Nanosensors: physical, chemical, and biological
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
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Boca Raton ; London ; New York
CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group
2021
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| Ausgabe: | Second edition |
| Schriftenreihe: | Series in sensors
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| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Klappentext |
| Beschreibung: | xlv, 531 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme |
| ISBN: | 9780367457051 9780367514808 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Nanosensors |b physical, chemical, and biological |c Vinod Kumar Khanna |
| 250 | |a Second edition | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Boca Raton ; London ; New York |b CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group |c 2021 | |
| 300 | |a xlv, 531 Seiten |b Illustrationen, Diagramme | ||
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | Contents Preface to the Second Edition.................................................................................................................................................................. xxiii Preface to the First Edition........................................................................................................................................................................xxv Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................................................................................... xxvii Author’s Profile......................................................................................................................................................................................... xxix About the Book (2nd Edition)...................................................................................................................................................................xxxi Abbreviations and Acronyms................................................................................................................................................................ xxxiii Mathematical Notation................................................................................................................................................................................xli Part I Fundamental Concepts of Nanosensors 1. Introduction to
Nanosensors...............................................................................................................................................................3 1.1 Getting Started with Nanosensors............................................................................................................................................. 3 1.2 Natural Sciences ........................................................................................................................................................................3 1.3 Physics.........................................................................................................................................................................................3 1.3.1 Definition of Physics.................................................................................................................................................... 3 1.3.2 Branches of Physics..................................................................................................................................................... 3 1.3.3 Matter: Its States, Materials, and Particles.................................................................................................................3 1.3.4 Molecules, Atoms, and Atomic Structure..................................................................................................................3 1.3.5
Mechanics.....................................................................................................................................................................4 1.3.6 Heat............................................................................................................................................................................... 5 1.3.7 Sound............................................................................................................................................................................5 1.3.8 Light..............................................................................................................................................................................5 1.3.9 Electricity............................................................... 5 1.3.10 Magnetism............................................................................................................................................. 6 1.3.11 Electromagnetism........................................................................................................................................................6 1.3.12 SI System of Units........................................................................................................................................................ 6 1.4 Chemistry.................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 1.4.1 Definition of
Chemistry...............................................................................................................................................7 1.4.2 Elements and Compounds........................................................................................................................................... 7 1.4.3 Organic and Inorganic Compounds............................................................................................................................7 1.4.4 Subdivisions of Chemistry........................................................................................................................................... 7 1.4.5 Natural and Artificial Elements.................................................................................................................................. 7 1.4.6 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids............................................................................................................................7 1.4.7 Periodic Table of Elements......................................................................................................................................... 7 1.4.8 Chemical Change and Reaction.................................................................................................................................. 7 1.4.9 Electronic Configuration (Structure) of Elements................................... 8 1.4.10 Chemical
Bond.............................................................................................................................................................. 8 1.4.11 Oxidation and Reduction.............................................................................................................................................8 1.4.12 Acid, Base, and Salt..................................................................................................................................................... 8 1.4.13 Expressing Concentrations of Solutions and Gases...................................................................................................8 1.4.14 Hydrocarbons: Saturated and Unsaturated................................................................................................................ 8 1.4.15 Alkyl and Aryl Groups................................................................................................................................................9 1.4.16 Alcohols and Phenols................................................................................................................................................... 9 1.4.17 Carboxylic Acids...........................................................................................................................................................9 1.4.18 Aldehydes and Ketones................................................................................................................................................9 1.4.19 Amines and Amino
Acids.......................................................................................................................................... 9 1.4.20 Lipids............................................................................................................................................................................. 9 1.4.21 Carbohydrates...............................................................................................................................................................9 1.4.22 Proteins and Enzymes.................................................................................................................................................Ю 1.5 Biology................ Ю 1.5.1 What Is Biology?......................................................................................................................................................... Ю vii
Contents viii 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.5.2 Branches of Biology................................................................................................................................................10 1.5.3 Origin and Evolution of Life.................................................................................................................................. 10 1.5.4 The Cell................................................................................................................................................................... Ю 1.5.5 Differences between Bacteria and Viruses.............................................................................................................11 1.5.6 Heredity, Chromosomes, Genes, and Related Terms............................................................................................ 11 Semiconductor Electronics........ ......................................................................................................................................... 11 1.6.1 What Is Semiconductor Electronics?......................................................................................................................11 1.6.2 Energy Bands in Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators.............................................................................11 1.6.3 Interesting Properties of Semiconductors...............................................................................................................11 1.6.4 P-N
Junction........................................................................................................................................................... 13 1.6.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor.................................................................................................................................... 13 1.6.6 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor............................................................................................13 1.6.7 Analog and Digital Circuits....................................................................................................................................14 Nanometer and Appreciation of Its Magnitude..................................................................................................................15 Nanoscience and Nanotechnology.......................................................................................................................................15 Nanomaterials and the Unusual Behavior at Nanoscales...................................................................................................16 Moving toward Sensors and Transducers: Meaning of Terms “Sensors”and “Transducers”............................................17 Definition of Sensor Parameters and Characteristics.......................................................................................................... 18 Evolution of Semiconductor-Based Microsensors...............................................................................................................18 From the
