 309 men anchors of valence and, 159-60 caregiving by, 159-61 children and, 160-61 gender status of, 136-37,159-66 labor and, 136-37 perceptions of, 159-66 perceptions of women workers, 143-44 perceptions of womens efforts, 151 war effort and, 161 Military Council of the Leningrad Front, 40-41,44-45,47,78 Military Prosecutor, 52-53,55-57 backlogs and challenges, 75 Military Tribunal, 44-45,60-61, 65-67,69-71 Moscow, 25-26,40-41,44-45,46,52, 187-88,295,308-9 contrasted with Leningrad, 4,303-4,308 focus for historiography on the war, 13-14,13n*, 31 nation, 307-9 maps and battles, 308-9,314 NKVD (People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs), 25-26,26n*, 35-36,40-41, 44-45,50-51,67-68,87n*, 135,147, 201-2,204,215-16,325-26,328 cannibalism and, 118-19 competence and, 51
408 INDEX NKVD (People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs) (cont.) food scarcity and, 50,73,212n* investigations, 51-52,54,68-69,74-75, 83-84,212-13,242-43,242n+, 245, 280η*, 322-23 svodki (reports), 28,34,36,199-200, 203-4,279-80,302,314 nurses, 150-51 OBKhSS (Otdelpo borbe s khishcheniiami sotsialisticheskoi sobstvennosti), 56-57,217 opportunism, 28-29,54-55,60-61,69,84, 93,231 as support for state structures, 85-87 ORS (otdel rabochego snabzheniia), 79 Ostroumova-Lebedeva, Anna (artist), 33, 35-36,39-40,89,110,120,126-27, 153-54,168,186-88,190-91,195, 221,250-51,255-56,257-58,264-66, 272-73,283-84,285-87,290-93,294, 302-3,308-9,312-13,317,319 pain, 223 Pargolovo (suburb), 118-19 patronage (blat), 107-8,187,201-2, 290-91,309 Piskarëvskoe Memorial Cemetery, 1-2, 229/, 236-38,2381,242,243-45, 248/, 274-75 cemetery design, 274-75 podsobnoe khoziaistvo (victory gardens), 80-81,191n*, 270-71,322-23 police, 25-26,26n*, 40-41,117-19, 121-22,124-26,199-200 corruption, 54-55 inefficiency of, 39-40,75,81-83,218 and mass death, 228-29,230-31, 234,236-38,242-45,256, 261-62,263 new wartime duties of, 50-51 public order and, 52-53,87-88,126-27 shadow economy and, 54-55,56-57,59, 61-62,64-68,69, 74-75,81-84,811, 191-93,196,206-7,208,323 starvation and, 50,73 wartime challenges, 51 Popkov, Pëtr (chair ofthe Leningrad city council), 44-45,44nf, 55-56,72-73, 82η*, 187,189,204-5,215,233, 235,236-38,240,241,244-45,247, 279,310 power, 29-30 anchors ofvalence and, 31,331-32 discourse and, 278-80 three dimensions of, 29-30 pragmatism, 9-10,85,87n*, 133,325, 327,332-33 class and,
182-83,1841,185,190, 195-96,198-99,204,205-8,210, 220,315 death and, 249,257-58,262,269, 272-73,302-3 See also instrumental rationality Prisoners’ Dilemma, 15,40,330-31 propaganda. See agitprop proryv (January 1943 breakthrough), 4-5, 83-84,270-71,319-20 prosecutors, 50 Raipishchetorg (food distribution organization), 25-26,54,56-57, 72-73,74-75,79 ration cards (prodovolstvennye kartochki) abuses, 55-56,217 coupons (talony), 46,55 registration of, 235 theft or loss of, 94,103-4,106,188,206 rations abuse of privileges and, 52 amounts of, 46-48,491,61-62 caloric value of, 48 categories of, 46,46n*, 491,55-56 policies about, 46-48,79-80,188 postwar reduction in (1946), 322-23 requests to raise, 50 timing, 46 ratsionnoe pitante, 79-80 Red Army, 4-5,13n+, 46,50-51,52,71-72, 73-74,99-100,114-15,129-30, 167-68,170,185,186,188-89,206, 215,217,218,279-80,283-84,295, 296,301,306,307,308,321-22,323 community of suffering and, 299,314, 328-29
INDEX genderand, 137,141-42,154-55, 173-74,177-78 shadow economy and, 45n+, 62 religion, 277,285,294,315-16 resilience, 85-87,326-27 anchors and, 333 roots of in institutions, 328,334 risk, 138-39 anchors ofvalence and, 167-70 Road of Life, 4-5,81-82,228-29,305 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 282-83,286-87 rules breaking, 40-41,60,126-28 rumors. See shadow talk Russia as anchor of identity, 307-9,311-13, 328-29 culture and suffering, 293-96,297 Russian Orthodoxy, 315-16,317-18 Russo-Finnish War (Winter War), 61-62 rynok (farmers’ market), 27,41,44-45,48, 54-55,60-61,63-68,66f, 76f 78-79, 81r, 81-84,85-86,114-15,168,176, 291-93,303-4,313 cannibalism and, 116-17,120-21, 122-23,125 civilian attitudes