Central Asia: a new history from the imperial conquests to the present
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Princeton ; Oxford
Princeton University Press
[2021]
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| Beschreibung: | xviii, 556 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramm, Karten |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | CONTENTS List of Ľlustrations ix List ofMaps xi List of Tables xiii List ofAbbreviations Acknowledgments xv xvii Introduction і 1 The Multiple Heritages of Central Asia EMPIRE 17 37 2 The Manchu Conquest of Eastern Turkestan 41 3 Khoqand and Qing Silver 52 4 A Kazakh Ethnographer in Kashgar 63 5 Imperial Conquests 75 6 A Colonial Order 96 7 New Visions of the World 1x4 8 Imperial Collapse 134 v
vi CONTENTS REVOLUTION 9 Hope and Disappointment 147 151 ю The Threshold of the East 167 11 A Soviet Central Asia 185 12 Autonomy, Soviet Style 199 13 Revolution from Above 21S 14 A Republic in Eastern Turkestan 242 15 The Crucible of War 265 16 Another Republic in Eastern Turkestan 281 COMMUNISM 301 17 Development, Soviet Style 305 18 Soviet in Form, National in Content? ՅՅ1 19 Xinjiang under Chinese Communism 356 20 On the Front Lines of the Cold War 377 POSTCOMMUNISM 393 21 Unwanted Independence 397 22 A New Central Asia 418 շ-з Nationalizing States in a Globalized World 433
CONTENTS vii 24 Are We Still Post-Soviet? 458 25 A Twenty-First- Century Gulag 475 Conclusion 497 Notes 503 Suggestionsfor Further Reading Index 539 529
INDEX Italic page numbers indicate illustrations. 55 +1 = і (PRC formula), 362,426 Akayev, Askar, 411,416,423,425,468-69 9/11,420,432,460 Alash Orda, 158-59,160,166,200,205,305; post-Soviet memory of, 436 Abashin, Sergei, 313 Abbasid caliphate, 20,24 Abdukhaliq Abdurahman oghli. See Uyghur Alexander the Great, 19 Abdullah Khan, 29 Abdulqadir Damulla, 127,128 291, 355 Alim, Ömarjan, 446 Alim Khan (ruler of Khoqand), 55,77 Abdurähim, Abdulla, 446 Abdusamadov, Nazarkhoja (Uyghur Balisi), 207 Abukin, Qanat, 144 Abu’l Ala Khan, 80,87 Abulfayz Khan, 53,102 Abulkhayr Khan, 28, 30, 67, 68 Achaemenids, 19 Adalat (Justice) (Iranian party), 172 Adat (customary law), 107 Adolat (Justice) (informal group), 430,431, 454 Afaqis (Sufi order), 42, 43,57, 80 Afaq Khoja, 43, 488,502; mausoleum of, 88, 450 Afghanistan, 5,72,82,83,84-85,171» 234, Յ78, 424; Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan in, 431; Soviet intervention in, 388-92; Uyghurs in, 478 Ağamalı oğlu, Semed Ağa, 217 Agzybirlik (Unity), 406 Ali, Abduväli, 373 Alikhan Tora Shakirjanov, 281-82,288-89, Alimkhan Shakirjanov, 288 Alimqul, 78, 80, 82, 85, 88 Almaty, 69,182,287,298,345,283; domi nated by Europeans in Soviet period, 345; as bastion of anti-Chinese Uyghur sentiment, 368 Alptekin. See Isa Yusuf Altishahr, 41-42; defined, 13; Qjng debate over, 58-59; under Qjng rule, 45,48-51, 57-60; under Zunghar rule, 42 Amannisa Khan, 373,375 Amanullah Khan, 3 88 Amin, Hafizullah Amin, 389-90 Amu Darya, 12,66,79,83,327; attempts to change the course of, 105,108 Anand, Mulk Raj, 382 Anderson, Benedict, 121 Andijan: uprising of 1898,124; uprising
of, 2.005, 455-56 Andropov, Yuri, 397 Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, 84-85 Ahmed Kemal, 128-29,139 Aitmatov, Chingiz, 339, 369-71,384,408 Anna (empress of Russia), 67 539
540 Annenkov, Boris, 180-81 anticlericalism, 192-93 anticolonialism, 168,169-70,242,248-49, 282,313; and Bolsheviks, 172; and Com munism, 183; andjadids, 185,502; in the first ETR, 243,248-49,254; in the sec ond ETR, 282; Stalins lost interest in, INDEX Babakhan ibn Abdulmajid, Ishan, 267,353 Babayev, Suhan, 311 Babur, Zahiruddin Muhammad, 29,55,336 Bactria-Margiana Archeological Complex, 18 Baikonur, 377 282; and United States, 383. See also anti-imperialism anti-imperialism, 242, 259-60; of PRC, hats, as category, 216,227; dispossession of, 222,226,236 Bakiyev, Kurmanbek, 425,469 Bakiyev, Maxim, 469 Bäkri, Nur, 488-89 387 antinuclear movements, 306,407-8 antireligious campaigns: in Soviet Central Balkars, 278 Baren uprising, 476-77 Bashkirs, 5 Asia, 218-20; in Xinjiang, 366,370 antiterrorism, 477,482. See also Global war on terrorism Apresov, Garegin, 259 AqMasjid, 69,77, 85. See also Perovsk Basmachi, 161-62,186,252; term resurrected in 1930s, 225 Baytursmov, Ahmetjan, 129-30,130,141, Becoming Family (PRC campaign), 489 aąsaąąal (community headmen in Xinjiang), Begeldinov, Talghat, 277 60,111 Arah conquests, 20 Arabic script, reformed, 190,217,371-72 begs, 45) 48, ՏՆ 80, 375 Behbudiy, Mahmud Khoja, 118,118-19,149 202 Beijing, 396,416,426,452,484; Olympic Games in, 478; as Qing capital, 24,46, Aral Sea, 4,327-28,328,329,419 architectural rectification, 449-50 Arctic Ocean, 10,328,329 Ashgabat, 438 Astana, 438-39. See also Nur-Sultan Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal, 171,195 Ataýew, Öwezgeldi, 466 Atkin, Muriel, 424 autonomy, 498; as political demand in 1917, 153; during
perestroika, 415; proclaimed at Kokand, 157; proclaimed by Alash Orda, 159; in PRC, 360-64; Soviet ver sion of, 200-201 Avicenna. See Ibn Sina 405 49) 5°) ՏՆ S«, 68, 90, 91 Bekovich-Cherkassky, Aleksandr, 66 Belt and Road Initiative, 3,473,483 Berdimuhamedov, Gurbanguly, 466 Berlin Wall, 377,395 Beruni, Abu Rayhan, al-, 21 Bibi Khanum mosque, 434-35 bingtuan, 357,363,428. See also Xinjiang Pro duction and Construction Corps Birlik (Unity), 405,411 Bogd Khagan, 136,179 Bökeykhanov, Alikhan, 129,130,141,405 awakening, as metaphor, 121,131-32,245 Awut, Chimängul, 487 Ayni, Sadriddin, 155,336 Bolsheviks, 162-64; ind anticolonialism, 164-65; project of transforming the Äyup, Ablajan, 487 Äzizi, Säypidin, 299,358,359,362,365,370, Boriyar, Mämätjan Abliz, 487 Bovingdon, Gardner, 375 Brezhnev, Leonid, 314,317,324, 381,397 Brezhnev contract, 397, 400 371-7Z, 427) 488; as writer, 373) 374֊75i compared to Rashidov, 374 world, 185-87; utopian vision of, 163
INDEX Britain and the British empire, 72-74,78, 541 Central Asians: as Soviet citizens, 391-92; 82,98-99,111,170-71; and Afghanistan, 84,171; and the Bolsheviks, 174; consul as Soviet representatives in Cold War, 380-81 ate in Ürümchi, 285; consulate in Kash Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 280, gar, 111,128-29,256, 262-63; an i ETR, 255-56; in post-Soviet Central Asia, 420; relations with Central Asia, 73, 75, 82, 88, 391,412 Central Spiritual Administration of Muslims, 93,111,123; relations with the Qing, 91; Assembly Century of Humiliation, 71,386, 484 Chaghatay (Chingissid ruler), 25 and the Russian empire, 72-73,75, 84, 88; and Yaqub Beg, 88,92 British Virgin Islands, 444 Broido, Grigory, 179 Bromlei, Yulian, 402 Buddhism, 19,20,23,42 Bughra, Mehmed Emin, 245,252,491; col laboration with GMD, 292-93,299 Bukgoltz, Ivan, 66 Bukhara, 61,73; as “Bukhara the Noble,” 54; claimed by Tajiks, 409,463; during Chinggisid invasion, 25; as “cupola of Islam,” 21; jubilee to celebrate 2,500th anniver sary of founding, 435; as Samanid capital, 267. See also Muhammadan Spiritual Chaghatay (language), 28,55 Chaghatayism, 204,208, 210-11,241 Chaghatay khanate, 26 chantou (pejorative term), 127,244,249,261 Chechens, 4,278,344 Cherniaev, Mikhail, 77,79,92,100,123 Chiang Kai-shek, 284-85 Chicherin, Georgy, 182 China: in Central Asian sources, 13-14; reimagined as a nation-state, 8-9,138. See ako People s Republic of China China Ethnic Museum, 426-27 22; as Shibanid capital, 29 Bukhara (state), 52-54; as protectorate, 99, 101-2,118; defeated by Russia, 81; treaty China Islamic
Association, 371 China’s Destiny (Chiang Kai-shek), 285 Chinese Communist Party (CCP) : absence with Russian empire, 82; in 1917,154-55; Communist Party of, 175,210; conflict of Uyghur political elite in, 232,373-74; as Leninist party, 183,475; as a nationalist party, 360,484,501; views of the dissolu with Khoqand, 6i, 77-78; People’s Soviet Republic, 175-77 Bukharan Jews, 206, 440 Bukhari, Abu Ismail al-, 21,454 Burhamiddin Khoja, 45 Buttino, Marco, 157 Buzurg Khoja, 80, 85 Byzantine empire, 20 Canada, 348 Catherine the Great, 70,106,267,466 Cayman Islands, 444 CCP. See Chinese Communist Party Central Asia: defined, 5, 9-10; post-Soviet Russian views of, 8 Central Asia Bureau, 177, 211 tion of the Soviet Union, 422-23; in Xinjiang before 1949, 263, 299-300; in Xinjiang after 1949,297,358 “Chinese dream,” 483 Chinese language, in Xinjiang, 448-49, 489 Chinese nationalism, 135-39,484; racialist elements of, 135,284-85,483 Chinese Soviet Republic (1931-1934), 360 Chinggisid dispensation, 24, 27,31,52,53 Chinggisid restoration, 28,31 Chinggis Khan, 23,24,25,26, 203 Chiniy Türkistan avazi (The Voice of Chinese Turkestan), 293 Cholpan (Abdulhamid Sulaymon), 157,189, 221, 235, 335, 4°5
542 INDEX Choqay, Mustafa, 129,211,275,405 Churchill, Winston, 287 civilizing missions, 98, ros, 109 Conference ofAfro-Asian Writers, 382,383 Congresses ofMuslims of Turkestan (1917), Cold War, 377-92; cultural front in, 382; Congresses of People s Representatives (Xinjiang), 260 Sino-Soviet front, 378,386-88,392; and Soviet foreign policy, 379-80 152-ՏՅ» 157 continental pole, 10 collectivization, 224-29,247; and cotton, 225-27; in Xinjiang, 386 Cooperation Council of Turkic-Speaking States, 420 colonialism, 97-98; Soviet Union accused of, 234,283,404 corruption, 398-99, 468-69; connected to globalization, 443-44 Cossacks, 65,67,104 cotton, 102-3; collapse of cotton economy, Communism: and anticolonialism, 168-72, 183,501; as internal critique of the West, 500; and nationalism, 360,386,411,501. See also Bolsheviks Communist International (Comintern): and anticolonialism, 173,183; and China, 183-84,263,360 Communist Party of Kazakhstan, 216,314, 401,403,410, 471; and Xinjiang, 258, 287 Communist Party of Kyrgyzstan, 197, 311, 401,411; and Xinjiang, 258 Communist Party of Tajikistan, 311,380,401, 409-10,411; during the Tajik civil war, 424 Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 186, 215, 306,317, 329,381, 387, 398; during per estroika, 410,413; as a mass party, 314,442; and Sheng Shicai, 259,263; Twenty-Second Party Congress, 313-14; in Xinjiang, 358 Communist Party of Turkmenistan, 401, 411-12,464 Communist Party of Uzbekistan, 197,311,316, 380,381,38s, 410,41I) 430; purge of 1947, 307; during cotton scandal, 399-400, 402-3; and Xinjiang, 258,287,289 Communists, Central
Asian, 169-70,188, 195-98,196; disaffection among, 233-34; and Jadids, 185,189,195; leading role in national-territorial delimitation, 211; postwar elites, 314-15» 333» 339-40; sur vival after dissolution of the Soviet Union, 441-44 Communist University for the Toilers of the East, 174,188 160-61; and chemicalization, 329-30; and collectivization, 225-27; domination of the economy, 233-34,236-37,266; and irrigation, 319; not a reason for Russian conquest, 76-77; as a plantation economy, 319-20; as a political issue during per estroika, 403-4, 410; in post-Soviet era, 459» 467; in postwar period, 306-7,310-12, 318-21,326-27; in Tsarist period, 102-3, 106,109; Uzbek cotton scandal, 398-401 “cotton independence,” 226,318 Council for International Propaganda, 173 Crimea, 28,116 Crimean Tatars, 278 Crimean War, 77 cults of personality, 229,309,464,472 cultural genocide, 495, 499-500,501 Cultural Revolution (in PRC), 369-70,372, 494 Curzon, Lord, 97 Cyrillic script, 239,371,437 Dalai Lama, 42,137 Dala wilayatmïnggazeti (Steppe Gazette), 103 Daoud Khan, Muhammad, 389 Dawut, Rahile, 487 Day Lasts More than a Hundred Years, The (Aitmatov), 369-71, 408 decolonization, 379; as imperative for devel opment in Soviet Central Asia, 312-13; and Russian revolution of 1917,168