Macrosensor to the Microsensor Age and the Necessity for Nanoscale Measurements....................................18 1.13.1 A Miniaturized Sensor Can Accomplish Many Tasks That a Bulky Device Cannot Perform.............................18 1.13.2 The Issue of Power Consumption.................................................................................... 19 1.13.3 Low Response Times..............................................................................................................................................19 1.13.4 Multi-Analyte Detection and Multifunctionality..................................................................................................19 1.13.5 Sensitivity Considerations and Need for Functionalization................................................................................. 20 1.13.6 Interfacing with Biomolecules............................................................................................................................... 20 1.13.7 Low Costs.............................................................................................................................................................. 20 1.13.8 Possibility of a New Genre of Devices..................................................................................................................20 Definition and Classification of Nanosensors.....................................................................................................................20 Physical, Chemical, and Biological
Nanosensors............................................................................................................... 21 Some Examples of Nanosensors.......................................................................................... ............................................. 22 1.16.1 Common Nanosensors........................................................................................................................................... 22 1.16.2 Carbon Nanotube-Based Nanosensors.................................................................... 22 1.16.3 Nanoscaled Thin-Film Sensors..............................................................................................................................22 1.16.4 Microcantilever- and Nanocantilever-Enabled Nanosensors................................................................................ 22 Getting Familiar with Analytical and Characterization Tools: Microscopic Techniques to View Nanomaterials and Nanosensors................................................................................................................................................................. 22 1.17.1 Scanning Electron Microscope.............................................................................................................................. 23 1.17.2 Transmission Electron Microscope.......................................................................................................................23 1.17.3 Scanning Ihnneling
Microscope...........................................................................................................................23 1.17.4 Atomic Force Microscope...................................................................................................................................... 23 Spectroscopic Techniques for Analyzing Chemical Composition of Nanomaterials and Nanosensors........................... 25 1.18.1 Infrared Spectroscopy............................................................................................................................................ 25 1.18.2 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy........................................................................................................................... 26 1.18.3 Raman Spectroscopy............................................................................................................................................. 27 1.18.4 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX)................................................................................................... 27 1.18.5 Auger Electron Spectroscopy......................................................... 27 1.18.6 X-Ray Diffraction..................................................................................................................................................27 1.18.7 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy or Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis.......................................27 1.18.8 Secondary Ion Mass
Spectrometry........................................................................................................................ 28 The Displacement Nanosensor: STM.................................................................................................................................28 1.19.1 Principle of Operation............................................................................................................................................ 28 1.19.2 Transmission Coefficient....................................................................................................................................... 29 1.19.3 Ihnneling Current..................................................................................................................................................32 1.19.4 Measurements with STM.......................................................................................................................................33 1.19.4.1 Topography............................................................................................................................................ 33 1.19.4.2 Density of States...................................................................................................................................33 1.19.4.3 Linecut................................................................................................................................................... 34 1.19.4.4 DOS
Map...............................................................................................................................................34
Contents ix 1.20 The Force Nanosensor: AFM............................................................................................................................................. 34 1.20.1 Operating Principle................................................................................................................................................34 1.20.2 Lennard-Jones Potential and the Van der Waals Forces.......................................................................................34 1.20.3 Other Forces and Potentials...................................................................................................................................36 1.20.4 Force Sensor (Cantilever) and Force Measurement...............................................................................................37 1.20.5 Static and Dynamic Atomic Force Microscopy................................................................................................... 38 1.20.6 Classification of Modes of Operation of AFM on the Basis of Contact......................... 38 1.20.6.1 Contact Mode........................................................................................................................................ 38 1.20.6.2 Noncontact Mode.................................................................................................................................. 39 1.20.6.3 Tapping Mode (Intermittent-Contact Mode).........................................................................................39 1.20.7 Frequency-Modulation Atomic Force
Microscopy...............................................................................................39 1.20.8 Generic Calculation.............................................................................................................................................. 40 1.21 Outline and Organization of the Book ............................................................................................................................... 41 1.22 Discussion and Conclusions................................................................................................................................................. 42 Review Exercises..............................................................................................................................................................................42 References........................................................................................................................................................................................43 Part II Nanomaterials and Micro/Nanofabrication Facilities 2. Materials for Nanosensors...........................................................................................................................................................47 2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................ 47 2.2 Nanoparticles or Nanoscale Particles, the Importance of the Intermediate Regime between Atoms and Molecules, and Bulk
Matter...............................................................................................................................................47 2.3 Classification of Nanoparticles on the Basis of Their Composition and Occurrence....................................................... 47 2.4 Core-/Shell-Structured Nanoparticles ................................................................................................................................48 2.4.1 Inorganic Core/Shell Nanoparticles...................................................................................................................... 48 2.4.2 Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Core/Shell Nanoparticles.......................................................................................... 49 2.5 Shape Dependence of Properties at the Nanoscale ........................................................................................................... 49 2.6 Dependence of Properties of Nanoparticles on Particle Size............................................................................................ 49 2.7 Surface Energy of a Solid...................................................................................................................................................49 2.8 Metallic Nanoparticles and Plasmons ................................................................................................................................50 2.8.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance on Bulk Metals.......................................................................................................