toward, 67-68,85-86 class and, 183,184i, 185, 190-97,205-10 list of, 64 money versus barter at, 64-65,67,78 police and, 62,64-67,191-93,206-7 postwar, 83-84,221-22, 321-22 prewar, 63 prices at, 64-67,65f 176,196-97, 206-7,208,210,213 rules and practices of, 62,64-65,67, 82-83,84,207-8,209,213 state regulation of, 80-84 structure of, 65-67 survival strategies and, 60-61,62 valuation rules of, 64-65 Sarajevo, 3-4,327 sexuality contentious use of, 173-74,175 desexualization and, 172 409 resexualization and, 172-77 symbols of, 172,173-74,175-76 shadow economy (tenevaia ekonomika), 26-27,28,44-45,62 class and, 182-83,184f, 190-97,205-10 postwar, 221-22,321-23 scale, 44n* state versus, 79-84,85-86 state capacity and, 41,44-45,60-61,75, 78-79,85-87 strategies and structures of, 54-56, 62-63,65-68,71-72,157-58 See also crime; food theft; insider opportunists; NKVD; opportunism; police; rynok;
state shadow exchange. See shadow economy shadow talk, 28 critical, 41,86-87,278-80,280nł, 324 theodicy and, 278-79,280,288-91 Shakhty trial, 184 sharashka, 35,68-69 social distance. See distance soldiers, 13nf, 32n* 44n* 45nf, 47-48, 52,55,60,62, 67,89,124-25,140, 141-43,148-51,159-60,161, 168-69,173-75,191-92,209,209n*, 247,253-54,258-61,263-64,274, 298-99,301, 314, 316,317,322-24, 328,332-33 families of, 52-53,73 wives of, 143,155-56 See also Red Army sovkhoz. See kolkhoz speculation, 67-68,75,78,82-83,102, 190-93,264-66 speculators. See speculation Stakhanovism. See Stakhanovites Stakhanovites, 26-27,71-72,99-100,140, 182,198-99,200-1 See also Epshtein; Olga Stalin, Joseph, 31,162-63, 321,328,330 diaries and, 35-36,299,316 Stalingrad, 1,283-84,308-9,320n* Stalinism, 328-29 state authority and, 68-70 bureaucratic failure and, 327-28 as cause of suffering, 287-93
410 INDEX state (cont.) discipline and, 52-53 human capital and, 48-49,51 institutional resilience of, 328 local structure of, 25-26,40-41,44-45 shadow economy and, 44-45,54-60, 68-73,74-75,79-84 war and, 326-27 See also fields statsionar (special emergency hospital unit), 73-74,74n* 79,84,93-94, 128-29,152,153,162,178-79,193, 249-50,289,303 Status anchors of valence and, 137-39 inequality and, 132-33,136-38 streets corpses on, 254 pre-Revolutionary names returned, 319-20 subjectivity Soviet, 328-29 suffering, 332-33 Allies and, 284-87 atomization and, 224-25,298-99 authenticity, 224-25,281,299,306-7 causes of, 278,280-87 community of, 278,281,306-14 Germany and, 282-84 human nature as cause of, 295-98 meaning and, 224,280-81 officials (state and Party) as causes of, 287-93 pragmatism and, 224 Russian culture as cause of, 293-96 See aho isolation svodki (information reports). See NKVD tax collection, 43 teachers, 148,195-97,289 theft, 28,55-56,104-6,128,129-30,293 post-war, 321-23 See aho food theft theodicy class, gender, and, 315 definition of, 277-78 religion and, 277-78,317-18 shadow talk and, 278-80 See also suffering Torgsin, 44-45 Blockade project, 80-81 United States, 282-83 distrust of, 286-87 second front and, 286 victory gardens. Seepodsobnoe khoziaistvo vodka rations of, 44n* soldiers and, 209 trade in, 65f, 78,84,107-8,209,213, 231,244,245,266-67,269,305 See also alcohol war class and, 180-81,185,186,204-5 duress of, 10-11,99-100,110,193-94, 230,231-32,301,304-5,316-18 genderand, 135,137,139-40,159-60, 161,172,177-78,359-60n.l5 historiography and, 11-14,13n*
nation and, 307-8 states and, 43-45,46,50-51,72,79-80, 321-24,327,333 theodicy and, 277-78,279-80,282-87, 299-300,307-9,314-16 See also World War II women children and, 158-59 critical discourse and, 155-57 evacuation of children and, 147-48 gender status of, 136-38,173-75,177 men’s resentment toward, 161-66,174-75 participation in industry, 135, 139-42,143-44 perceptions of men, 152-55,179 starvation rate of, 152 See aho gender working class attitudes to privilege, 199-205 attitudes to rynok, 183,184f, 198-99,205-10