INDEX “de-extremification” campaign, 457,485-87; cemeteries demolished, 490; compared to Cultural Revolution, 494; as detoxifi cation, 485; and forced labor, 495; as high-tech totalitarianism, 496 “demanapization,” 217 DengXioping, 370,395 deportations of nationalities, 278-79,310, 495; and Central Asian identities, 279 de-Stalinization, 309 détente, 389 Dialogue between a European and a Bukharan Professor (Fitrat), 167 543 with first ETR, 282-83; differences with the Three Gentlemen, 294-96; negotia tions with GMD, 290-91; and PRC, 298-300; shifting views of nation, 281-82, 295-96; Soviet support of, 286-90; Uyghur memory of, 300. See also Ili National Army Eastern Turkestan Youth League, 291 East India Company, 72, 73, 78 East Turkestan Islamic Movement, 477-78 education: abolition of Islamic education, 220; “bilingual education” in Xinjiang, 448-49; Confucian schools in Xinjiang, diaspora, Central Asian, 279-80. See also 109,126; expansion of higher education in postwar Soviet Central Asia, 306,338-39. Uyghur: diaspora dual society, 100; persistence of during Soviet native schools period, 196, 324-% Յ44; in Xinjiang, 445 Du Bois, W. E. B., 382 Dulatov, Mirjaqïp, 130,131 Duma, 132-33, Hi “Dunganistan,” 262 Dungans, 4,49,87,182,207,260,295; emi gration to Russian empire, 93-94; and first ETR, 249-53; flight to Xinjiang (1918), 180; position in Altishahr, 253; revolt against the Qing, 79-81,91 Durrani, Ahmad Shah, 388 Dutov, Alexandr, 180 Eastern policy, 167,172-73, Յ81 Eastern Turkestan, 13,15; as Uyghur home land, 444 Eastern Turkestani Association, 293 Eastern
Turkestan Life (newspaper), 242, 253, 254, 255 Eastern Turkestan Republic (1933-1934), 254-57,262; in Chinese historiography, 255, 257; compared with Turkestan Au tonomy, 257; as Jadid republic, 254; pro claimed, 242-43; Soviet suspicion of, 256 Eastern Turkestan Republic (1944-1949), 281, 356, 364,378; anticolonialism in, 282; in Chinese historiography, 300; differences See also new-method schools; RussianEgypt, 72,234, 252, Յ71,384,456 Emin Khoja, 48,50 emirs, 30; defined, 26 empires: as normal form of political life, 39; overland vs. overseas, 7 environmental degradation, 4,327-30,419; as a political issue during perestroika, 401, 40Յ-4 epics, oral, 308, 335, 465 Eredene Biy, 52 Erk (Liberty) (newspaper), 294 Erk (political movement), 423 Estonia, 414 ethnogenesis, 240, 334 ethnos, theory of, 402 Eurasian Economic Union, 473 Eurasianism, 473 European, as group identity in later Soviet period, 345 exoticization, 1-2,231 extraterritoriality, 7,100; Bolshevik renun ciation of, 172,182 extremism, defined expansively (in PRC), 486 Faiz, Faiz Ahmad, 382,384 famines, 160-61, 227-28,366-67 Farabi, Abu Nasr al-Muhammad al-, 21
544 Farghani, Ibn Kathir aí֊, 21 Ferdowsi, Abu’1 Qasim, 20,337 First World War, 140-45; turbulent aftermath of, 170-72,202; as a turning point, 167 Fitrat, Abdurauf, 119,121-22,167,176,176-77, 210, 221, 235, 241,335, 337-38, 405; con ception of nation, 202-5; path from re form to irréligion, 193-95; radicalized by 1917,188-89; as theorist of Chaghatayism, 204, 208 Forbes, Andrew, 262 Fourniau, Vincent, 332-33 “Four Olds,” 369 Fragrant Concubine, legend of, 450 Friendship of Peoples, 7,236-37,308,345, 347,409,499; in Xinjiang, 260 INDEX Gorbachev, Mikhail, 328,347,395-96,397, 405,411; reforms of, 400-401 Gorchakov, Alexander, 97, 98 governor-general, asyorimpodishoh (vice roy), 95 Great Break, 215 Great Ferghana Canal, 233 Great Game, 1,73-74,419 Great Leap Forward, 366-67,369, 372 Great Patriotic War, 266; as jihad, 268-69; letters “from the people,” 272-73; as node of Soviet identity, 277-78, 499; post-Soviet memory of, 459-60. See also Second World War Great Terror (1936-1938), 215; 234-35 Great Wall of China, 17-18 Great War, 140; impact on Central Asia, 141-42. See also First World War Great Western Development Strategy, 427 Gagarin, Yuri, 377 Galdan Khan, 42,44 Guantanamo Bay, 478 Gansu, 42,91,137,181,246,490 Gapurov, Muhammetnazar, 315,411 Gulag, 230,234,236,305,309,310,339; as metaphor for Xinjiang’s political reedu Gasprinsky, Ismail Bey, 116-17,122) 127, 263, cation camps, 475 Gülen, Fethullah, 420,460 Guomindang (GMD), 246, зѕб; and CCP, 360,498; conception of nationhood, 360-61, 498; founding of, 183; as a Lenin 254,294 Germany, 279-80, 337,471; Central
Asian soldiers in, 277; as destination for students Łom Bukhara, 177; and Turkestan Legion, 274-76. See aho First World War; Second World War Ghadar, 171 Ghafurov, Bobojon, 380 Ghopur, Halmurat, 488 Ghulja, 43,63,127,245,246,281; 1997 pro test, 477 Gilan, Soviet republic in, 17s glasnost, 400,408-10 Global war on terrorism (GWOT), 432; ist party, 183; and Sheng Shicai, 284; in Xinjiang, 284-86,289,290-94, 296-99, 364 hajj, 231, 385, 454 Hami. See Qumul Hamza Hakimzoda Niyoziy, 222 Han Chinese: influx into Xinjiang, 357,3Ć5, 424-29, 479; Islamophobia among, 491; Gökdepe, massacre of, 83-84,144 Golden cradle, legend of, 55 as most advanced minzu in PRC, 362, 366; projects for settlement in Xinjiang, 59,109,285,427; in Qing Xinjiang, 47,48, 49-50,79,91,109-10,137; in Republican Golden Horde, 24,26,28,29,30,32,64 Goloshchekin, Filipp, 216,221 Xinjiang, 140,180, 243, 246-51, 252» 257, 263, 281-82, 296, 299; as synonymous Gong Zizhen, 58-59,109,285 with China, 449-52) 483-84) 494 501; in new language of politics, 477,482
INDEX Xinjiang after 1949,3Ճ1,362,36s, 366,369, 428-29,454,489; privileged position of, 447-48, 479-80. See aho Chinese nationalism Han dynasty, 8,19 Haydar (emir of Bukhara), 73 Hayit, Baymirza, 279-80 Häzim, Erfan, 487 Hesenli, Cemil, 287 Heyit, Abdurähim, 487 Heyitgah (Idgah) mosque, 476,481 hijab, 454, 493 Hikmet, Nazim, 382 545 Hi valley, 72,282; Russian occupation of, 87 Imanov, Amangeldi, 143 India, 26,29,53, 66,72-74,77, 88,171,234, 252,355,376, 422,463; as friend of the So viet Union, 384; war with China, 386-87; relations with post-Soviet CA, 421 Indian revolutionaries, 171,173-74 indigenization, 187,196,230,332,425 Ingushes, 278 Institute of the Red Professoriate, 188 intellectuals: postwar cohorts, 333-40, 403; repression of, 220-21,234-35, 370,487-88, 495 Hindustoniy, 354-55« 44 historical novels, 336-37, 373« 375 Hitler, Adolph, 265, 465 Hizmet (Service) movement, 420-21,460 intermarriage, 345-46 Hojiboyev, Abdurahim, 339 Hojiboyeva, Baroat, 339 Holodomor, 227 homeland: as category, 121,141,157, 203-5, Iraq, 384 Iran, 83,170,175,195,456; and Tajikistan, 463; relations with post-Soviet Central Asia, 421 Irjar, battle of, 81,82 irréligion, 193-95 irrigation, 10; and environmental degrada 294; inETR, 242-43,254-55, 282,293-94,· tion, 4,327; in Khoqand, 55; Soviet-era Eastern Turkestan as Uyghur homeland, projects, 226,306,311-12, 318-19, 321, 329; 373-74,444-45! PRC as, 483; Soviet Union as, 237,266-67,346-47. See also vatan Hughes, Langston, 232 Hui, 4,49-50; autonomous prefectures, under Tsarist rule, 108-9 Irtysh River, 10 Isa Yusuf, 292-96, 299, 491 Islam:
and cultural radicalism of 1920s, 192- 362; as base of support for Yang Zengxin, 95; and national identities, 352; antireli 137; multiple meanings of, 294; as one of gious campaigns, 218-20, 366, 370; as Chinas “five races,” 138; revolt against the Qing, 79-80; targeted by Sinicization campaign, 489-90. See aho Dungans communal identity, 34, 344-45; as source of legitimacy, 85; as source of political au thority, 31, 32, 43; conversion to, 21, 22, hajra, 354-55, 44 25-26; conversion narratives, 32-33; in hajúm, 218,219, 222-23 late Soviet conditions, 349-55; during Hülegü, 24 Hungry Steppe, 108,312, 330 Hurriyat (Liberty), 202 the Mongol conquests, 24-25; in Soviet diplomacy, 383,384-86; replaces Com munism as perceived ideological threat, 430; Russian imperial policies toward, Ibn Sina, Abu Ali, 21,337 106-7; seen as antidote to Communism, ideological front, 215,220 390-91; seen as mental illness by PRC, Ikromov, Akmal, 234-35,317 Ili crisis, 39,93-94 Ili National Army, 282, 357 486; state control of, 195,352-54, 454֊55· See also proxy religiosity; Muslimness; SADUM
546 INDEX Islamic militancy, fear of, 415,424,430-31, Jizzakh, 143,160 451-54,463 Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, 431 Jochí, 24 Juvaini, Ata Malik, 25 Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan, 424,430 Islamic revival: during perestroika, 412-13, 431,453-54; in Xinjiang, 445 Islamism, 413,502 Islamophobia, 491 Ismail Samani, 22,463 Istanbul, 89,118,119,127,139,167, 202, 208 Ivan IV (“the Terrible”), 29,30,64 Jadidism, 114-23,372,502; in eastern Turke stan, 127-28, 244-45,154-55; views of Europe, 168,177 Jadids: conflict with the ulama, 125,153-55, 169; critique of own society, 120-22,125; and Communists, 185,189,19s; cultural radicalism of, 188-90; fascination with revolution, 170,175,185; and modernity, 120,177; Soviet attack on, 220-21; viewed as Uzbek national heroes, 436. See also Young Bukharans Jahangir Khoja, 57-58 Jahan Khoja, 45 Jalalidin, Abduqadir, 487 Janibek (Kyrgyz warlord), 252 Japan, 90,173,176,297; as destination for Chinese students, 135, 257; invasion of Manchuria, 250; invasion of China, 360; war with Russia, 132; Soviet fear of, 250, 258, 264 Jeltoqsan (political group), 406 Jeltoqsan (protests), 403 Jettisuv, 13,69,105,211; settler violence in, 156,159-60,161,178 jihad, 60,413; in 1916,143,477; Great Patri otic War as, 268-69; in Afghanistan, 410, 431 jihadism, 391,430, 431 Jin Shuren, 246-47,249-21,296,299 Kalinovsky, Artemy, 402 Kamolov, Sobir, 311 Kamp, Marianne, 223 Karachays, 278 Karaganda, 236,310 Karakorum Highway, 376 Karakorum Mountains, 12,13, 376 Karakum, 12 Karimov, Islom, 410,423,425,425,430,431, 454,458-61; and GWOT, 477 Kashgar, 43,
88,376,476, 481,489,49°; 493; British consulate in, 111, 256, 262-63; de molition of old city, 450-52,4SI; during ETR, 242,251-56,262-63; Jadidism in, 128; Khoja revolts and invasions, 57-58, 60-62, 80; Qing new city in, 49, 255; Russian consulate in, 93,111; Wälikhanov in, 63-64; and Yaqub Beg, 80, 88-89 Kaufman, Konstantin, 100,103,106,123-26; views of Islam, 106-7; of nomads, 106 Kazakh autonomous republic (1920-1924), 211, 212; proclaimed, 166. See also Kazakhstan Kazakhs, 30; “Barefooted Flight,” 53, 67; during collectivization, 227-29; elites under Tsarist rule, 101; emergence of intelligentsia, 129-32; emigration to So viet Union, 367-69; famine, 227-28; flight to Xinjiang in 1916,144-45,156, 228; growth of Islamic learning among, 126; land question, 104; national project of, 131-32,158-59, 205-6, 211; oaths to Rus sian empire, 67-68; and the Qing, 68; under Russian rule, 68-69; in Xinjiang, 356-57) Зб4) 423,435; wars with the Zunghars, S3, 67 Kazakhstan: as autonomous republic, 212; collectivization in, 227-29; Jeltoqsan protests, 403; foreign relations, 472; as
INDEX nationalizing state, 435; post-Soviet developments, 471-74 Kazan, 29,117,127 Keriyä, 252,490 KGB (Soviet political police), 317, 386, 397, 460. See also KGB 547 Kuchuk Khan, Mirza, 175 kulak, 179,224,225,278; as category, 216,495 Kunayev, Dinmuhammed, 3η, 316-18,4θΐ, 403 Kunitz, Joshua, 231-32 Kunlun Mountains, 13 Kunming, terror attack in, 481 Khiva, 60,81; peoples republic of, 174; Rus sian campaigns against, 66,69; treaty Kuropatkin, Alexei, 144,155 with the Russian empire, 83 Khoja Niyaz, 248-50,251,255,256,2Ճ2,263 Kyrgyz: in Altishahr, 57, 61, 80; and Kho qand, 55, 78; in 1916,144-45,156,180; lan Khojas, 42,50,52,56-58,60,61-62,80,85; invasions ofAltishahr by, 57-58,60,61-62 guage, 190; Kyrgyz national project, 206, 211-12; in Xinjiang, 252, 259, 362 Kyrgyzstan: during perestroika, 406, 409, 411, 414; formation of, 212; post-Soviet, Khojayev, Fayzulla, 176, zio, 234-35 Khoqand (khanate), 46,52-57,59֊6o, 77-78; connections to Altishahr, 54-58,60,61-62, 80-81; diplomatic overtures, 78, 82; inva sion by Bukhara, 61-62; relations with the Qing, 52,64,56,59-60; and Russian em pire, 69,77,81; upheaval after 1842,78, 84-85 Khorgos, 368,473 Khotan, 245; protests in 1954-1956, 357; up rising of 1933,252 Khrushchev, Nikita, 309-11,347,359,380, Kurokawa, Kisho, 438 467-70; “Tulip revolution,” 469 Kyzylkum, 12 labor migrations: from Altishahr to Russian Turkestan, 93,112-13, 233, 244; from Tajikistan to Russia, 463-64; from Uzbekistan to Russia, 461-62 Laden, Osama bin, 477 Land of the Fathers (film), 346-47 land question (for Kazakhs), 131,133 381,382,438; and Central