51 2.8.2 Surface Plasmon Band Phenomenon in Metal Nanoparticles.............................................................................. 53 2.9 Optical Properties of Bulk Metals and Metallic Nanoparticles........................................................................................ 53 2.9.1 Light Absorption by Bulk Metals and Metallic Nanoparticles............................................................................ 53 2.9.2 Light Scattering by Nanoparticles.........................................................................................................................56 2.10 Parameters Controlling the Position of Surface Plasmon Band of Nanoparticles.............................................................. 56 2.10.1 Effect of the Surrounding Dielectric Medium...................................................................................................... 56 2.10.2 Influence of Agglomeration-Preventing Ligands and Stabilizers.........................................................................57 2.10.3 Effect of Nanoparticle Size and Shape................................................................................................................. 57 2.10.4 Compositional Effect.............................................................................................................................................57 2.11 Quantum Confinement..........................................................................................................................................................57 2.11.1 Quantum Confinement in
Metals...........................................................................................................................58 2.11.2 Quantum Confinement in Semiconductors........................................................................................................... 58 2.11.3 Bandgap Energies................................................................................................................................................. 59 2.11.4 Bandgap Behavior Explanation by Particle-in-a-One-Dimensional Box Model of Electron Behavior.............. 59 2.12 Quantum Dots..................................................................................................................................................................... 62 2.12.1 Fundamentals......................................................................................................................................................... 62 2.12.2 Tight-Binding Approach to Optical Bandgap (Exciton Energy)Versus Quantum Dot Size................................. 63 2.12.3 Comparison of Quantum Dots With Organic Fluorophores................................................................................65 2.12.4 Types of Quantum Dots Depending on Composition............................................................................................67 2.12.5 Classification of Quantum Dots Based on Structure............................................................................................67 2.12.6 Capping Molecules or Ligands on the Surfaces of Quantum
Dots..................................................................... 67 2.13 Carbon Nanotubes .............................................................................................................................................................. 68 2.13.1 What Are Carbon Nanotubes?............................................................................................................................... 68 2.13.2 Structure of Graphene............................................................................................................................................ 69 2.13.3 Structure of SWCNTs............................................................................................................................................ 69
x Contents 2.13.4 Mechanical Properties of CNTs........................................................................................................................... 70 2.13.5 Electrical, Electronic, and Magnetic Properties of CNTs.................................................................................... 71 2.14 Inorganic Nanowires............................................................................................................................................................71 2.15 Nanoporous Materials...........................................................................................................................................................71 2.15.1 Nanoporous Silicon................................................................................................................................................ 72 2.15.2 Nanoporous Alumina............................................................................................................................................. 72 2.15.3 Nano-Grained Thin Films..................................................................................................................................... 73 2.16 Discussion and Conclusions................................................................................................................................................ 73 Review Exercises........................................................................................................................................................................... 73
References.......................................................................................................................................................................................74 3. Nanosensor Laboratory................................................................................................................................................................77 3.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................................77 3.2 Nanotechnology Division.....................................................................................................................................................77 3.2.1 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles.......................................................................................................................... 77 3.2.1.1 Gold Nanoparticles............................................................................................................................... 77 3.2.1.2 Silver Nanoparticles............................................................................................................................. 77 3.2.1.3 Platinum Nanoparticles........................................................................................................................ 78 3.2.1.4 Palladium Nanoparticles...................................................................................................................... 78 3.2.2 Synthesis of Semiconductor
Nanoparticles...........................................................................................................78 3.2.3 Synthesis of Semiconductor Nanocrystals: Quantum Dots...................................................................................79 3.2.3.1 CdSe/ZnS Core/Shell QDs.................................................................................................................... 79 3.2.3.2 CdSe/CdS Core/Shell QDs.................................................................................................. 79 3.2.3.3 PbS and PbS/CdS Core/Shell QDs........................................................................................................ 79 3.2.4 Synthesis of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles............................................................................................................... 80 3.2.5 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes............................................................................................................................. 81 3.2.5.1 Arc Discharge Method of CNT Production......................................................................................... 81 3.2.5.2 Laser Ablation Method of CNT Production..........................................................................................82 3.2.5.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition Method of CNT Production.....................................................................82 3.2.5.4 Difficulties Faced with Carbon Nanotubes...........................................................................................84 3.3 Micro- and
Nanoelectronics Division..................................................................................................................................84 3.3.1 Semiconductor Clean Room.................................................................................................................................. 84 3.3.2 Silicon Single-Crystal Growth and Wafer Production..........................................................................................85 3.3.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy....................................................................................................................................... 85 3.3.4 Mask Making......................................................................................................................................................... 85 3.3.5 Thermal Oxidation................................................................................................................................................. 86 3.3.6 Diffusion of Impurities in a Semiconductor.......................................................................................................... 87 3.3.7 Ion Implantation..................................................................................................................................................... 89 3.3.8 Photolithography.................................................................................................................................................... 90 3.3.8.1 Physical