INDEX Capital and, 197,204 critical discourse of, 203-5 demographic composition of, 183n* diaries and, 197 habitus of, 197-99 internal class differentiation of, 181.198-99 letters to authorities, 204-5 living conditions of, 197-99 relations with the state, 197-99,200-1 responses to duress, 182-83,184i, 197.198-99 World War II (Great Patriotic War) Blockade and, 12-14 historiography of, 11-14 Stalinism and, 328-29,330 Bayettsche Stasísbibííoíhek München 411 theodicy and, 282-87,299-300 See also war Writers’ Union, 95 ZAGS (department for registering acts of civil status), 92 Zhdanov, Andrei (First Secretary for Leningrad and Leningrad Oblast), 44nf, 47n*, 187,213-14, 302-3 death and disposal issues, 236-38 evacuations and, 47,290-91 letters to, 50,55,56,67-68,69,72-73, 80-81,155-57,189,197-98,204, 205-6 zhmykh (pressed seed husks), 47-48, 64-65,78,110-11,150,209-10 |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Hass, Jeffrey K. 1967- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)173880568 |
| author_facet | Hass, Jeffrey K. 1967- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Hass, Jeffrey K. 1967- |
| author_variant | j k h jk jkh |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV047317878 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1241067244 (DE-599)BVBBV047317878 |
| format | Book |
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Hass</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="264" ind1=" " ind2="1"><subfield code="a">New York, NY</subfield><subfield code="b">Oxford University Press</subfield><subfield code="c">[2021]</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="264" ind1=" " ind2="4"><subfield code="c">© 2021</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="300" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">xx, 411 Seiten</subfield><subfield code="b">Illustrationen, Karte (schwarz-weiß)</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="336" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">txt</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacontent</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="337" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">n</subfield><subfield code="2">rdamedia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="338" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">nc</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacarrier</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="520" ind1="3" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">"This book explores how people survive in the face of incredible odds. 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| id | DE-604.BV047317878 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T17:28:00Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-31T00:27:15Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780197514276 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-032720691 |
| oclc_num | 1241067244 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 DE-188 DE-29 DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR |
| owner_facet | DE-12 DE-188 DE-29 DE-Re13 DE-BY-UBR |
| physical | xx, 411 Seiten Illustrationen, Karte (schwarz-weiß) |
| psigel | BSB_NED_20210917 |
| publishDate | 2021 |
| publishDateSearch | 2021 |
| publishDateSort | 2021 |
| publisher | Oxford University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Hass, Jeffrey K. 1967- Verfasser (DE-588)173880568 aut Wartime suffering and survival the human condition under siege in the blockade of Leningrad, 1941-1944 Jeffrey K. Hass New York, NY Oxford University Press [2021] © 2021 xx, 411 Seiten Illustrationen, Karte (schwarz-weiß) txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier "This book explores how people survive in the face of incredible odds. When our backs are against the wall, what are our interests, identities, and practices? When are we self-centered, empathetic and altruistic, or ambivalent? How much agency do the desperate have-or want? Such was the situation in the Blockade of Leningrad, nearly 900 days from 1941 to 1944, in which over one million civilians died-but more survived due to gumption and creativity. How did they survive, and how did