Asia, 320; cul tural policies, 333; on Mao, 387 Khudayar Khan, 78,81, 82 Khwarazm, 14, 23 language reform, 190, 371-7Յ) 437 language rights, 437; debates over, 405-6, Khwarazmi, Muhammad ibn Musa al-, 21 Kim Il-sung, 465 Kizilsu. See Krasnovodsk League of the Militant Godless, 351 Lenin, Vladimir, 164,167,172, 237 “Leninist moment,” 168 Lenin yo’li (Lenin’s Path), 316 Kobozev, Petr, 165-66,169 Kokand Autonomy. See Turkestan Autonomy Kolhin, Gennady, 401,410 Kolpakovsky, Gerasim, 87 Komsomol, 224,226,306,310,34Ć, 411 Koreans, 345; deported to Central Asia, 278 korenizatsiia. See indigenization Kosygin, Alexei, 317, 324 Krasnovodsk, 12, 81 Krivoshein, A. V, 106 Kucha, 79 414» 415 Latinization, 217-18, 239,371,437 Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 105 Libya, 384 Li Dazhao, 183 Ligachev, Yegor, 398 Li Peng, 422 Liu, Xiaoyuan, 360 Lomakin, Nikolai, 83,84 Madali (Muhammad Ali) Khan, 56,59-60, 61 Madali Eshon, 124-25 Ma Fuxing, 253
548 INDEX mahalla (urban neighborhood), 323,340 Mirziyoyev, Shavkat, 425,461 Ma Hushan, 262-63 Mahkamov, Qahhor, 411 modernity: and authenticity, 205,208,333; Mahmud Kashgari, 28,33,335,373 Makhtumquli, 335,337 Mämetova, Mänshuk, 277 Mamoor, Yousof, 230-31 тапар, 217. See aho “demanapization” Manas, 308,335,436,470 Manchurian Salvation Army, 251 Manghits, 53,61 mankurt, 408 Mao Dun, 382 Mao Zedong, 298,299, 358-59,360,364, 370,374,375,456,494; and Khrushchev, 364-65,386-87; and nationalities policies, 361; and Stalin, 386-87 Mao Zemin, 284 Marghinani, Burhan al-Din Abu’l Hasan al-, 21,4 Martin, Terry, 187 Marx, Karl, 163,183,216,434 Marxism, in China, 183 Ma Shiming, 250 Masum Efendi, 127 Mätniyaz, Jälil, 488 mature socialism, 314 Maturidi, Abu Mansur Muhammad al-, 21, 454 Ma Zhongying, 249-52,256,262 Mengjianzhu, 485 mobilizational states, 186 Communism as a path to, 150,168,378; and empire, 101,497-98; Han Chinese as embodiment of, 366,429; and nation hood, 205, 206, 208, 257; as Soviet social ism, 224,237,238,324,333,348,383 Moldaghulova, Aliya, 277 Mongol dispensation, 43 Mongol empire, 23-24,25,31,64 Mongolia, s, 91,136,139,179,181; ETR mis sion to, 249 Mongols, in Xinjiang, 282 Moorcroft, William, 72-73 Moscow, as Central Asian metropolis, 461-62 mosques: attacks on, 220, 222, 351, 366, 451, 455, 490,495; bar in, 49°, 493; as part of Soviet diplomacy, 385; pigs in, 370; pre served as architectural monuments, 351; reopening of, 371,412,453; under state control, 352,455,490 Mughal empire, 29,53,336 Mugholistan, 26,33 Muhammad (Prophet), 21,33,289 Muhammadan
Spiritual Assembly (Oren burg), 70, 27, 267 Muhammad Rahim Manghit, 53 Muhammad Solih, 404,423 Merv, 20, 84,108,273 Meskhetian (Ahiska) Turks, 278 Muhitdinov, Nuriddin, 381,385 Muhiti, Mahmud, 249-50,262 Muhiti, Maqsut, 244 Mexico, 173 Mikoyan, Anastas, 361 mujahidin, Afghan, 390-91,431,421 Munawar-qori Abdurashidxon-oghli, 114,118 military reform (before imperial conquest), muqam music, 372,373 Muqanna, 273,308 54,55,61, 81-82 Milli] Türkistan (National Turkestan), 275-76, 279 Millward, James, 46-47 Murghab Imperial Domain, 108 Musa, Ablet, 482,488 Musabayev brothers, 127,128,139 Ming (tribe), 55 Musburo (Bureau of Muslim Communist Ming dynasty, 23,26,31 minzu, 360; origins of term, 426 Muscovy, 29, 65, 66 Organizations), 169
INDEX 549 Mushtum (Fist), 192 modernity, 205, 206,333; multiplicity of Muslim, as communal identity in later Soviet national projects in Central Asia, 202-8; national goods, availability of, 334; pro jected into the past, 240-41; and Soviet period, 344-45 Muslimness, 352 Muti’i, Ibrahim, 372 Nadir Shah, 53, 68 ness, 241,340-43,346-49 Nava’i, Alisher, 27,28,240,331,335,336, 337 Navoiy metro station, 331. See also Nava’i Nazar, Ruzi, 280 Naqshbandis (Sufi order), 32, 43, 267 Nazarbayev, Nursultan, 410,423,425,435, Nabiyev, Rahmon, 401 Narbuta Biy, 56 471-72, 474; as Elbas i, 472 “neo-Soviets” (in Tajikistan), 424,462 narcotics, 421 Nasriddinova, Yodgor, 342-43 neo-Timurid style, 434,438 Nasrullah (emir of Bukhara), 73,78 Netherlands, 274 nation: as a new form of community, 121-23, Nevada-Semipalatinsk (antinuclear move 135,244-46,249,254; as predominant language of post-Soviet politics, 440, 474; Stalins definition of, 200; triumph of the idea in Soviet conditions, 212 National in Form, Socialist in Content, W-38,238,333,341 ment), 406-7 new cities, 110; in Qing Xinjiang, 49; in Russian Turkestan, 96 New Life (newspaper), 259-60 new-method schools, 116,116117,119,152, 169; in eastern Turkestan, 180 nationalities policies, in PRC, 359-64; changes after 1991, 425-29, 444-45; “sec New Persian, 22,337,436 ond generation ethnic policy,” 483 nationalities policies, Soviet, 165,200-201, Nicholas II, 132,133,142,149 new Qing History, 46-47,532 Nikolai Konstantinovich, Grand Duke, 108 336,340,347; debate over during glasnost, Nishanov, Rafiq, 410 408-10; as model for Xinjiang,
260-61 Niyazov, Saparmurat, 411-12,423,425,438; styled as Turkmenbashy, 435-36,464-66 nationality: as official category, 212-13, або, 332,34°) 407,433! folklorization of, 236-37, 238,426-27 nationalizing states, 433-47; defined, 234 National Museum of China, 426 national self-determination, 168,202; and CCP, 360,361; in ETR, 242,254, 257; Guomindang and, 284,294; in the Soviet context, 180,212,243,317 national-territorial delimitation, 199-202, 209-14; comparison with Central Eu rope, 202 nationhood, 208-9; codification of national Nodira, 55, 61 nomadism, 17; end of, 229 nuclear testing, 305-6,379. See also antinu clear movements Nurek Dam, 312-13 Nur-Sultan, 438 Ob River, 329 Odilov, Ahmadjon, 399 Oftobi Soghdiyon (Sun of Sogdiana), 406 OGPU (Soviet political police), 221, 225, 234,247,258; immune to indigenization, and Islam, 282; as main form of organ 230. See aho KGB Olimjon, Hamid, 308 Opium Wars, 71,79,110 ization during perestroika, 407; and oralman program, 435,473-74 heritage, 334-35, 337-40; crystallization of national identities, 331-32,444-45;
550 Orenburg, 8ı, 117 Osman Batir, 286,291,356-57 Ostroumov, N. P., 107 Osttruppen (Eastern Troops) (in Second World War), 274, 276 Ötkiir, Abdurähim, 373 Ottoman Empire, 26,53, 88-90,140,167-68; claim to the caliphate of, 88-89,118; as model for Central Asians, 89,117-18,119, 128-29; views of Eastern Turkestan, 88-89 Otunbayeva, Roza, 425,469,470 INDEX dissolution of the Soviet Union, 422-23, 425-26. See also “de-extremification”; Xinjiang “Peoples War of Terror,” 482 perestroika, 400; declarations of indepen dence, 416-17; economic crisis during, 418-19; “parade of sovereignties,” 414; personnel changes in Central Asia, 41012; political mobilization during, 405-7 Perovsk, 69,77,129 Perovsky, Vasily, 69,77 Persian, 28,29; rebirth of, 22. See also New Ozbek Khan, 28,32 Persian Peter the Great, 65-66,70, 466 Pakistan, 376, 422,456,463; and war in Pianciola, Niccolò, 156 Pinyin, 371 Ovezov, Balyş, 315 Afghanistan, 389, 412; relations with post-Soviet Central Asia, 421 Pamir Mountains, 12, 85 Panfilov and Panfilovtsy, 277 pan-Islam, imperial fears of, 141 Panjdeh crisis, 84 pan-Turkism, 338,477; different from Turkism, 123 paranji-chochvon, 190-92,191,218 Paul I (tsar), 72 “peaceful liberation of Xinjiang,” 297-98, 356-57 Peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan, 388-89; factions, 389 Peoples Liberation Army (PLA), 297-98, 356-57 People’s Political Consultative Conference, 2.98,374 Peoples Republic of China (PRC): and Han Chinese, 299,366,483-84; military base in Tajikistan, 463; as a nationalizing Pishpek, 77, 96. place name changes, 14-15, 437 Poliakov, Sergei, 402
Politburo, 226,227, 286,288,389-90,416; Central Asians in, 317-18,398 political reeducation camps (Xinjiang): and forced labor, 492-93; forced sterilizations of women in, 493; compared to Gulag, 494-95 population and demography, 10,227,236, 310, 322,32S֊27 427_29 435,463-64, 499 Pramoedya Toer, 382 Prisoners ofWar (POW): Central Asians as, 275; in First World War, 142,171; Soviet treatment of, 279 protectorates: establishment of, 82-83; unique in Russian empire, 98-99 Provisional Government (1917), iS2, 154, iSS, 157, i6o, 162-63,191 proxy religiosity, 352 Purdue, Peter, 45 state, 444; official views of Xinjiang and Uyghurs, 8-9, 449-50; relations with post-Soviet Central Asia, 463,467, 473; Qaeda, AI, 421 Qahhor, Abdulla, 344 response to Uyghur discontent, 447; state control of Islam, 456-57; use of Qara Khitay, 23 Qasimi, Äkhmätjan, 290,291,295-96,298 GWOT language, 477-78; views of the Qayum-Khan, Yah, 274-7S, 279
INDEX Qenesarï Sultan, 69 Qianlong emperor, 45,50 Qjng, 9,41,44-5։; and China, 46-47; col lapse of, 134-36; conquest ofAltishahr, 551 Rïsqülov, Turar, 169,178,183,188, 235; theory of colonial revolution, 169-70 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 287 “rootless cosmopolitanism,” campaign against, 307 45-46; debate over Xinjiang, 58-59, 90-91; extraterritorial rights for foreign subjects, Roy, Manabendra Nath, 173 110-11; and Han Chinese, 109-10; as Khaqan, 50-51; nineteenth-century chal Rozenbakh, Nikolai, 100 Rudaki, 22,337 lenges, 71-72; rebellions in, 51, 57-58, 59-60; relations with the Russian empire, 72; and the rule of difference, 46-47; Rudzutaks, Jānis, 182 Ruhnama (Book of the Spirit) (Niyazov), second conquest of Xinjiang, 91-93; unequal treaties, 71,110-11; views of British empire, 91; views of Russia, 91; wars with the Zunghars, 44-45. See also New Qing History Qiyomat (Resurrection) (Fitrat), 193-94 Qizil O zbekiston (Red Uzbekistan), 316 Qodiriy, Abdulla, 192,221,235,335» 405 Qodirov, Pirimqul, 336-37 Qojanov, Sultanbek, 178-79,21г Qumul, 13,23,45, 91,243,449-S0; uprising of 1933,248-50 Qutadghu Bilik (Wisdom of Royal Glory) (Yusuf Khass Hajib), 27-28 racism: in China, 375; in the United States, vß, 377-78 Radio Liberty, 280 Rahimov, Sabir, 276-77 Rahmonov (Rahmon), Emomali, 424,425 Rashidov, Sharaf, 311,315-18,317,339-4°, 398,401; as Soviet diplomat, 380,382,383, 384, 385; death, 399-40° Rastokhez, 406 Rasulov, Jabbor, 401 Reagan, Ronald, 390 red colonialism, 234, 283,404 Regulation on De-Extremification, 485, 486 rehabilitation (process), 309,335,339,405 Resettlement
Administration, 10Ć Revolt o/Muqanna, 308 revolution of 190s, 132-33 465 Rus, principalities of, 24, 28,64 Russia: and the Soviet Union, 415; postSoviet views of Central Asia, 8; ties with Central Asia, 421-22 Russian civil war, 163-64; and Mongolia, 179-80; in Xinjiang, 180-81 Russian empire: administration of Kazakh lands, 68-69; as a colonial empire, 97, 98-101, 237-38; conquest of Transoxiana, 75-79, 81-85; conquest of Turkmen lands, 83-84; economic dominance in Xinjiang, 110-13; emergence of, 64-66; and Khoqand, 69,77, 81; occupation ofili, 87; re lations with the British empire, 82,84-85; relations with the Qing, 72, 87; and rule of difference, 69-70, 97-98; trade with Central Asia, 63; views of Islam, 106; and Yaqub Beg, 87-88 Russian language: after the Soviet Union, 435; as common Soviet language, 336; as dominant in cities, 345; importance of, 100,196, 238; and Uyghur, 372-72 Russian-native schools, 100-101,129,130,195 Russians: after the Soviet Union, 406,421, 440,471; in post-Soviet Kazakhstan, 471, 473; and the Soviet Union, 238-39,308, 347-48; as elder brothers, 238; as first among equals, 347 Sabit Damulla, Abdulbaqi, 242-43, 252, 255 Sābri, Masud, 245-46,293,296 Sadr Ziyo, 339
552 INDEX SADŮM, 268-69,188,352-54,385-86, 413, September 11. See 9/11 455 Sädwaqasoy Smaghül, 233-34 settler colonialism, 104, 495 Safarov, Georgy, 178-79, 211 Safavids, 53 Saidazimova, Tursunoy, 223 settlers, Han Chinese, in Xinjiang, 110,248, 285,427-28 settlers, Russian, 104,105-6,130-31,142; in 1916, violence during revolution, 144-45, Saidov, Abdulla, 413 158,159-60,161,186; expulsion of, 178-79. Saljuqs, 22 See also Virgin Lands campaign; Gulag Sämädi, Ziya, 365 Shähidi, Burhan, 291,296-97,358 Samanids, 22,436,463 Shahnameh, 20, 22, 203 Samarqand: annexed by Russian empire, 82, Shahrukh, 52 lee to celebrate 2,750th anniversary of Shahrukhids, 52,55 Shakirjanov. See Alikhan Tora Shakuri (Shukurov), Muhammadjon, 339 founding, 435; new city (Russian), 99; as Shanghai Cooperation Organization, 422, 123-24; claimed by Tajiks, 409,463; de populated in eighteenth century, 53; jubi Timurid capital, 26,27 Sarimsaq Khoja, 56-57 460,477 shariat, 25,123, 222; under Tsarist rule, 107 Sarmatians, 18 Shaykhzoda, Maqsud, 308 Sassanids, 20 Shaytonning tangriga isyoni (Satan’s revolt Satuq Bughra Khan, 32,57, 373, 375 Saudi Arabia, 279,386; and war in Afghani stan, 390 Säypidin. See Äzizi Sayqal (Luster), 406 Sayrami, Molla Musa, 50-51 Schuyler, Eugene, 96-97 scientific atheism, 351 Scythians, 18 Second World War: Central Asian prisoners ofwar, 274; coexistence of Soviet and na tional in, 273; early Soviet losses, 265; evacuation and evacuees, 270-72; impact on Central Asians, 272-73,276-78; as lib eration, 266-67; nationalization of, 272-73; numbers of Central Asians, 270; as