Limits..................................................................................................................................... 91 3.3.8.2 Optical Lithography...............................................................................................................................92 3.3.8.3 Electron-Beam Lithography..................................................................................................................92 3.3.8.4 X-Ray Lithography................................................................................................................................92 3.3.8.5 Dip-Pen Nanolithography......................................................................................................................92 3.3.8.6 Nanoimprint Lithography......................................................................................................................92 3.3.8.7 Nanosphere Lithography.......................................................................................................................93 3.3.9 Chemical Vapor Deposition................................................................................................................................... 93 3.3.10 Wet Chemical Etching and Common Etchants...................................................... 94 3.3.11 Reactive Ion Etching..............................................................................................................................................95 3.3.12 Focused Ion Beam Etching and
Deposition.......................................................................................... 96 3.3.13 Metallization..........................................................................................................................................................96 3.3.14 Dicing, Wire Bonding, and Encapsulation...........................................................................................................96 3.3.15 IC Downscaling: Special Technologies and Processes.............................................. 97 3.3.15.1 Downscaling Trends............................................................................................................................. 97 3.3.15.2 SOI-MOSFETs...................................................................................................................................... 97 3.3.15.3 SIMOX Process..................................................................................................................................... 98 3.3.15.4 Smart Cut Process.......................................................................................... 98 3.3.15.5 Strained Silicon Process........................................................................................................................98 3.3.15.6 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches............................................................................................... 99
Contents xi 3.3.15.7 DNA Electronics.................................................................................................................................... 99 3.3.15.8 Spintronics............................................................................................................................................. 99 3.4 MEMS and NEMS Division............................................................................................................................................... 100 3.4.1 Surface and Bulk Micromachining........................................................................................................................100 3.4.2 Machining by Wet and Dry Etching Techniques.................................................................................................100 3.4.3 Deep Reactive-Ion Etching............................ 101 3.4.4 Front- and Back-Side Mask Alignment....................................................................... 103 3.4.5 Multiple Wafer Bonding and Glass-Silicon Bonding.......................................................................................... 103 3.4.6 Wafer Lapping................................................ 103 3.4.7 Chemical Mechanical Polishing.......................................................................................................................... 103 3.4.8 Electroplating....................................................................................................................................................... 104 3.4.9 LIGA
Process....................................................................................................................................................... 104 3.4.10 Micro-Injection Molding.......................................................................................................................................104 3.4.11 Hot Embossing and Electroforming......................................................................................................................105 3.4.12 Combination of MEMS/NEMS and CMOS Processes....................................................................................... 105 3.5 Biochemistry Division........................................................................................................................................................105 3.5.1 Surface Functionalization and Biofunctionalization of Nanomaterials............................................................... 105 3.5.2 Immobilization of Biological Elements............................................................................................................... 106 3.5.3 Protocols for Attachment of Antibodies on Sensors........................................................................................... 108 3.5.4 Functionalization of CNTs for Biological Applications......................................................................................109 3.5.5 Water Solubility of Quantum Dots...................................................................................................................... 109 3.5.6 Low Cytotoxicity
Coatings.................................................................................................................................. 109 3.6 Chemistry Division............................................................................................................................................................. HO 3.6.1 Nanoparticle Thin-Film Deposition......................................................................................................................110 3.6.2 Polymer Coatings in Nano Gas Sensors.............................................................................................................. HO 3.6.3 Metallic Nanoparticle Functionalization of Si Nanowires for Gas Sensing Applications..................................110 3.7 Nanosensor Characterization Division........................................................................................................... HO 3.8 Nanosensor Powering, Signal Processing,and Communication Division.........................................................................110 3.8.1 Power Unit.............................................................................................................................................................HI 3.8.1.1 Lithium Nanobatteries............................................ Ill 3.8.1.2 Self-Powered Nanogenerators............................................................................................................. Ill 3.8.1.3 Energy Harvestingfrom the
Environment........................................................................................... Ill 3.8.1.4 Synthetic Chemical Batteries Based on Adenosine Triphosphate.................................................... Ill 3.8.2 Signal Processing Unit...................................... Ill 3.8.3 Integrated Nanosensor Systems................ 112 3.8.4 Wireless Nanosensor Networks........................................................................................................................... 112 3.9 Discussion and Conclusions................................................................................................................................................П2 Review Exercises............................................................................................................................................................................П2 References.....................................................................................................................................................................................ПЗ Part III Physical Nanosensors 4. Mechanical Nanosensors.............................................................................................................................................................П7 4.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................... П7 4.2 Nanogram Mass Sensing by Quartz Crystal