survival reinforce or reshape identities, practices, and relations under Stalin? Using diaries, recollections, police records, interviews, and state documents from Leningrad, this book shows average Leningraders coping with war, starvation, and extreme uncertainty. Local relations and social distance matter significantly when states and institutions falter under duress. Opportunism and desperation were balanced by empathy and relations. One key to Leningraders' practices was relations to anchors-entities of symbolic and personal significance that anchored Leningraders to each other and a sense of community. Such anchors as food and Others shaped practices of empathy and compassion, and opportunism and egoism. By exploring the state and shadow markets, food, families, gender, class, and death, and suffering, Wartime Suffering and Survival relays Leningraders' stories to show a little-told side of Russian and Soviet history, and to explore the human condition and who we really are. This speaks not only to rethinking the nature of the Soviet Union and Stalinism, but also the nature of social relations, practices, and people more generally"-- Überleben (DE-588)4117273-5 gnd rswk-swf Leningrader Blockade (DE-588)4193689-9 gnd rswk-swf Alltag (DE-588)4001307-8 gnd rswk-swf Resilience (Personality trait) / Russia (Federation) / Saint Petersburg / History / 20th century Survival / Russia (Federation) / Saint Petersburg / History / 20th century Saint Petersburg (Russia) / History / Seige, 1941-9144 Resilience (Personality trait) Survival Russia (Federation) / Saint Petersburg 1900-9144 History Leningrader Blockade (DE-588)4193689-9 s Alltag (DE-588)4001307-8 s Überleben (DE-588)4117273-5 s DE-604 Online version 9780197514290 Hass, Jeffrey K. Wartime suffering and survival New York : Oxford University Press, 2021 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032720691&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032720691&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032720691&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Hass, Jeffrey K. 1967- Wartime suffering and survival the human condition under siege in the blockade of Leningrad, 1941-1944 Überleben (DE-588)4117273-5 gnd Leningrader Blockade (DE-588)4193689-9 gnd Alltag (DE-588)4001307-8 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4117273-5 (DE-588)4193689-9 (DE-588)4001307-8 |
| title | Wartime suffering and survival the human condition under siege in the blockade of Leningrad, 1941-1944 |
| title_auth | Wartime suffering and survival the human condition under siege in the blockade of Leningrad, 1941-1944 |
| title_exact_search | Wartime suffering and survival the human condition under siege in the blockade of Leningrad, 1941-1944 |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Wartime suffering and survival the human condition under siege in the blockade of Leningrad, 1941-1944 |
| title_full | Wartime suffering and survival the human condition under siege in the blockade of Leningrad, 1941-1944 Jeffrey K. Hass |
| title_fullStr | Wartime suffering and survival the human condition under siege in the blockade of Leningrad, 1941-1944 Jeffrey K. Hass |
| title_full_unstemmed | Wartime suffering and survival the human condition under siege in the blockade of Leningrad, 1941-1944 Jeffrey K. Hass |
| title_short | Wartime suffering and survival |
| title_sort | wartime suffering and survival the human condition under siege in the blockade of leningrad 1941 1944 |
| title_sub | the human condition under siege in the blockade of Leningrad, 1941-1944 |
| topic | Überleben (DE-588)4117273-5 gnd Leningrader Blockade (DE-588)4193689-9 gnd Alltag (DE-588)4001307-8 gnd |
| topic_facet | Überleben Leningrader Blockade Alltag |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032720691&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032720691&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032720691&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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