node of Soviet identity, 346-47; post-Soviet memory of, 459-60. See also Great Patri otic War; Turkestan Legion secularization, 220,337,488 Sembene, Ousmane, 382 Semipalatinsk (Semey), 63,96,126,244, 305,407 Semireche, 13,87,105, И2,180. See also Jettisuv against God) (Fitrat), 194 Shemeke (Shah Muhammad) Khan, 67 Sheng Shicai, 251-52, 257-Ć4,294; and CCP, 263-64; and GMD, 284; new style of pol itics, 259-61; and Stalin, 259,263; and the Soviets, 257-61,263-64,283-84 Sheng Shiqi, 283 Sherdiman, 357 Shibanids, 29,30 Shibani Khan, 28 Shing Jang gaziti (Xinjiang Gazette), 261 Sibe, 260,282 Siberian rivers diversion project, 328-29 Sidqiy, Sirojiddin Makhdum, 151 Silk Road, 1,3,19,31 Sinicization, 456,483,489-90 Sino-Soviet alliance, 356,359,365-36,378-79; demise of, 386-88 Skobelev, Mikhail, 84 Small October (in Kazakhstan), 216 Socialism in One Country, 224,236, 237, 250, 258, 314; and Soviet patriotism, 266, 307 Sogdiana, 19,337,436,463
INDEX 553 Sulaymonova, Khadija, 342 Solih, Muhammad. See Muhammad Solih Soviet model of development, 3,312,378, 381-82 Siileymenov, Oljas, 356,407 Sultanzadeh (Avetis Mikaelian), 171-72 Sovietness: as ethnically neutral, 499; and Sun, The (newspaper), 114 nationhood, 241,340-43,346-49 Soviet patriotism, 237,239,266,306,307,348 Soviet Union: as alternate path to moder Sun Yat-sen, 136,183,362 Suphi, Mustafa, 171,172 Sverdlov Communist University, 188 nity, 231-ЗЗ; dissolution of, 397, 417,419; federalism in, 414; intervention in Af ghanistan, 390; not seen as a Russian Syr Darya district, 106 Syria, 381,384; civil war in, 478 state, 348; putsch attempt, 416; referen dum on the preservation of, 415-16; rela Taiping uprising, 71 Tajik civil war, 423-25 tions with PRC, 298-99, 356, 358-59, Tajikistan, 436; civil war, 423-25; control of Islam, 456; foreign relations, 463; 365-66,378-79,386-88,396; and Xinji ang, 181-82, 244, 250-51, 263, 283-84, 286-90,298-99,358-59,364-65,367-69, founded, 212; post-Soviet developments, Space Race, 377 463-64 Tajik national identity/nationalism, 462-Ճ3; emergence of, 207-8; claims to Samarqand Spiritual Administration for the Muslims of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. See SAJDUM and Bukhara, 409,463 Talas, Battle of, 20,46 Taliban, 421,477 Stalin, Joseph, 164,165,186,188,215,236,292, Tang dynasty, 9, 20 379 299,307,314,465; and ETR, 288-89; and Islam, 267,351; and Mao, 359,386; and national-territorial delimitation, 199,211; and Sheng Shicai, 259,263,283, 284; and Tao Xisheng, 285 Tao Zhiyue, 297 Tarala, Nur Muhammad, 389 Taranchi, 44, 80,
87,112, 207 Xinjiang, 250,293,287-89,298-99; cult of personality, 229,309; definition of nation by, 200; geopolitical goals after Tarmashirin, 25 Tashkent, 2,155,345; as crossroads of revo lution, 170-74; as proposed vassal state, Second World War, 378; revolution from above, 224,367; treaty of non-aggression with Nazi Germany, 265 Stalinism, 229-35; postwar, 306-8 State Administration of Religious Affairs (PRC), 457 Statecraft school, 58,109 state-race (guozu), 483 Statute on the Siberian Kazakhs, 68,69 Steppe, enclosed, 6,65 Strike Hard Campaign against Violent Ter rorism, 481 Sufis and Sufi orders, 31,32,33,41, 41, 43,57. See also Afaqis; Naqshbandis 81; as Soviet showcase, 382-83; descrip tions of new city, 77-78, 96; earthquake (1966), 318, 323-24, ՅՅ։; metro, 331; urban redesign, 323-24 Tashkentchilär (Tashkenters), 258-59,364, 374 Tashkent Soviet, 155,156-57,165 Tatars, 4,5, 63, 66,104,106,116,117,344; in Xinjiang, 127,128 Täyip, Tashpolat, 487 Temur Malik, 273 Tercüman (Interpreter) (newspaper), 117, 122, 253 Tevkelev, Muhammad, 67
554 INDEX Thaw, 309,336 Turkestan Committee (1917), 155-56 Third World, 313,378; Soviet outreach to, Turkestan Islamic Party, 478 Turkestan Legion, 273-76 Turkey, 176,177,195,255,299; as destination 382-85 “three evils,” 477, 485 Three Gentlemen (Üch äpändi), 294-96, 299; differences with ETR, 295-96 Tiananmen Square, massacre, 396,483; terror of Central Asian diaspora, 279,491; rela tions with post-Soviet Central Asia, 420. See also Ottoman Empire Timur, 26-27,31, 203-5, 434-35 Turkism, 122-23,128-29,139,254,281,293-96, 420; different visions of, 294-96,420; as modernity, 208; not the same as panTurkism, 123 Timurids, 27,28,29,55,204 Türkistan (city), 77 Tirmidhi, Abu ‘Isa Muhammad al-, 21, 454 Turkiston viloyatininggazeti (Turkestan Ga attack in, 481 Tibet, s, 42,137,492 Tien-Shan Mountain, 12,13,42 titular nationals, 213,239-40, 347; defined, zette), 103,11s, 153 213 Tohti, Ilham, 484-85,487 Turkmenbashy (Türkmenbaşy), 464-66. Toqayev, Qasim-Jomart, 474 Türkmenbaşy (city), 12 Toqmaq, 77,144, 282 Turkmenistan: and China, 467; foreign rela See also Niyazov Torghay, 143-44, HS tions, 467; permanent neutrality, 466; traditionalism, Soviet ethnographers’ view post-Soviet developments, 464-67; re of, 402 Transoxiana, 12,18,19, 22, 23, 25-26, 28,42, 60,67,68, 75; as a frontier zone, 20 Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance, 359 Treaty of Ghulja, 72 Treaty of Nerchinsk, 65 Treaty of St. Petersburg, 39, 93-94,110,182 Trotsky, Lev, 149,172 Tsarist empire. See Russian empire bellion during collectivization, 225 Tursun, Perhat, 487 Tursun, Sänubär, 487
Tynyshbayev, Muhammetjan, 129 Ukraine, 227 ulama, 34, 43,53,192-93; in 1917,153՜555 ac commodation to Tsarist rule, 123-25; in Afghanistan, 389; in ETR, 253-54; flex ibility of interpretation of, 56,501-2; minor role in Kazakh society, 132,158; opposition to Jadidism, 123-26; during Tughluq Temür, 26,33 Turan, 20,203-4 Turfan, 13, 23, 45,79, 81, 250 Turkestan: defined, 14; as Russian province, Second World War, 267-69 Uljaboyev, Tursunbay, 311,313 79, 82,94-95, 211 Turkestan Autonomy, 157-58,159,162,200, Ulughbek, 27, 273, ՅՅ6, 357 Ulughzoda, Sotim, 337 275,276 Turkestan Bureau, 177,182. See also Central Asia Bureau Turkestan Commission, 166,173,177,178, 21Ճ Turkestan Committee of National Unity, 275-76,280 Umar Khan, 55 Umayyad caliphate, 20 UNESCO, 4,470 United Nations, 418, 424 United States: in the Cold War, 377-78,382; comparisons to, 96-97, 232, 319-20, 33°; consulate in Ürümchi, 282,285; entry
INDEX 555 into Second World War, 283; and global with Turkey, 460; relations with the U.S., war on terrorism, 477; geopolitical pres ence in post-Soviet Central Asia, 420, 460 460, proxy war in Afghanistan, 389-91; racism in, 232, 377-78; support for Is lamic militancy, 390-91, 412; views of Soviet Central Asia, 391,412 uprising of 1916,142-45 urban planning and redesign, 323-24,437-38, 450-52, 451. See also architectural rectification Ürümchi, 49; made capital ofXinjiang, 109; as a Chinese city, 428,448; U.S. consul ate in, 282,285; 2009 riots, 478-80; vio lent attacks in, 481 uskorenie (acceleration), 400 Usmon Khoja, 176,177 Usmonxo’jayev, Inomjon, 401, 410 Uyghur, Abdukhaliq Abdurahman oghli, 244-45,250 Uyghur empire, 18, 20 Uyghur ethnonym: modern emergence of, 206-7; in eastern Turkestan, 245; offi cially recognized, 2Ճ0-61 Uyghuristan, demands for, 364,365 Uyghur language, 286,371-73,448-49; pub lishing banned, 493-94 Uyghurs: absence ofpolitical ehtes, 474,447; in Afghanistan, 478; diaspora, 257,368, 422-23,491-92; codification of cultural heritage, 371-72,444-45; discontent with PRC, 264-65,422,444,478-80; intelligentsia, 370, 371, 374-75,487-48, 495; memory of ETR, 300; sense of na tionhood, 444; not titular in Xinjiang, 362-63; resistance to PRC, 445-47; in Syria, 478; violence, 480-81. See also “de-extremification”; Uyghur ethnonym Uzbek: modern ethnonym, 204; ulus of, 28 Uzbek cotton scandal, 398-400,401 Uzbekistan: control of Islam, 455; forma tion of, 210-11; as nationalizing state, 434-ՅՏ; post-Soviet, 458-62; relations Valikhanov. See Wälikhanov
vatan (homeland), 121,141,242, 294 veiling, 190-92,270,342; campaign against, 218-19; prohibited in Xinjiang, 480. See also hijab Vernoe, 69,77 Virgin Lands campaign, 309, 310, 311,325, 367,406,471 Volga Germans, 278,471 Volga-Urals region, 28,54, 70, 98,117, 270 Wali Khan Khoja, 62 Wälikhanov, Shoqan, 63-64,70-71,74,75,128 Wang Enmao, 358,369 wangs, 50,109,248 Wang Zhen, 358 waqf, 219, 220,357 warlords, in China, 140,243,246. See also Ma Zhongying Washington, DC, 2,438 Western Han dynasty, 449 Western Regions (Xiyu), 8, 449 “Wild Pigeon” (Yasin), 446 Wilson, Woodrow, 168 women, 190-92,218,219; violence against, 222-23; concern over Qing treatment of, 51; and cotton, 320-21; double burden, 343; forced sterilizations of, in Xinjiang, 493; as guardians of tradition, 343; mod esty as marker of national honor, 454; during Second World War, 270,277 World Uyghur Congress, 491 Wulonga, 58 Wu Zhongxin, 284,290 xiexiang (“shared pay”), 58; Xinjiang cut off from, 140 Xi Jinping, 473,481,482, 483 Xinhai revolution, 135-36; in Xinjiang, 137, 138-39
556 Xinjiang: campaign of incarceration in, 475, 475-76,480,485-87,489; declared au tonomous, 362; economic disparities in, 447-48; meaning of the term, 9; as prov ince, 95,109-10; Qing debate over, 59, 90-91; Russian civil war in, 180-81; as INDEX Yolbars Khan, 248,249,299,513Ո12 Yo’ldoshev, Nig’matulla, 461 Yo’ldoshxo’jayeva, Nurxon, 223 Yosh Turkiston (Young Turkestan), 275 Young Bukharans, 175-77,176,339 Yuan dynasty, 24,31 Soviet satellite, 258-59,283 Xinjiang Production and Construction Yusuf Khass Hajib, 335,373 Yusupov, Usmon, 289,307,316 Corps, 357-58 Xinjiang Regional Museum, 449 Xiongnu, 18,450 Yakubovsky, Aleksandr, 240 Zakir, Shöhret, 492 Zhang Binglin, 135 Yang Zengxin, 137,140,180,207,243-44, Zhang Chunxian, 481 Zhang Zhizhong, 290-91, 294,297 Zahir Shah, 388 246,253,29Յ, 296 Yaqub Beg, 75, 80,85-90, 86, 242-43; rela tions with the British empire, 88, 92; rela tions with the Ottomans, 88-90; relations with the Russian empire, 87-88 Yaqubov, Odil, 404 Yarkand, 42,43,252 Yashin, Komil, 384 Yasin, Nurmuhämmät, 446 Yengisar, 61,128, 256, 263, 292,370 Zhdanov, Andrei, 307 Zhongguo, resignified as “China,” 138 Zhonghua mimu, 138,285,360-61 Zhou Enlai, 367 Zoroastrianism, 19,20 Zou Rong, 135 Zungharia, 13, 23,25,30, 41, 42, 92 Zunghars and Zunghar empire, 30,42-45, 48,502; wars with the Kazakhs, 53, 67 Zuo Zongtang, 90-91, 92,109,126,128 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München
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CONTENTS List of Ľlustrations ix List ofMaps xi List of Tables xiii List ofAbbreviations Acknowledgments xv xvii Introduction і 1 The Multiple Heritages of Central Asia EMPIRE 17 37 2 The Manchu Conquest of Eastern Turkestan 41 3 Khoqand and Qing Silver 52 4 A Kazakh Ethnographer in Kashgar 63 5 Imperial Conquests 75 6 A Colonial Order 96 7 New Visions of the World 1x4 8 Imperial Collapse 134 v
vi CONTENTS REVOLUTION 9 Hope and Disappointment 147 151 ю The Threshold of the East 167 11 A Soviet Central Asia 185 12 Autonomy, Soviet Style 199 13 Revolution from Above 21S 14 A Republic in Eastern Turkestan 242 15 The Crucible of War 265 16 Another Republic in Eastern Turkestan 281 COMMUNISM 301 17 Development, Soviet Style 305 18 Soviet in Form, National in Content? ՅՅ1 19 Xinjiang under Chinese Communism 356 20 On the Front Lines of the Cold War 377 POSTCOMMUNISM 393 21 Unwanted Independence 397 22 A New Central Asia 418 շ-з Nationalizing States in a Globalized World 433
CONTENTS vii 24 Are We Still Post-Soviet? 458 25 A Twenty-First- Century Gulag 475 Conclusion 497 Notes 503 Suggestionsfor Further Reading Index 539 529