Microbalance.............................................................................................. 117 4.3 Attogram (10֊18g) and Zeptogram (10_2Jg) Mass Sensing by MEMS/NEMS Resonators............................................... 120 4.3.1 Microcantilever Definitions and Theory.............................................................................................................120 4.3.1.1 Resonance Frequency Formula...........................................................................................................125 4.3.1.2 Deflection Formula.............................................................................................................................. 129 4.3.2 Energy Dissipation and ß-Factor of Cantilever.................................................................................................. 130 4.3.3 Noise of Cantilever and Its Mass Detection Limit............................................................................................. 131 4.3.4 Doubly Clamped and Free-Free Beam Resonators............................................................................................132 4.4 Electron Tbnneling Displacement Nanosensor.................................................................................................................. 133 4.5 Coulomb Blockade Electrometer-Based Nanosensor........................................................................................................ 134 4.5.1 Coulomb Blockade Effect.............................................................................. 134 4.5.2
Comparison with Ihnneling Sensors................................................................................................................... 135 4.6 Nanometer-Scale Displacement Sensing by Single-Electron Transistor........................................................................... 135 4.7 Magnetomotive Displacement Nanosensor....................................................................................................................... 136
Contents xii 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 Piezoresistive and Piezoelectric Displacement Nanosensors............................................................................................ 137 Optical Displacement Nanosensor......................................................................................................................................137 Femtonewton Force Sensors Using Doubly Clamped Suspended Carbon Nanotube Resonators................................... 138 Suspended CNT Electromechanical Sensors for Displacement and Force....................................................................... 140 Membrane-Based CNT Electromechanical Pressure Sensor............................................................................................ 142 Thnnel Effect Accelerometer.............................................................................................................................................. 143 4.13.1 Principle of Motion Detection............................................... 143 4.13.2 Construction and Working.................................................................................................................................... 143 4.13.3 Micromachined Accelerometer............................................................................ 144 4.14 NEMS Accelerometer......................................................................................................................................................... 145 4.15 Silicon Nanowire
Accelerometer....................................................................................................................................... 145 4.16 CNT Flow Sensor for Ionic Solutions............................................................................................ 146 4.17 Discussion and Conclusions............................................................................................................................................... 147 Review Exercises............................................................................................................................................................................ 147 References........................................................................ 149 5. Thermal Nanosensors..................................................................................................................................................................151 5.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................... 151 5.2 Nanoscale Thermocouple Formed by Thngsten and Platinum Nanosized Strips............................................................. 151 5.3 Resistive Thermal Nanosensor Fabricated by Focused-Ion-Beam Chemical-Vapor-Deposition (FIB-CVD)................. 152 5.4 Carbon “Nanowire-on-Diamond” Resistive Temperature Nanosensor............................................................................. 152 5.5 Carbon Nanotube Grown on Nickel Film as a Resistive Low-
temperature (10-300 K) Nanosensor...............................152 5.6 Laterally Grown CNTs between T vo Microelectrodes as a Resistive Temperature Nanosensor.....................................153 5.7 Silicon Nanowire Temperature Nanosensors: Resistors and Diode Structures.................................................................154 5.8 Ratiometric Fluorescent Nanoparticles for Temperature Sensing..................................................................................... 155 5.9 Er3+/Yb֊,+ Co-Doped Gd203 Nanophosphor as a Temperature Nanosensor, Using Fluorescence Intensity Ratio Technique..................................................................................................................................................................157 5.10 Optical Heating of Yb3+-Er3+ Co-Doped Fluoride Nanoparticles and Distant Temperature Sensing through Luminescence............................................................................................ 159 5.11 Porphyrin-Containing Copolymer as a Thermochromie Nanosensor...............................................................................159 5.12 Silicon-Micromachined Scanning Thermal Profiler (STP)...............................................................................................160 5.13 Superconducting Hot Electron Nanobolometers................................................................................................................161 5.14 Thermal Convective Accelerometer Using CNT Sensing
Element................................................................................... 162 5.15 Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Sensor for Airflow Measurement................................................................................. 163 5.16 Vacuum Pressure and Flow Velocity Sensors, Using Batch-Processed CNT Wall.......................................................... 163 5.17 Nanogap Pirani Gauge........................................................................................................................................................164 5.18 Carbon Nanotube-Polymer Nanocomposite as a Conductivity Response Infrared Nanosensor..................................... 165 5.19 Nanocalorimetry.................................................................................................................................................................166 5.20 Discussion and Conclusions................................................................................................................................................168 Review Exercises............................................................................................................................................................................ 170 References...................................................................................................................................................................................... 170 6. Optical
Nanosensors....................................................................................................................................................................173 6.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................... 173 6.2 Noble-Metal Nanoparticles With LSPR and UV-Visible Spectroscopy............................................................................ 174 6.3 Nanosensors Based on Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering.......................................................................................... 176 6.4 Colloidal SPR Colorimetric Gold Nanoparticle Spectrophotometric Sensor................................................................... 178 6.5 Fiber-Optic Nanosensors....................................................................................................................... 181 6.5.1 Fabry-Perot Reflectometric Optochemical Nanosensor, Using Optical Fibers and SWCNTs.......................... 181 6.5.2 In-Fiber Nanocavity Sensor................................................................................................................................. 184 6.5.3 Fiber-Optic Nanosensors for Probing Living Cells.............. 185 6.6 Nanograting-Based Optical Accelerometer........................................................................................................................186 6.7 Fluorescent pH-Sensitive
Nanosensors...............................................................................................................................186 6.7.1 Renewable Glass Nanopipette with Fluorescent Dye Molecules............. .........................................................186 6.7.2 Ratiometric pH Nanosensor..................................................................................................................................187 6.7.3 pH-Sensitive Microcapsules With Nanoparticle Incorporation in the Walls......................................................188 6.8 Disadvantages of Optical Fiber and Fluorescent Nanosensors for Living Cell Studies....................................................188 6.9 PEBBLE Nanosensors to Measure the Intracellular Environment................................................................................... 189
Contents xiii 6.10 Quantum Dots as Fluorescent Labels.................................................................................................................................. 192 6.11 Quantum Dot FRET-Based Probes..................................................................................................................................... 195 6.11.1 QD-FRET Protein Sensor.................................................................................................................................... 197 6.11.2 QD-FRET Protease Sensor........................................... 197 6.11.3 QD-FRET Maltose Sensor................................................................................................................................... 197 6.11.4 Sensor for Determining the Dissociation Constant (Κά) between Rev and RRE............................................... 198 6.12 Electrochemiluminescent Nanosensors for Remote Detection..........................................................................................200 6.13 Crossed Zinc Oxide Nanorods As Resistive UV-Nanosensors........................................................................................ 200 6.14 Discussion and Conclusions................................................................................................................................................ 202 Review Exercises........................................................................................................................................................................... 202
References......................................................................................................................................................................................203 7. Magnetic Nanosensors................................................................................................................................................................ 207 7.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................ 207 7.2 Magnetoresistance Sensors................................................................................................................................................207 7.2.1 Ordinary Magnetoresistance: The Hall Effect...................................................................................................208 7.2.2 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance...........................................................................................................................208 7.2.3 Giant Magnetoresistance..................................................................................................................................... 208 7.2.3.1 Scientific Explanation of GMR............................................................................................................209 7.2.3.2 Simple Analogies of GMR.................................................................................................................. 213 7.2.3.3 Optimizing
Parameters........................................................................................................................ 213 1.23 A GMR Sensor Structures........................................................................................................................ 213 7.3 Tbnneling Magnetoresistance............................................................................................................................................ 214 7.4 Limitations, Advantages, and Applications of GMR and TMR Sensors..........................................................................215 7.4.1 Shortcomings....................................................................................................................................................... 215 7.4.2 Advantages...;....................................................................................................................................................... 215 7.4.3 Applications......................................................................................................................................................... 215 7.5 Magnetic Nanoparticle Probes for Studying Molecular Interactions................................................................................215 7.5.1 DNA Analysis...................................................................................................................................................... 219 7.5.2 Protein
Detection.................................................................................................................................................220 7.5.3 Virus Detection....................................................................................................................................................220 7.5.4 Telomerase Activity Analysis.............................................................................................................................. 221 7.6 Protease-Specific Nanosensors for MRI............................................................................................................................222 7.7 Magnetic Relaxation Switch Immunosensors...................................................................................................................223 7.8 Magneto Nanosensor Microarray Biochip........................................................................................................................223 7.8.1 Rationale and Motivation....................................................................................................................................223 7.8.2 Sensor Choice, Design Considerations, Passivation, and Magnetic Nanotag Issues..........................................224 7.8.3 Understanding Magnetic Array Operation......................................................................................................... 226 7.8.4 Influence of Reaction Conditions on the Sensor................................................................................................. 227
7.8.5 DNA and Tbmor Marker Detection.....................................................................................................................222 7.8.6 GMR-Based Detection System With Zeptomole (10~21 Mol) Sensitivity...........................................................229 7.8.7 Bead ARray Counter (BARC) Biosensor........................................................................................................... 230 7.9 Needle-iype SV-GMR Sensor for Biomedical Applications............................................................................................231 7.10 Superconductive Magnetic Nanosensor.............................................................................................................................232 7.11 Electron Tbnneling-Based Magnetic Field Sensor............................................................................................................232 7.12 Nanowire Magnetic Compass and Position Sensor...........................................................................................................233 7.13 Discussion and Conclusions........................ :.................................................................................................................... 234 Review Exercises........................................................................................................................................................................... 234
References......................................................................................................................................................................................235 Part IV Chemical and Biological Nanosensors 8. Chemical Nanosensors................................................................................................................................................................239 8.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................................................239 8.2 Gas Sensors Based on Nanomaterials............................................................................................................................... 239 8.3 Metallic Nanoparticle-Based GasSensors....................................................... 240 8.4 Metal Oxide Gas Sensors.................................................................................................................................................. 240
Contents XIV 8.4.1 Sensing Mechanism of Metal Oxide Sensors. 8.4.2 Sensitivity Controlling Parameters and the Influence of Heat Treatment...... 8.4.3 Effect of Additives on Sensor Response.......................................................... 8.5 Carbon Nanotube Gas Sensors..................................... 8.5.1 Gas-Sensing Properties of CNTs.................... 8.5.2 Responses of SWCNTs and MWCNTs........... 8.5.3 Modification of CNTs..................................... 8.5.4 CNT-Based FET-Tÿpe Sensor......................... 8.5.5 MWCNTs/ՏոՕշ Ammonia Sensor................. 8.5.6 CNT-Based Acoustic Gas Sensor................... 8.6 Porous Silicon-Based Gas Sensor................................ 8.7 Thin Organic Polymer Film-Based Gas Sensors.......... 8.8 Electrospun Polymer Nanofibers as Humidity Sensors. 8.9 Toward Large Nanosensor Arrays and Nanoelectronic Nose. 8.10 CNT-, Nanowire- and Nanobelt-Based Chemical Nanosensors. 8.10.1 CNT-Based ISFET for Nano pH Sensor....................... 8.10.2 NW Nanosensor for pH Detection................................ 8.10.3 ZnS/Silica Nanocable FET pH Sensor......................... 8.10.4 Bridging Nanowire As Vapor Sensor.......................... 8.10.5 Palladium Functionalized Si NW H2 Sensor............... 8.10.6 Polymer-Functionalized Piezoelectric-FET Humidity Nanosensor. 8.11 Optochemical Nanosensors.............................................................. 8.11.1 Low-Potential Quantum Dot ECL Sensor for Metal Ion.... 8.11.2 BSA-Activated CdTe QD Nanosensor for Sb3+ Ion. 8.11.3 Functionalized CdSe/ZnS QD