INDEX Italic page numbers indicate illustrations. 55 +1 = і (PRC formula), 362,426 Akayev, Askar, 411,416,423,425,468-69 9/11,420,432,460 Alash Orda, 158-59,160,166,200,205,305; post-Soviet memory of, 436 Abashin, Sergei, 313 Abbasid caliphate, 20,24 Abdukhaliq Abdurahman oghli. See Uyghur Alexander the Great, 19 Abdullah Khan, 29 Abdulqadir Damulla, 127,128 291, 355 Alim, Ömarjan, 446 Alim Khan (ruler of Khoqand), 55,77 Abdurähim, Abdulla, 446 Abdusamadov, Nazarkhoja (Uyghur Balisi), 207 Abukin, Qanat, 144 Abu’l Ala Khan, 80,87 Abulfayz Khan, 53,102 Abulkhayr Khan, 28, 30, 67, 68 Achaemenids, 19 Adalat (Justice) (Iranian party), 172 Adat (customary law), 107 Adolat (Justice) (informal group), 430,431, 454 Afaqis (Sufi order), 42, 43,57, 80 Afaq Khoja, 43, 488,502; mausoleum of, 88, 450 Afghanistan, 5,72,82,83,84-85,171» 234, Յ78, 424; Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan in, 431; Soviet intervention in, 388-92; Uyghurs in, 478 Ağamalı oğlu, Semed Ağa, 217 Agzybirlik (Unity), 406 Ali, Abduväli, 373 Alikhan Tora Shakirjanov, 281-82,288-89, Alimkhan Shakirjanov, 288 Alimqul, 78, 80, 82, 85, 88 Almaty, 69,182,287,298,345,283; domi nated by Europeans in Soviet period, 345; as bastion of anti-Chinese Uyghur sentiment, 368 Alptekin. See Isa Yusuf Altishahr, 41-42; defined, 13; Qjng debate over, 58-59; under Qjng rule, 45,48-51, 57-60; under Zunghar rule, 42 Amannisa Khan, 373,375 Amanullah Khan, 3 88 Amin, Hafizullah Amin, 389-90 Amu Darya, 12,66,79,83,327; attempts to change the course of, 105,108 Anand, Mulk Raj, 382 Anderson, Benedict, 121 Andijan: uprising of 1898,124; uprising
of, 2.005, 455-56 Andropov, Yuri, 397 Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, 84-85 Ahmed Kemal, 128-29,139 Aitmatov, Chingiz, 339, 369-71,384,408 Anna (empress of Russia), 67 539
540 Annenkov, Boris, 180-81 anticlericalism, 192-93 anticolonialism, 168,169-70,242,248-49, 282,313; and Bolsheviks, 172; and Com munism, 183; andjadids, 185,502; in the first ETR, 243,248-49,254; in the sec ond ETR, 282; Stalins lost interest in, INDEX Babakhan ibn Abdulmajid, Ishan, 267,353 Babayev, Suhan, 311 Babur, Zahiruddin Muhammad, 29,55,336 Bactria-Margiana Archeological Complex, 18 Baikonur, 377 282; and United States, 383. See also anti-imperialism anti-imperialism, 242, 259-60; of PRC, hats, as category, 216,227; dispossession of, 222,226,236 Bakiyev, Kurmanbek, 425,469 Bakiyev, Maxim, 469 Bäkri, Nur, 488-89 387 antinuclear movements, 306,407-8 antireligious campaigns: in Soviet Central Balkars, 278 Baren uprising, 476-77 Bashkirs, 5 Asia, 218-20; in Xinjiang, 366,370 antiterrorism, 477,482. See also Global war on terrorism Apresov, Garegin, 259 AqMasjid, 69,77, 85. See also Perovsk Basmachi, 161-62,186,252; term resurrected in 1930s, 225 Baytursmov, Ahmetjan, 129-30,130,141, Becoming Family (PRC campaign), 489 aąsaąąal (community headmen in Xinjiang), Begeldinov, Talghat, 277 60,111 Arah conquests, 20 Arabic script, reformed, 190,217,371-72 begs, 45) 48, ՏՆ 80, 375 Behbudiy, Mahmud Khoja, 118,118-19,149 202 Beijing, 396,416,426,452,484; Olympic Games in, 478; as Qing capital, 24,46, Aral Sea, 4,327-28,328,329,419 architectural rectification, 449-50 Arctic Ocean, 10,328,329 Ashgabat, 438 Astana, 438-39. See also Nur-Sultan Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal, 171,195 Ataýew, Öwezgeldi, 466 Atkin, Muriel, 424 autonomy, 498; as political demand in 1917, 153; during
perestroika, 415; proclaimed at Kokand, 157; proclaimed by Alash Orda, 159; in PRC, 360-64; Soviet ver sion of, 200-201 Avicenna. See Ibn Sina 405 49) 5°) ՏՆ S«, 68, 90, 91 Bekovich-Cherkassky, Aleksandr, 66 Belt and Road Initiative, 3,473,483 Berdimuhamedov, Gurbanguly, 466 Berlin Wall, 377,395 Beruni, Abu Rayhan, al-, 21 Bibi Khanum mosque, 434-35 bingtuan, 357,363,428. See also Xinjiang Pro duction and Construction Corps Birlik (Unity), 405,411 Bogd Khagan, 136,179 Bökeykhanov, Alikhan, 129,130,141,405 awakening, as metaphor, 121,131-32,245 Awut, Chimängul, 487 Ayni, Sadriddin, 155,336 Bolsheviks, 162-64; ind anticolonialism, 164-65; project of transforming the Äyup, Ablajan, 487 Äzizi, Säypidin, 299,358,359,362,365,370, Boriyar, Mämätjan Abliz, 487 Bovingdon, Gardner, 375 Brezhnev, Leonid, 314,317,324, 381,397 Brezhnev contract, 397, 400 371-7Z, 427) 488; as writer, 373) 374֊75i compared to Rashidov, 374 world, 185-87; utopian vision of, 163
INDEX Britain and the British empire, 72-74,78, 541 Central Asians: as Soviet citizens, 391-92; 82,98-99,111,170-71; and Afghanistan, 84,171; and the Bolsheviks, 174; consul as Soviet representatives in Cold War, 380-81 ate in Ürümchi, 285; consulate in Kash Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 280, gar, 111,128-29,256, 262-63; an i ETR, 255-56; in post-Soviet Central Asia, 420; relations with Central Asia, 73, 75, 82, 88, 391,412 Central Spiritual Administration of Muslims, 93,111,123; relations with the Qing, 91; Assembly Century of Humiliation, 71,386, 484 Chaghatay (Chingissid ruler), 25 and the Russian empire, 72-73,75, 84, 88; and Yaqub Beg, 88,92 British Virgin Islands, 444 Broido, Grigory, 179 Bromlei, Yulian, 402 Buddhism, 19,20,23,42 Bughra, Mehmed Emin, 245,252,491; col laboration with GMD, 292-93,299 Bukgoltz, Ivan, 66 Bukhara, 61,73; as “Bukhara the Noble,” 54; claimed by Tajiks, 409,463; during Chinggisid invasion, 25; as “cupola of Islam,” 21; jubilee to celebrate 2,500th anniver sary of founding, 435; as Samanid capital, 267. See also Muhammadan Spiritual Chaghatay (language), 28,55 Chaghatayism, 204,208, 210-11,241 Chaghatay khanate, 26 chantou (pejorative term), 127,244,249,261 Chechens, 4,278,344 Cherniaev, Mikhail, 77,79,92,100,123 Chiang Kai-shek, 284-85 Chicherin, Georgy, 182 China: in Central Asian sources, 13-14; reimagined as a nation-state, 8-9,138. See ako People s Republic of China China Ethnic Museum, 426-27 22; as Shibanid capital, 29 Bukhara (state), 52-54; as protectorate, 99, 101-2,118; defeated by Russia, 81; treaty China Islamic
Association, 371 China’s Destiny (Chiang Kai-shek), 285 Chinese Communist Party (CCP) : absence with Russian empire, 82; in 1917,154-55; Communist Party of, 175,210; conflict of Uyghur political elite in, 232,373-74; as Leninist party, 183,475; as a nationalist party, 360,484,501; views of the dissolu with Khoqand, 6i, 77-78; People’s Soviet Republic, 175-77 Bukharan Jews, 206, 440 Bukhari, Abu Ismail al-, 21,454 Burhamiddin Khoja, 45 Buttino, Marco, 157 Buzurg Khoja, 80, 85 Byzantine empire, 20 Canada, 348 Catherine the Great, 70,106,267,466 Cayman Islands, 444 CCP. See Chinese Communist Party Central Asia: defined, 5, 9-10; post-Soviet Russian views of, 8 Central Asia Bureau, 177, 211 tion of the Soviet Union, 422-23; in Xinjiang before 1949, 263, 299-300; in Xinjiang after 1949,297,358 “Chinese dream,” 483 Chinese language, in Xinjiang, 448-49, 489 Chinese nationalism, 135-39,484; racialist elements of, 135,284-85,483 Chinese Soviet Republic (1931-1934), 360 Chinggisid dispensation, 24, 27,31,52,53 Chinggisid restoration, 28,31 Chinggis Khan, 23,24,25,26, 203 Chiniy Türkistan avazi (The Voice of Chinese Turkestan), 293 Cholpan (Abdulhamid Sulaymon), 157,189, 221, 235, 335, 4°5
542 INDEX Choqay, Mustafa, 129,211,275,405 Churchill, Winston, 287 civilizing missions, 98, ros, 109 Conference ofAfro-Asian Writers, 382,383 Congresses ofMuslims of Turkestan (1917), Cold War, 377-92; cultural front in, 382; Congresses of People's Representatives (Xinjiang), 260 Sino-Soviet front, 378,386-88,392; and Soviet foreign policy, 379-80 152-ՏՅ» 157 continental pole, 10 collectivization, 224-29,247; and cotton, 225-27; in Xinjiang, 386 Cooperation Council of Turkic-Speaking States, 420 colonialism, 97-98; Soviet Union accused of, 234,283,404 corruption, 398-99, 468-69; connected to globalization, 443-44 Cossacks, 65,67,104 cotton, 102-3; collapse of cotton economy, Communism: and anticolonialism, 168-72, 183,501; as internal critique of the West, 500; and nationalism, 360,386,411,501. See also Bolsheviks Communist International (Comintern): and anticolonialism, 173,183; and China, 183-84,263,360 Communist Party of Kazakhstan, 216,314, 401,403,410, 471; and Xinjiang, 258, 287 Communist Party of Kyrgyzstan, 197, 311, 401,411; and Xinjiang, 258 Communist Party of Tajikistan, 311,380,401, 409-10,411; during the Tajik civil war, 424 Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 186, 215, 306,317, 329,381, 387, 398; during per estroika, 410,413; as a mass party, 314,442; and Sheng Shicai, 259,263; Twenty-Second Party Congress, 313-14; in Xinjiang, 358 Communist Party of Turkmenistan, 401, 411-12,464 Communist Party of Uzbekistan, 197,311,316, 380,381,38s, 410,41I) 430; purge of 1947, 307; during cotton scandal, 399-400, 402-3; and Xinjiang, 258,287,289 Communists, Central
Asian, 169-70,188, 195-98,196; disaffection among, 233-34; and Jadids, 185,189,195; leading role in national-territorial delimitation, 211; postwar elites, 314-15» 333» 339-40; sur vival after dissolution of the Soviet Union, 441-44 Communist University for the Toilers of the East, 174,188 160-61; and chemicalization, 329-30; and collectivization, 225-27; domination of the economy, 233-34,236-37,266; and irrigation, 319; not a reason for Russian conquest, 76-77; as a plantation economy, 319-20; as a political issue during per estroika, 403-4, 410; in post-Soviet era, 459» 467; in postwar period, 306-7,310-12, 318-21,326-27; in Tsarist period, 102-3, 106,109; Uzbek cotton scandal, 398-401 “cotton independence,” 226,318 Council for International Propaganda, 173 Crimea, 28,116 Crimean Tatars, 278 Crimean War, 77 cults of personality, 229,309,464,472 cultural genocide, 495, 499-500,501 Cultural Revolution (in PRC), 369-70,372, 494 Curzon, Lord, 97 Cyrillic script, 239,371,437 Dalai Lama, 42,137 Dala wilayatmïnggazeti (Steppe Gazette), 103 Daoud Khan, Muhammad, 389 Dawut, Rahile, 487 Day Lasts More than a Hundred Years, The (Aitmatov), 369-71, 408 decolonization, 379; as imperative for devel opment in Soviet Central Asia, 312-13; and Russian revolution of 1917,168
INDEX “de-extremification” campaign, 457,485-87; cemeteries demolished, 490; compared to Cultural Revolution, 494; as detoxifi cation, 485; and forced labor, 495; as high-tech totalitarianism, 496 “demanapization,” 217 DengXioping, 370,395 deportations of nationalities, 278-79,310, 495; and Central Asian identities, 279 de-Stalinization, 309 détente, 389 Dialogue between a European and a Bukharan Professor (Fitrat), 167 543 with first ETR, 282-83; differences with the Three Gentlemen, 294-96; negotia tions with GMD, 290-91; and PRC, 298-300; shifting views of nation, 281-82, 295-96; Soviet support of, 286-90; Uyghur memory of, 300. See also Ili National Army Eastern Turkestan Youth League, 291 East India Company, 72, 73, 78 East Turkestan Islamic Movement, 477-78 education: abolition of Islamic education, 220; “bilingual education” in Xinjiang, 448-49; Confucian schools in Xinjiang, diaspora, Central Asian, 279-80. See also 109,126; expansion of higher education in postwar Soviet Central Asia, 306,338-39. Uyghur: diaspora dual society, 100; persistence of during Soviet native schools period, 196, 324-% Յ44; in Xinjiang, 445 Du Bois, W. E. B., 382 Dulatov, Mirjaqïp, 130,131 Duma, 132-33, Hi “Dunganistan,” 262 Dungans, 4,49,87,182,207,260,295; emi gration to Russian empire, 93-94; and first ETR, 249-53; flight to Xinjiang (1918), 180; position in Altishahr, 253; revolt against the Qing, 79-81,91 Durrani, Ahmad Shah, 388 Dutov, Alexandr, 180 Eastern policy, 167,172-73, Յ81 Eastern Turkestan, 13,15; as Uyghur home land, 444 Eastern Turkestani Association, 293 Eastern