Nanosensor for Hg(II) Ion...... 8.11.4 Marine Diatom Gas Sensors.................................................... 8.12 Discussion and Conclusions................................................................... Review Exercises............................................................................................... References......................................................................................................... 9. Nanobiosensors............................................................... 9.1 Introduction........................................................... 9.2 Nanoparticle-Based Electrochemical Biosensors. 9.2.1 Nitric Oxide Electrochemical Sensor. 9.2.2 Determination of Dopamine, Uric Acid, and Ascorbic Acid. Detection of CO........................................ 9.2.3 Glucose Detection..................................... 9.2.4 Gold Nanoparticle DNA Biosensor.......... 9.2.5 9.2.6 Monitoring Allergen-Antibody Reactions. 9.2.7 Hepatitis В Immunosensor....................... Carcinoembryonic Antigen Detection. 9.2.8 9.2.9 Escherichia coli Detection in Milk Samples. CNT-Based Electrochemical Biosensors........................................... 9.3 9.3.1 Oxidation of Dopamine....................................................... 9.3.2 Direct Electrochemistry or Electrocatalysis of Catalase..... CNT-Based Electrochemical DNA Biosensor..................... 9.3.3 Glucose Biosensor.......................................... 9.3.4 Cholesterol Biosensor................................... 9.3.5 9.3.6 H202
Biosensor............................................... Functionalization of CNTs for Biosensor Fabrication., 9.4 QD (Quantum Dot)-Based Electrochemical Biosensors. 9.5 9.5.1 Uric Acid Biosensor........................................................................ 9.5.2 Hydrogen Peroxide Biosensor......................................................... 9.5.3 CdS Nanoparticles Modified Electrode for Glucose Detection...... 9.5.4 QD Light-Triggered Glucose Detection. Nanotube and Nanowire-Based FET Nanobiosensors. 9.6 9.6.1 Nanotube versus Nanowire............................ 9.6.2 Functionalization of SiNWs........................... 9.6.3 DNA and Protein Detection........................... .242 .244 .248 .249 .249 .250 .250 .251 „251 „252 „253 „253 „253 „254 „255 „255 „255 „257 „258 „258 „258 „259 „259 „260 „261 „262 „262 „262 „264 „267 „267 „267 „270 „271 „271 „272 „273 „275 „275 „275 „276 „276 „278 „281 „281 „281 „283 „284 „285 „285 „285 „285 .286 .286 .287 .287 .287 .289
Contents XV 9.7 Cantilever-Based Nanobiosensors..................................................................................................................................... 289 9.7.1 Biofunctionalization of the Microcantilever Surface..........................................................................................291 9.7.2 Biosensing Applications....................................................................................................................................... 293 9.8 Optical Nanobiosensors...................................................................................................................................................... 295 9.8.1 Aptamers.............................................................................................................................................................. 295 9.8.2 Aptamer-Modified Au Nanoparticles as a Colorimetric Adenosine Nanosensor.............................................. 297 9.8.3 Aptamer-Based Multicolor Fluorescent Gold Nanoprobe for Simultaneous Adenosine, Potassium Ion, and Cocaine Detection......................................................................................................................................... 297 9.8.4 Aptamer-Capped QD as a Thrombin Nanosensor...............................................................................................298 9.8.5 QD Aptameric Cocaine Nanosensor....................................................................................................................299 9.9 Biochips (or
Microarrays)..................................................................................................................................................300 9.10 Discussion and Conclusions................................................................................................................................................ 301 Review Exercises........................................................................................................................................................................... 301 References..................................................................................................................................................................................... 303 Part Y Emerging Applications of Nanosensors 10. Nanosensors for Societal Benefits............................................................................................................................................. 309 10.1 Air Pollutants..................................................................................................................................................................... 309 10.2 Nanosensors for Particulate Matter Detection...................................................................................................................309 10.2.1 Cantilever-Based Airborne Nanoparticle Detector (CANTOR).........................................................................309 10.2.2 Nanomechanical Resonant Filter-
Fiber.............................................................................................................. 309 10.2.3 Aerosol Sensing by Voltage Modulation.............................................................................................................309 10.2.4 MEMS-Based Particle Detection System...........................................................................................................310 10.3 Nanosensors for Carbon Monoxide Detection................................................................................................................... 311 10.3.1 Au Nanoparticle-Based Miniature CO Detector................................................................................................312 10.3.2 CuO Nanowire Sensor on Micro-Hotplate.........................................................................................................312 10.3.3 ZnO Nanowall-Based Conductometric Sensor................................................................................................... 312 10.3.4 ZnO NPs-Loaded 3D Reduced Graphene Oxide (ZnO/3D-rGO) Sensor..........................................................312 10.3.5 Europium-Doped Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles Thick-Film Sensor................................................................. 312 10.3.6 Pt-decorated Sn02 Nanoparticles Sensor.......................................................................................................... 313 10.4 Nanosensors for Sulfur Dioxide
Detection.........................................................................................................................313 10.4.1 Tbngsten Oxide Nanostructures-Based Sensor...................................................................................................313 10.4.2 ՏոՕշ Thin-Film Sensor with Nanoclusters of Metal Oxide Modifiers/Catalysts............................................. 313 10.4.3 Fluorescence Nanoprobe...................................................................................................................................... 313 10.4.4 Niobium-Loaded Thngsten Oxide Film Sensor..................................................................................................313 10.4.5 Nickel Nanowall-Based Sensor............................................................................................................................ 313 10.5 Nanosensors for Nitrogen Dioxide Detection....................................................................................................................313 10.5.1 ՏոՕշ Nanoribbon Sensor..................................................................................................................................... 313 10.5.2 Tris(hydroxymethyl) Aminomethane (THMA)-Capped ZnO Nanoparticle-Coated ZnO Nanowire Sensor...... 313 10.5.3 In203-Sensitized CuO-ZnO Nanoparticle Composite Film Sensor.................................................................. 313 10.5.4 UV-Activated, Pt-Decorated Single-Crystal ZnO Nanowire
Sensor.................................................................313 10.6 Nanosensors for Ozone Detection..................................................................................................................................... 314 10.6.1 ՏոՕշ/SWCNT Hybrid Thin-Film Sensor............................................................................................................314 10.6.2 Nanocrystalline SiTij JFe։03 (STF) Thin-Film Sensor......................................................................................314 10.6.3 ZnO Nanoparticle Sensor..................................................................................................................................... 314 10.6.4 Pd-Decorated MWCNT Sensor........................................................................................................................... 314 10.6.5 UV-Illuminated ZnO Nanocrystal Sensor........................................................................................................... 314 10.7 Nanosensors for VOC Detection........................................................................................................................................ 314 10.7.1 Chemiresistive Sensor Using Gold Nanoparticles............................................................................................... 314 10.7.2 Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) Nanoparticle-Based Capacitive Sensor......................................................315 10.7.3 Al-Doped ZnO Nanowire {(ZnO:Al)NW}Sensor...........................................................