Turkestan Life (newspaper), 242, 253, 254, 255 Eastern Turkestan Republic (1933-1934), 254-57,262; in Chinese historiography, 255, 257; compared with Turkestan Au tonomy, 257; as Jadid republic, 254; pro claimed, 242-43; Soviet suspicion of, 256 Eastern Turkestan Republic (1944-1949), 281, 356, 364,378; anticolonialism in, 282; in Chinese historiography, 300; differences See also new-method schools; RussianEgypt, 72,234, 252, Յ71,384,456 Emin Khoja, 48,50 emirs, 30; defined, 26 empires: as normal form of political life, 39; overland vs. overseas, 7 environmental degradation, 4,327-30,419; as a political issue during perestroika, 401, 40Յ-4 epics, oral, 308, 335, 465 Eredene Biy, 52 Erk (Liberty) (newspaper), 294 Erk (political movement), 423 Estonia, 414 ethnogenesis, 240, 334 ethnos, theory of, 402 Eurasian Economic Union, 473 Eurasianism, 473 European, as group identity in later Soviet period, 345 exoticization, 1-2,231 extraterritoriality, 7,100; Bolshevik renun ciation of, 172,182 extremism, defined expansively (in PRC), 486 Faiz, Faiz Ahmad, 382,384 famines, 160-61, 227-28,366-67 Farabi, Abu Nasr al-Muhammad al-, 21
544 Farghani, Ibn Kathir aí֊, 21 Ferdowsi, Abu’1 Qasim, 20,337 First World War, 140-45; turbulent aftermath of, 170-72,202; as a turning point, 167 Fitrat, Abdurauf, 119,121-22,167,176,176-77, 210, 221, 235, 241,335, 337-38, 405; con ception of nation, 202-5; path from re form to irréligion, 193-95; radicalized by 1917,188-89; as theorist of Chaghatayism, 204, 208 Forbes, Andrew, 262 Fourniau, Vincent, 332-33 “Four Olds,” 369 Fragrant Concubine, legend of, 450 Friendship of Peoples, 7,236-37,308,345, 347,409,499; in Xinjiang, 260 INDEX Gorbachev, Mikhail, 328,347,395-96,397, 405,411; reforms of, 400-401 Gorchakov, Alexander, 97, 98 governor-general, asyorimpodishoh (vice roy), 95 Great Break, 215 Great Ferghana Canal, 233 Great Game, 1,73-74,419 Great Leap Forward, 366-67,369, 372 Great Patriotic War, 266; as jihad, 268-69; letters “from the people,” 272-73; as node of Soviet identity, 277-78, 499; post-Soviet memory of, 459-60. See also Second World War Great Terror (1936-1938), 215; 234-35 Great Wall of China, 17-18 Great War, 140; impact on Central Asia, 141-42. See also First World War Great Western Development Strategy, 427 Gagarin, Yuri, 377 Galdan Khan, 42,44 Guantanamo Bay, 478 Gansu, 42,91,137,181,246,490 Gapurov, Muhammetnazar, 315,411 Gulag, 230,234,236,305,309,310,339; as metaphor for Xinjiang’s political reedu Gasprinsky, Ismail Bey, 116-17,122) 127, 263, cation camps, 475 Gülen, Fethullah, 420,460 Guomindang (GMD), 246, зѕб; and CCP, 360,498; conception of nationhood, 360-61, 498; founding of, 183; as a Lenin 254,294 Germany, 279-80, 337,471; Central
Asian soldiers in, 277; as destination for students Łom Bukhara, 177; and Turkestan Legion, 274-76. See aho First World War; Second World War Ghadar, 171 Ghafurov, Bobojon, 380 Ghopur, Halmurat, 488 Ghulja, 43,63,127,245,246,281; 1997 pro test, 477 Gilan, Soviet republic in, 17s glasnost, 400,408-10 Global war on terrorism (GWOT), 432; ist party, 183; and Sheng Shicai, 284; in Xinjiang, 284-86,289,290-94, 296-99, 364 hajj, 231, 385, 454 Hami. See Qumul Hamza Hakimzoda Niyoziy, 222 Han Chinese: influx into Xinjiang, 357,3Ć5, 424-29, 479; Islamophobia among, 491; Gökdepe, massacre of, 83-84,144 Golden cradle, legend of, 55 as most advanced minzu in PRC, 362, 366; projects for settlement in Xinjiang, 59,109,285,427; in Qing Xinjiang, 47,48, 49-50,79,91,109-10,137; in Republican Golden Horde, 24,26,28,29,30,32,64 Goloshchekin, Filipp, 216,221 Xinjiang, 140,180, 243, 246-51, 252» 257, 263, 281-82, 296, 299; as synonymous Gong Zizhen, 58-59,109,285 with China, 449-52) 483-84) 494 501; in new language of politics, 477,482
INDEX Xinjiang after 1949,3Ճ1,362,36s, 366,369, 428-29,454,489; privileged position of, 447-48, 479-80. See aho Chinese nationalism Han dynasty, 8,19 Haydar (emir of Bukhara), 73 Hayit, Baymirza, 279-80 Häzim, Erfan, 487 Hesenli, Cemil, 287 Heyit, Abdurähim, 487 Heyitgah (Idgah) mosque, 476,481 hijab, 454, 493 Hikmet, Nazim, 382 545 Hi valley, 72,282; Russian occupation of, 87 Imanov, Amangeldi, 143 India, 26,29,53, 66,72-74,77, 88,171,234, 252,355,376, 422,463; as friend of the So viet Union, 384; war with China, 386-87; relations with post-Soviet CA, 421 Indian revolutionaries, 171,173-74 indigenization, 187,196,230,332,425 Ingushes, 278 Institute of the Red Professoriate, 188 intellectuals: postwar cohorts, 333-40, 403; repression of, 220-21,234-35, 370,487-88, 495 Hindustoniy, 354-55« 44 historical novels, 336-37, 373« 375 Hitler, Adolph, 265, 465 Hizmet (Service) movement, 420-21,460 intermarriage, 345-46 Hojiboyev, Abdurahim, 339 Hojiboyeva, Baroat, 339 Holodomor, 227 homeland: as category, 121,141,157, 203-5, Iraq, 384 Iran, 83,170,175,195,456; and Tajikistan, 463; relations with post-Soviet Central Asia, 421 Irjar, battle of, 81,82 irréligion, 193-95 irrigation, 10; and environmental degrada 294; inETR, 242-43,254-55, 282,293-94,· tion, 4,327; in Khoqand, 55; Soviet-era Eastern Turkestan as Uyghur homeland, projects, 226,306,311-12, 318-19, 321, 329; 373-74,444-45! PRC as, 483; Soviet Union as, 237,266-67,346-47. See also vatan Hughes, Langston, 232 Hui, 4,49-50; autonomous prefectures, under Tsarist rule, 108-9 Irtysh River, 10 Isa Yusuf, 292-96, 299, 491 Islam:
and cultural radicalism of 1920s, 192- 362; as base of support for Yang Zengxin, 95; and national identities, 352; antireli 137; multiple meanings of, 294; as one of gious campaigns, 218-20, 366, 370; as Chinas “five races,” 138; revolt against the Qing, 79-80; targeted by Sinicization campaign, 489-90. See aho Dungans communal identity, 34, 344-45; as source of legitimacy, 85; as source of political au thority, 31, 32, 43; conversion to, 21, 22, hajra, 354-55, 44 25-26; conversion narratives, 32-33; in hajúm, 218,219, 222-23 late Soviet conditions, 349-55; during Hülegü, 24 Hungry Steppe, 108,312, 330 Hurriyat (Liberty), 202 the Mongol conquests, 24-25; in Soviet diplomacy, 383,384-86; replaces Com munism as perceived ideological threat, 430; Russian imperial policies toward, Ibn Sina, Abu Ali, 21,337 106-7; seen as antidote to Communism, ideological front, 215,220 390-91; seen as mental illness by PRC, Ikromov, Akmal, 234-35,317 Ili crisis, 39,93-94 Ili National Army, 282, 357 486; state control of, 195,352-54, 454֊55· See also proxy religiosity; Muslimness; SADUM
546 INDEX Islamic militancy, fear of, 415,424,430-31, Jizzakh, 143,160 451-54,463 Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, 431 Jochí, 24 Juvaini, Ata Malik, 25 Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan, 424,430 Islamic revival: during perestroika, 412-13, 431,453-54; in Xinjiang, 445 Islamism, 413,502 Islamophobia, 491 Ismail Samani, 22,463 Istanbul, 89,118,119,127,139,167, 202, 208 Ivan IV (“the Terrible”), 29,30,64 Jadidism, 114-23,372,502; in eastern Turke stan, 127-28, 244-45,154-55; views of Europe, 168,177 Jadids: conflict with the ulama, 125,153-55, 169; critique of own society, 120-22,125; and Communists, 185,189,19s; cultural radicalism of, 188-90; fascination with revolution, 170,175,185; and modernity, 120,177; Soviet attack on, 220-21; viewed as Uzbek national heroes, 436. See also Young Bukharans Jahangir Khoja, 57-58 Jahan Khoja, 45 Jalalidin, Abduqadir, 487 Janibek (Kyrgyz warlord), 252 Japan, 90,173,176,297; as destination for Chinese students, 135, 257; invasion of Manchuria, 250; invasion of China, 360; war with Russia, 132; Soviet fear of, 250, 258, 264 Jeltoqsan (political group), 406 Jeltoqsan (protests), 403 Jettisuv, 13,69,105,211; settler violence in, 156,159-60,161,178 jihad, 60,413; in 1916,143,477; Great Patri otic War as, 268-69; in Afghanistan, 410, 431 jihadism, 391,430, 431 Jin Shuren, 246-47,249-21,296,299 Kalinovsky, Artemy, 402 Kamolov, Sobir, 311 Kamp, Marianne, 223 Karachays, 278 Karaganda, 236,310 Karakorum Highway, 376 Karakorum Mountains, 12,13, 376 Karakum, 12 Karimov, Islom, 410,423,425,425,430,431, 454,458-61; and GWOT, 477 Kashgar, 43,
88,376,476, 481,489,49°; 493; British consulate in, 111, 256, 262-63; de molition of old city, 450-52,4SI; during ETR, 242,251-56,262-63; Jadidism in, 128; Khoja revolts and invasions, 57-58, 60-62, 80; Qing new city in, 49, 255; Russian consulate in, 93,111; Wälikhanov in, 63-64; and Yaqub Beg, 80, 88-89 Kaufman, Konstantin, 100,103,106,123-26; views of Islam, 106-7; of nomads, 106 Kazakh autonomous republic (1920-1924), 211, 212; proclaimed, 166. See also Kazakhstan Kazakhs, 30; “Barefooted Flight,” 53, 67; during collectivization, 227-29; elites under Tsarist rule, 101; emergence of intelligentsia, 129-32; emigration to So viet Union, 367-69; famine, 227-28; flight to Xinjiang in 1916,144-45,156, 228; growth of Islamic learning among, 126; land question, 104; national project of, 131-32,158-59, 205-6, 211; oaths to Rus sian empire, 67-68; and the Qing, 68; under Russian rule, 68-69; in Xinjiang, 356-57) Зб4) 423,435; wars with the Zunghars, S3, 67 Kazakhstan: as autonomous republic, 212; collectivization in, 227-29; Jeltoqsan protests, 403; foreign relations, 472; as
INDEX nationalizing state, 435; post-Soviet developments, 471-74 Kazan, 29,117,127 Keriyä, 252,490 KGB (Soviet political police), 317, 386, 397, 460. See also KGB 547 Kuchuk Khan, Mirza, 175 kulak, 179,224,225,278; as category, 216,495 Kunayev, Dinmuhammed, 3η, 316-18,4θΐ, 403 Kunitz, Joshua, 231-32 Kunlun Mountains, 13 Kunming, terror attack in, 481 Khiva, 60,81; peoples republic of, 174; Rus sian campaigns against, 66,69; treaty Kuropatkin, Alexei, 144,155 with the Russian empire, 83 Khoja Niyaz, 248-50,251,255,256,2Ճ2,263 Kyrgyz: in Altishahr, 57, 61, 80; and Kho qand, 55, 78; in 1916,144-45,156,180; lan Khojas, 42,50,52,56-58,60,61-62,80,85; invasions ofAltishahr by, 57-58,60,61-62 guage, 190; Kyrgyz national project, 206, 211-12; in Xinjiang, 252, 259, 362 Kyrgyzstan: during perestroika, 406, 409, 411, 414; formation of, 212; post-Soviet, Khojayev, Fayzulla, 176, zio, 234-35 Khoqand (khanate), 46,52-57,59֊6o, 77-78; connections to Altishahr, 54-58,60,61-62, 80-81; diplomatic overtures, 78, 82; inva sion by Bukhara, 61-62; relations with the Qing, 52,64,56,59-60; and Russian em pire, 69,77,81; upheaval after 1842,78, 84-85 Khorgos, 368,473 Khotan, 245; protests in 1954-1956, 357; up rising of 1933,252 Khrushchev, Nikita, 309-11,347,359,380, Kurokawa, Kisho, 438 467-70; “Tulip revolution,” 469 Kyzylkum, 12 labor migrations: from Altishahr to Russian Turkestan, 93,112-13, 233, 244; from Tajikistan to Russia, 463-64; from Uzbekistan to Russia, 461-62 Laden, Osama bin, 477 Land of the Fathers (film), 346-47 land question (for Kazakhs), 131,133 381,382,438; and Central
Asia, 320; cul tural policies, 333; on Mao, 387 Khudayar Khan, 78,81, 82 Khwarazm, 14, 23 language reform, 190, 371-7Յ) 437 language rights, 437; debates over, 405-6, Khwarazmi, Muhammad ibn Musa al-, 21 Kim Il-sung, 465 Kizilsu. See Krasnovodsk League of the Militant Godless, 351 Lenin, Vladimir, 164,167,172, 237 “Leninist moment,” 168 Lenin yo’li (Lenin’s Path), 316 Kobozev, Petr, 165-66,169 Kokand Autonomy. See Turkestan Autonomy Kolhin, Gennady, 401,410 Kolpakovsky, Gerasim, 87 Komsomol, 224,226,306,310,34Ć, 411 Koreans, 345; deported to Central Asia, 278 korenizatsiia. See indigenization Kosygin, Alexei, 317, 324 Krasnovodsk, 12, 81 Krivoshein, A. V, 106 Kucha, 79 414» 415 Latinization, 217-18, 239,371,437 Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 105 Libya, 384 Li Dazhao, 183 Ligachev, Yegor, 398 Li Peng, 422 Liu, Xiaoyuan, 360 Lomakin, Nikolai, 83,84 Madali (Muhammad Ali) Khan, 56,59-60, 61 Madali Eshon, 124-25 Ma Fuxing, 253
548 INDEX mahalla (urban neighborhood), 323,340 Mirziyoyev, Shavkat, 425,461 Ma Hushan, 262-63 Mahkamov, Qahhor, 411 modernity: and authenticity, 205,208,333; Mahmud Kashgari, 28,33,335,373 Makhtumquli, 335,337 Mämetova, Mänshuk, 277 Mamoor, Yousof, 230-31 тапар, 217. See aho “demanapization” Manas, 308,335,436,470 Manchurian Salvation Army, 251 Manghits, 53,61 mankurt, 408 Mao Dun, 382 Mao Zedong, 298,299, 358-59,360,364, 370,374,375,456,494; and Khrushchev, 364-65,386-87; and nationalities policies, 361; and Stalin, 386-87 Mao Zemin, 284 Marghinani, Burhan al-Din Abu’l Hasan al-, 21,4 Martin, Terry, 187 Marx, Karl, 163,183,216,434 Marxism, in China, 183 Ma Shiming, 250 Masum Efendi, 127 Mätniyaz, Jälil, 488 mature socialism, 314 Maturidi, Abu Mansur Muhammad al-, 21, 454 Ma Zhongying, 249-52,256,262 Mengjianzhu, 485 mobilizational states, 186 Communism as a path to, 150,168,378; and empire, 101,497-98; Han Chinese as embodiment of, 366,429; and nation hood, 205, 206, 208, 257; as Soviet social ism, 224,237,238,324,333,348,383 Moldaghulova, Aliya, 277 Mongol dispensation, 43 Mongol empire, 23-24,25,31,64 Mongolia, s, 91,136,139,179,181; ETR mis sion to, 249 Mongols, in Xinjiang, 282 Moorcroft, William, 72-73 Moscow, as Central Asian metropolis, 461-62 mosques: attacks on, 220, 222, 351, 366, 451, 455, 490,495; bar in, 49°, 493; as part of Soviet diplomacy, 385; pigs in, 370; pre served as architectural monuments, 351; reopening of, 371,412,453; under state control, 352,455,490 Mughal empire, 29,53,336 Mugholistan, 26,33 Muhammad (Prophet), 21,33,289 Muhammadan
Spiritual Assembly (Oren burg), 70, 27, 267 Muhammad Rahim Manghit, 53 Muhammad Solih, 404,423 Merv, 20, 84,108,273 Meskhetian (Ahiska) Turks, 278 Muhitdinov, Nuriddin, 381,385 Muhiti, Mahmud, 249-50,262 Muhiti, Maqsut, 244 Mexico, 173 Mikoyan, Anastas, 361 mujahidin, Afghan, 390-91,431,421 Munawar-qori Abdurashidxon-oghli, 114,118 military reform (before imperial conquest), muqam music, 372,373 Muqanna, 273,308 54,55,61, 81-82 Milli] Türkistan (National Turkestan), 275-76, 279 Millward, James, 46-47 Murghab Imperial Domain, 108 Musa, Ablet, 482,488 Musabayev brothers, 127,128,139 Ming (tribe), 55 Musburo (Bureau of Muslim Communist Ming dynasty, 23,26,31 minzu, 360; origins of term, 426 Muscovy, 29, 65, 66 Organizations), 169
INDEX 549 Mushtum (Fist), 192 modernity, 205, 206,333; multiplicity of Muslim, as communal identity in later Soviet national projects in Central Asia, 202-8; national goods, availability of, 334; pro jected into the past, 240-41; and Soviet period, 344-45 Muslimness, 352 Muti’i, Ibrahim, 372 Nadir Shah, 53, 68 ness, 241,340-43,346-49 Nava’i, Alisher, 27,28,240,331,335,336, 337 Navoiy metro station, 331. See also Nava’i Nazar, Ruzi, 280 Naqshbandis (Sufi order), 32, 43, 267 Nazarbayev, Nursultan, 410,423,425,435, Nabiyev, Rahmon, 401 Narbuta Biy, 56 471-72, 474; as Elbas'i, 472 “neo-Soviets” (in Tajikistan), 424,462 narcotics, 421 Nasriddinova, Yodgor, 342-43 neo-Timurid style, 434,438 Nasrullah (emir of Bukhara), 73,78 Netherlands, 274 nation: as a new form of community, 121-23, Nevada-Semipalatinsk (antinuclear move 135,244-46,249,254; as predominant language of post-Soviet politics, 440, 474; Stalins definition of, 200; triumph of the idea in Soviet conditions, 212 National in Form, Socialist in Content, W-38,238,333,341 ment), 406-7 new cities, 110; in Qing Xinjiang, 49; in Russian Turkestan, 96 New Life (newspaper), 259-60 new-method schools, 116,116117,119,152, 169; in eastern Turkestan, 180 nationalities policies, in PRC, 359-64; changes after 1991, 425-29, 444-45; “sec New Persian, 22,337,436 ond generation ethnic policy,” 483 nationalities policies, Soviet, 165,200-201, Nicholas II, 132,133,142,149 new Qing History, 46-47,532 Nikolai Konstantinovich, Grand Duke, 108 336,340,347; debate over during glasnost, Nishanov, Rafiq, 410 408-10; as model for Xinjiang,
260-61 Niyazov, Saparmurat, 411-12,423,425,438; styled as Turkmenbashy, 435-36,464-66 nationality: as official category, 212-13, або, 332,34°) 407,433! folklorization of, 236-37, 238,426-27 nationalizing states, 433-47; defined, 234 National Museum of China, 426 national self-determination, 168,202; and CCP, 360,361; in ETR, 242,254, 257; Guomindang and, 284,294; in the Soviet context, 180,212,243,317 national-territorial delimitation, 199-202, 209-14; comparison with Central Eu rope, 202 nationhood, 208-9; codification of national Nodira, 55, 61 nomadism, 17; end of, 229 nuclear testing, 305-6,379. See also antinu clear movements Nurek Dam, 312-13 Nur-Sultan, 438 Ob River, 329 Odilov, Ahmadjon, 399 Oftobi Soghdiyon (Sun of Sogdiana), 406 OGPU (Soviet political police), 221, 225, 234,247,258; immune to indigenization, and Islam, 282; as main form of organ 230. See aho KGB Olimjon, Hamid, 308 Opium Wars, 71,79,110 ization during perestroika, 407; and oralman program, 435,473-74 heritage, 334-35, 337-40; crystallization of national identities, 331-32,444-45;
550 Orenburg, 8ı, 117 Osman Batir, 286,291,356-57 Ostroumov, N. P., 107 Osttruppen (Eastern Troops) (in Second World War), 274, 276 Ötkiir, Abdurähim, 373 Ottoman Empire, 26,53, 88-90,140,167-68; claim to the caliphate of, 88-89,118; as model for Central Asians, 89,117-18,119, 128-29; views of Eastern Turkestan, 88-89 Otunbayeva, Roza, 425,469,470 INDEX dissolution of the Soviet Union, 422-23, 425-26. See also “de-extremification”; Xinjiang “Peoples War of Terror,” 482 perestroika, 400; declarations of indepen dence, 416-17; economic crisis during, 418-19; “parade of sovereignties,” 414; personnel changes in Central Asia, 41012; political mobilization during, 405-7 Perovsk, 69,77,129 Perovsky, Vasily, 69,77 Persian, 28,29; rebirth of, 22. See also New Ozbek Khan, 28,32 Persian Peter the Great, 65-66,70, 466 Pakistan, 376, 422,456,463; and war in Pianciola, Niccolò, 156 Pinyin, 371 Ovezov, Balyş, 315 Afghanistan, 389, 412; relations with post-Soviet Central Asia, 421 Pamir Mountains, 12, 85 Panfilov and Panfilovtsy, 277 pan-Islam, imperial fears of, 141 Panjdeh crisis, 84 pan-Turkism, 338,477; different from Turkism, 123 paranji-chochvon, 190-92,191,218 Paul I (tsar), 72 “peaceful liberation of Xinjiang,” 297-98, 356-57 Peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan, 388-89; factions, 389 Peoples Liberation Army (PLA), 297-98, 356-57 People’s Political Consultative Conference, 2.98,374 Peoples Republic of China (PRC): and Han Chinese, 299,366,483-84; military base in Tajikistan, 463; as a nationalizing Pishpek, 77, 96. place name changes, 14-15, 437 Poliakov, Sergei, 402
Politburo, 226,227, 286,288,389-90,416; Central Asians in, 317-18,398 political reeducation camps (Xinjiang): and forced labor, 492-93; forced sterilizations of women in, 493; compared to Gulag, 494-95 population and demography, 10,227,236, 310, 322,32S֊27 427_29 435,463-64, 499 Pramoedya Toer, 382 Prisoners ofWar (POW): Central Asians as, 275; in First World War, 142,171; Soviet treatment of, 279 protectorates: establishment of, 82-83; unique in Russian empire, 98-99 Provisional Government (1917), iS2, 154, iSS, 157, i6o, 162-63,191 proxy religiosity, 352 Purdue, Peter, 45 state, 444; official views of Xinjiang and Uyghurs, 8-9, 449-50; relations with post-Soviet Central Asia, 463,467, 473; Qaeda, AI, 421 Qahhor, Abdulla, 344 response to Uyghur discontent, 447; state control of Islam, 456-57; use of Qara Khitay, 23 Qasimi, Äkhmätjan, 290,291,295-96,298 GWOT language, 477-78; views of the Qayum-Khan, Yah, 274-7S, 279
INDEX Qenesarï Sultan, 69 Qianlong emperor, 45,50 Qjng, 9,41,44-5։; and China, 46-47; col lapse of, 134-36; conquest ofAltishahr, 551 Rïsqülov, Turar, 169,178,183,188, 235; theory of colonial revolution, 169-70 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 287 “rootless cosmopolitanism,” campaign against, 307 45-46; debate over Xinjiang, 58-59, 90-91; extraterritorial rights for foreign subjects, Roy, Manabendra Nath, 173 110-11; and Han Chinese, 109-10; as Khaqan, 50-51; nineteenth-century chal Rozenbakh, Nikolai, 100 Rudaki, 22,337 lenges, 71-72; rebellions in, 51, 57-58, 59-60; relations with the Russian empire, 72; and the rule of difference, 46-47; Rudzutaks, Jānis, 182 Ruhnama (Book of the Spirit) (Niyazov), second conquest of Xinjiang, 91-93; unequal treaties, 71,110-11; views of British empire, 91; views of Russia, 91; wars with the Zunghars, 44-45. See also New Qing History Qiyomat (Resurrection) (Fitrat), 193-94 Qizil O'zbekiston (Red Uzbekistan), 316 Qodiriy, Abdulla, 192,221,235,335» 405 Qodirov, Pirimqul, 336-37 Qojanov, Sultanbek, 178-79,21г Qumul, 13,23,45, 91,243,449-S0; uprising of 1933,248-50 Qutadghu Bilik (Wisdom of Royal Glory) (Yusuf Khass Hajib), 27-28 racism: in China, 375; in the United States, vß, 377-78 Radio Liberty, 280 Rahimov, Sabir, 276-77 Rahmonov (Rahmon), Emomali, 424,425 Rashidov, Sharaf, 311,315-18,317,339-4°, 398,401; as Soviet diplomat, 380,382,383, 384, 385; death, 399-40° Rastokhez, 406 Rasulov, Jabbor, 401 Reagan, Ronald, 390 red colonialism, 234, 283,404 Regulation on De-Extremification, 485, 486 rehabilitation (process), 309,335,339,405 Resettlement
Administration, 10Ć Revolt o/Muqanna, 308 revolution of 190s, 132-33 465 Rus, principalities of, 24, 28,64 Russia: and the Soviet Union, 415; postSoviet views of Central Asia, 8; ties with Central Asia, 421-22 Russian civil war, 163-64; and Mongolia, 179-80; in Xinjiang, 180-81 Russian empire: administration of Kazakh lands, 68-69; as a colonial empire, 97, 98-101, 237-38; conquest of Transoxiana, 75-79, 81-85; conquest of Turkmen lands, 83-84; economic dominance in Xinjiang, 110-13; emergence of, 64-66; and Khoqand, 69,77, 81; occupation ofili, 87; re lations with the British empire, 82,84-85; relations with the Qing, 72, 87; and rule of difference, 69-70, 97-98; trade with Central Asia, 63; views of Islam, 106; and Yaqub Beg, 87-88 Russian language: after the Soviet Union, 435; as common Soviet language, 336; as dominant in cities, 345; importance of, 100,196, 238; and Uyghur, 372-72 Russian-native schools, 100-101,129,130,195 Russians: after the Soviet Union, 406,421, 440,471; in post-Soviet Kazakhstan, 471, 473; and the Soviet Union, 238-39,308, 347-48; as elder brothers, 238; as first among equals, 347 Sabit Damulla, Abdulbaqi, 242-43, 252, 255 Sābri, Masud, 245-46,293,296 Sadr Ziyo, 339
552 INDEX SADŮM, 268-69,188,352-54,385-86, 413, September 11. See 9/11 455 Sädwaqasoy Smaghül, 233-34 settler colonialism, 104, 495 Safarov, Georgy, 178-79, 211 Safavids, 53 Saidazimova, Tursunoy, 223 settlers, Han Chinese, in Xinjiang, 110,248, 285,427-28 settlers, Russian, 104,105-6,130-31,142; in 1916, violence during revolution, 144-45, Saidov, Abdulla, 413 158,159-60,161,186; expulsion of, 178-79. Saljuqs, 22 See also Virgin Lands campaign; Gulag Sämädi, Ziya, 365 Shähidi, Burhan, 291,296-97,358 Samanids, 22,436,463 Shahnameh, 20, 22, 203 Samarqand: annexed by Russian empire, 82, Shahrukh, 52 lee to celebrate 2,750th anniversary of Shahrukhids, 52,55 Shakirjanov. See Alikhan Tora Shakuri (Shukurov), Muhammadjon, 339 founding, 435; new city (Russian), 99; as Shanghai Cooperation Organization, 422, 123-24; claimed by Tajiks, 409,463; de populated in eighteenth century, 53; jubi Timurid capital, 26,27 Sarimsaq Khoja, 56-57 460,477 shariat, 25,123, 222; under Tsarist rule, 107 Sarmatians, 18 Shaykhzoda, Maqsud, 308 Sassanids, 20 Shaytonning tangriga isyoni (Satan’s revolt Satuq Bughra Khan, 32,57, 373, 375 Saudi Arabia, 279,386; and war in Afghani stan, 390 Säypidin. See Äzizi Sayqal (Luster), 406 Sayrami, Molla Musa, 50-51 Schuyler, Eugene, 96-97 scientific atheism, 351 Scythians, 18 Second World War: Central Asian prisoners ofwar, 274; coexistence of Soviet and na tional in, 273; early Soviet losses, 265; evacuation and evacuees, 270-72; impact on Central Asians, 272-73,276-78; as lib eration, 266-67; nationalization of, 272-73; numbers of Central Asians, 270; as
node of Soviet identity, 346-47; post-Soviet memory of, 459-60. See also Great Patri otic War; Turkestan Legion secularization, 220,337,488 Sembene, Ousmane, 382 Semipalatinsk (Semey), 63,96,126,244, 305,407 Semireche, 13,87,105, И2,180. See also Jettisuv against God) (Fitrat), 194 Shemeke (Shah Muhammad) Khan, 67 Sheng Shicai, 251-52, 257-Ć4,294; and CCP, 263-64; and GMD, 284; new style of pol itics, 259-61; and Stalin, 259,263; and the Soviets, 257-61,263-64,283-84 Sheng Shiqi, 283 Sherdiman, 357 Shibanids, 29,30 Shibani Khan, 28 Shing Jang gaziti (Xinjiang Gazette), 261 Sibe, 260,282 Siberian rivers diversion project, 328-29 Sidqiy, Sirojiddin Makhdum, 151 Silk Road, 1,3,19,31 Sinicization, 456,483,489-90 Sino-Soviet alliance, 356,359,365-36,378-79; demise of, 386-88 Skobelev, Mikhail, 84 Small October (in Kazakhstan), 216 Socialism in One Country, 224,236, 237, 250, 258, 314; and Soviet patriotism, 266, 307 Sogdiana, 19,337,436,463
INDEX 553 Sulaymonova, Khadija, 342 Solih, Muhammad. See Muhammad Solih Soviet model of development, 3,312,378, 381-82 Siileymenov, Oljas, 356,407 Sultanzadeh (Avetis Mikaelian), 171-72 Sovietness: as ethnically neutral, 499; and Sun, The (newspaper), 114 nationhood, 241,340-43,346-49 Soviet patriotism, 237,239,266,306,307,348 Soviet Union: as alternate path to moder Sun Yat-sen, 136,183,362 Suphi, Mustafa, 171,172 Sverdlov Communist University, 188 nity, 231-ЗЗ; dissolution of, 397, 417,419; federalism in, 414; intervention in Af ghanistan, 390; not seen as a Russian Syr Darya district, 106 Syria, 381,384; civil war in, 478 state, 348; putsch attempt, 416; referen dum on the preservation of, 415-16; rela Taiping uprising, 71 Tajik civil war, 423-25 tions with PRC, 298-99, 356, 358-59, Tajikistan, 436; civil war, 423-25; control of Islam, 456; foreign relations, 463; 365-66,378-79,386-88,396; and Xinji ang, 181-82, 244, 250-51, 263, 283-84, 286-90,298-99,358-59,364-65,367-69, founded, 212; post-Soviet developments, Space Race, 377 463-64 Tajik national identity/nationalism, 462-Ճ3; emergence of, 207-8; claims to Samarqand Spiritual Administration for the Muslims of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. See SAJDUM and Bukhara, 409,463 Talas, Battle of, 20,46 Taliban, 421,477 Stalin, Joseph, 164,165,186,188,215,236,292, Tang dynasty, 9, 20 379 299,307,314,465; and ETR, 288-89; and Islam, 267,351; and Mao, 359,386; and national-territorial delimitation, 199,211; and Sheng Shicai, 259,263,283, 284; and Tao Xisheng, 285 Tao Zhiyue, 297 Tarala, Nur Muhammad, 389 Taranchi, 44, 80,
87,112, 207 Xinjiang, 250,293,287-89,298-99; cult of personality, 229,309; definition of nation by, 200; geopolitical goals after Tarmashirin, 25 Tashkent, 2,155,345; as crossroads of revo lution, 170-74; as proposed vassal state, Second World War, 378; revolution from above, 224,367; treaty of non-aggression with Nazi Germany, 265 Stalinism, 229-35; postwar, 306-8 State Administration of Religious Affairs (PRC), 457 Statecraft school, 58,109 state-race (guozu), 483 Statute on the Siberian Kazakhs, 68,69 Steppe, enclosed, 6,65 Strike Hard Campaign against Violent Ter rorism, 481 Sufis and Sufi orders, 31,32,33,41, 41, 43,57. See also Afaqis; Naqshbandis 81; as Soviet showcase, 382-83; descrip tions of new city, 77-78, 96; earthquake (1966), 318, 323-24, ՅՅ։; metro, 331; urban redesign, 323-24 Tashkentchilär (Tashkenters), 258-59,364, 374 Tashkent Soviet, 155,156-57,165 Tatars, 4,5, 63, 66,104,106,116,117,344; in Xinjiang, 127,128 Täyip, Tashpolat, 487 Temur Malik, 273 Tercüman (Interpreter) (newspaper), 117, 122, 253 Tevkelev, Muhammad, 67
554 INDEX Thaw, 309,336 Turkestan Committee (1917), 155-56 Third World, 313,378; Soviet outreach to, Turkestan Islamic Party, 478 Turkestan Legion, 273-76 Turkey, 176,177,195,255,299; as destination 382-85 “three evils,” 477, 485 Three Gentlemen (Üch äpändi), 294-96, 299; differences with ETR, 295-96 Tiananmen Square, massacre, 396,483; terror of Central Asian diaspora, 279,491; rela tions with post-Soviet Central Asia, 420. See also Ottoman Empire Timur, 26-27,31, 203-5, 434-35 Turkism, 122-23,128-29,139,254,281,293-96, 420; different visions of, 294-96,420; as modernity, 208; not the same as panTurkism, 123 Timurids, 27,28,29,55,204 Türkistan (city), 77 Tirmidhi, Abu ‘Isa Muhammad al-, 21, 454 Turkiston viloyatininggazeti (Turkestan Ga attack in, 481 Tibet, s, 42,137,492 Tien-Shan Mountain, 12,13,42 titular nationals, 213,239-40, 347; defined, zette), 103,11s, 153 213 Tohti, Ilham, 484-85,487 Turkmenbashy (Türkmenbaşy), 464-66. Toqayev, Qasim-Jomart, 474 Türkmenbaşy (city), 12 Toqmaq, 77,144, 282 Turkmenistan: and China, 467; foreign rela See also Niyazov Torghay, 143-44, HS tions, 467; permanent neutrality, 466; traditionalism, Soviet ethnographers’ view post-Soviet developments, 464-67; re of, 402 Transoxiana, 12,18,19, 22, 23, 25-26, 28,42, 60,67,68, 75; as a frontier zone, 20 Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance, 359 Treaty of Ghulja, 72 Treaty of Nerchinsk, 65 Treaty of St. Petersburg, 39, 93-94,110,182 Trotsky, Lev, 149,172 Tsarist empire. See Russian empire bellion during collectivization, 225 Tursun, Perhat, 487 Tursun, Sänubär, 487
Tynyshbayev, Muhammetjan, 129 Ukraine, 227 ulama, 34, 43,53,192-93; in 1917,153՜555 ac commodation to Tsarist rule, 123-25; in Afghanistan, 389; in ETR, 253-54; flex ibility of interpretation of, 56,501-2; minor role in Kazakh society, 132,158; opposition to Jadidism, 123-26; during Tughluq Temür, 26,33 Turan, 20,203-4 Turfan, 13, 23, 45,79, 81, 250 Turkestan: defined, 14; as Russian province, Second World War, 267-69 Uljaboyev, Tursunbay, 311,313 79, 82,94-95, 211 Turkestan Autonomy, 157-58,159,162,200, Ulughbek, 27, 273, ՅՅ6, 357 Ulughzoda, Sotim, 337 275,276 Turkestan Bureau, 177,182. See also Central Asia Bureau Turkestan Commission, 166,173,177,178, 21Ճ Turkestan Committee of National Unity, 275-76,280 Umar Khan, 55 Umayyad caliphate, 20 UNESCO, 4,470 United Nations, 418, 424 United States: in the Cold War, 377-78,382; comparisons to, 96-97, 232, 319-20, 33°; consulate in Ürümchi, 282,285; entry
INDEX 555 into Second World War, 283; and global with Turkey, 460; relations with the U.S., war on terrorism, 477; geopolitical pres ence in post-Soviet Central Asia, 420, 460 460, proxy war in Afghanistan, 389-91; racism in, 232, 377-78; support for Is lamic militancy, 390-91, 412; views of Soviet Central Asia, 391,412 uprising of 1916,142-45 urban planning and redesign, 323-24,437-38, 450-52, 451. See also architectural rectification Ürümchi, 49; made capital ofXinjiang, 109; as a Chinese city, 428,448; U.S. consul ate in, 282,285; 2009 riots, 478-80; vio lent attacks in, 481 uskorenie (acceleration), 400 Usmon Khoja, 176,177 Usmonxo’jayev, Inomjon, 401, 410 Uyghur, Abdukhaliq Abdurahman oghli, 244-45,250 Uyghur empire, 18, 20 Uyghur ethnonym: modern emergence of, 206-7; in eastern Turkestan, 245; offi cially recognized, 2Ճ0-61 Uyghuristan, demands for, 364,365 Uyghur language, 286,371-73,448-49; pub lishing banned, 493-94 Uyghurs: absence ofpolitical ehtes, 474,447; in Afghanistan, 478; diaspora, 257,368, 422-23,491-92; codification of cultural heritage, 371-72,444-45; discontent with PRC, 264-65,422,444,478-80; intelligentsia, 370, 371, 374-75,487-48, 495; memory of ETR, 300; sense of na tionhood, 444; not titular in Xinjiang, 362-63; resistance to PRC, 445-47; in Syria, 478; violence, 480-81. See also “de-extremification”; Uyghur ethnonym Uzbek: modern ethnonym, 204; ulus of, 28 Uzbek cotton scandal, 398-400,401 Uzbekistan: control of Islam, 455; forma tion of, 210-11; as nationalizing state, 434-ՅՏ; post-Soviet, 458-62; relations Valikhanov. See Wälikhanov
vatan (homeland), 121,141,242, 294 veiling, 190-92,270,342; campaign against, 218-19; prohibited in Xinjiang, 480. See also hijab Vernoe, 69,77 Virgin Lands campaign, 309, 310, 311,325, 367,406,471 Volga Germans, 278,471 Volga-Urals region, 28,54, 70, 98,117, 270 Wali Khan Khoja, 62 Wälikhanov, Shoqan, 63-64,70-71,74,75,128 Wang Enmao, 358,369 wangs, 50,109,248 Wang Zhen, 358 waqf, 219, 220,357 warlords, in China, 140,243,246. See also Ma Zhongying Washington, DC, 2,438 Western Han dynasty, 449 Western Regions (Xiyu), 8, 449 “Wild Pigeon” (Yasin), 446 Wilson, Woodrow, 168 women, 190-92,218,219; violence against, 222-23; concern over Qing treatment of, 51; and cotton, 320-21; double burden, 343; forced sterilizations of, in Xinjiang, 493; as guardians of tradition, 343; mod esty as marker of national honor, 454; during Second World War, 270,277 World Uyghur Congress, 491 Wulonga, 58 Wu Zhongxin, 284,290 xiexiang (“shared pay”), 58; Xinjiang cut off from, 140 Xi Jinping, 473,481,482, 483 Xinhai revolution, 135-36; in Xinjiang, 137, 138-39
556 Xinjiang: campaign of incarceration in, 475, 475-76,480,485-87,489; declared au tonomous, 362; economic disparities in, 447-48; meaning of the term, 9; as prov ince, 95,109-10; Qing debate over, 59, 90-91; Russian civil war in, 180-81; as INDEX Yolbars Khan, 248,249,299,513Ո12 Yo’ldoshev, Nig’matulla, 461 Yo’ldoshxo’jayeva, Nurxon, 223 Yosh Turkiston (Young Turkestan), 275 Young Bukharans, 175-77,176,339 Yuan dynasty, 24,31 Soviet satellite, 258-59,283 Xinjiang Production and Construction Yusuf Khass Hajib, 335,373 Yusupov, Usmon, 289,307,316 Corps, 357-58 Xinjiang Regional Museum, 449 Xiongnu, 18,450 Yakubovsky, Aleksandr, 240 Zakir, Shöhret, 492 Zhang Binglin, 135 Yang Zengxin, 137,140,180,207,243-44, Zhang Chunxian, 481 Zhang Zhizhong, 290-91, 294,297 Zahir Shah, 388 246,253,29Յ, 296 Yaqub Beg, 75, 80,85-90, 86, 242-43; rela tions with the British empire, 88, 92; rela tions with the Ottomans, 88-90; relations with the Russian empire, 87-88 Yaqubov, Odil, 404 Yarkand, 42,43,252 Yashin, Komil, 384 Yasin, Nurmuhämmät, 446 Yengisar, 61,128, 256, 263, 292,370 Zhdanov, Andrei, 307 Zhongguo, resignified as “China,” 138 Zhonghua mimu, 138,285,360-61 Zhou Enlai, 367 Zoroastrianism, 19,20 Zou Rong, 135 Zungharia, 13, 23,25,30, 41, 42, 92 Zunghars and Zunghar empire, 30,42-45, 48,502; wars with the Kazakhs, 53, 67 Zuo Zongtang, 90-91, 92,109,126,128 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek München |
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| author | Khalid, Adeeb 1964- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)133050211 |
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| discipline | Geschichte |
| discipline_str_mv | Geschichte |
| era | Geschichte 1750-2017 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1750-2017 |
| format | Book |
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| physical | xviii, 556 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramm, Karten |
| psigel | BSB_NED_20211025 |
| publishDate | 2021 |
| publishDateSearch | 2021 |
| publishDateSort | 2021 |
| publisher | Princeton University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Khalid, Adeeb 1964- Verfasser (DE-588)133050211 aut Central Asia a new history from the imperial conquests to the present Adeeb Khalid Princeton ; Oxford Princeton University Press [2021] © 2021 xviii, 556 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramm, Karten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Geschichte 1750-2017 gnd rswk-swf Sinkiang (DE-588)4077460-0 gnd rswk-swf Mittelasien (DE-588)4039661-7 gnd rswk-swf Mittelasien (DE-588)4039661-7 g Sinkiang (DE-588)4077460-0 g Geschichte 1750-2017 z DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe 978-0-691-22043-7 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032640345&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032640345&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Khalid, Adeeb 1964- Central Asia a new history from the imperial conquests to the present |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4077460-0 (DE-588)4039661-7 |
| title | Central Asia a new history from the imperial conquests to the present |
| title_auth | Central Asia a new history from the imperial conquests to the present |
| title_exact_search | Central Asia a new history from the imperial conquests to the present |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Central Asia a new history from the imperial conquests to the present |
| title_full | Central Asia a new history from the imperial conquests to the present Adeeb Khalid |
| title_fullStr | Central Asia a new history from the imperial conquests to the present Adeeb Khalid |
| title_full_unstemmed | Central Asia a new history from the imperial conquests to the present Adeeb Khalid |
| title_short | Central Asia |
| title_sort | central asia a new history from the imperial conquests to the present |
| title_sub | a new history from the imperial conquests to the present |
| topic_facet | Sinkiang Mittelasien |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032640345&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032640345&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT khalidadeeb centralasiaanewhistoryfromtheimperialconqueststothepresent |