315 10.7.4 Nickel-Doped Tin Oxide Nanoparticle (Ni-ՏոՕշ NP) Sensor for Formaldehyde..............................................315 10.7.5 Palladium Nanoparticle (PdNP)/Nickel Oxide (NiO) Thin- Film/Palladium (Pd) Thin-Film Sensor for Formaldehyde..................................................................................................................................... 315 10.7.6 Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Sensor With Polymer-Sensitive Film Containing Embedded Nanoparticles..................................................................................................................................... 315 10.7.7 Resorcinol-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Probe for Formaldehyde Detection.................... 316
Contents XVI 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 Nanosensors for Ammonia Detection................................................................................................................................. 316 10.8.1 Polyaniline Nanoparticle Conductimetric Sensor.............................................................................................. 316 10.8.2 Mo03 Nanoparticle Gel-Coated Sensor............................ ..................................................................................316 10.8.3 ZnO:Eu2+ Fluorescence Quenching Nanoparticle-Based Optical Sensor.......................................................... 316 10.8.4 Pt Nanoparticle (Pt NP)-Decorated W03 Sensor............................................................................................... 316 Water Pollutants.................................................................................................................................................................. 317 Nanosensors for Detection of Escherichia coli 0157:H7.................................................................................................. 317 10.10.1 Magnetoelastic Sensor Amplified With Chitosan-Modified Fe304 Magnetic Nanoparticles (CMNPs)........... 317 10.10.2 Mercaptoethylamine (MEA)-Modified Gold Nanoparticle Sensor.................................................................... 319 10.10.3 Cysteine-Capped Gold Nanoparticle Sensor................................................................... ................................... 319 10.10.4 Three
Nanoparticles-Based Biosensor (Iron Oxide, Gold, and Lead Sulfide)...................................................319 10.10.5 Magneto-Fluorescent Nanosensor (MfnS)...........................................................................................................319 10.10.6 Signal-Off Impedimetric Nanosensor With a Sensitivity Enhancement by Captured Nanoparticles.............. 321 10.10.7 An Impedimetric Biosensor for E. coli 0157:H7 Based on the Use of Self-Assembled Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) and Protein G-Thiol (PrG-Thiol) Scaffold................................................................... 321 10.10.8 Gold Nanoparticles Surface Plasmon Resonance (AuNP SPR) Chip................................................................ 321 10.10.9 Microfluidic Nanosensor Working on Aggregation of Gold Nanoparticles and Imaging by Smartphone....... 321 Nanosensors for Detection of Vibrio cholerae and Cholera Toxin.................................................................................. 322 10.11.1 Lactose-Stabilized Gold Nanoparticles...............................................................................................................322 10.11.2 ssDNA/Nanostructured MgO (nMgO)/Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Bioelectrode.................................................323 10.11.3 Nanostructured MgO (nMgO) Photoluminescence Sensor................................................................................ 323 10.11.4 Lyophilized Gold Nanoparticle/Polystyrene-Co-Acrylic Acid-Based Genosensor........................................... 323 10.11.5
Polystyrene-co-Acrylic Acid (PSA) Latex Nanospheres.................................................................................... 324 10.11.6 Graphene Nanosheet Bioelectrode with Lipid Film Containing Ganglioside GM1 Receptor of Cholera Toxin........................................................................................................................................................324 Nanosensors for Detection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa..................................................................................................324 10.12.1 Probe-Modified Magnetic Nanoparticles-Based Chemiluminescent Sensor.....................................................324 10.12.2 Reduced Graphene Electrode Decorated with Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)....................................................325 10.12.3 Polyaniline(PANI)/Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Decorated Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Electrode.......................325 Nanosensors for Detection of Legionella pneumophila................................................................................................... 326 10.13.1 ZnO Nanorod (ZnO-NR) Matrix-Based Immunosensor................................................................................... 326 10.13.2 Azimuthally-Controlled Gold Grating-Coupling Surface Plasmon Resonance (GC-SPR) Platform............... 326 Nanosensors for Detection of Mercury Ions......................................................................................................................327 10.14.1 Thymine Derivative (N-T) Decorated Gold Nanoparticle
Sensor...................................................................... 327 10.14.2 Smartphone-Based Microwell Reader (MR S-phone) AuNP-Aptamer Colorimetric Sensor............................327 10.14.3 Starch-Stabilized Silver Nanoparticle-Based Colorimetric Sensor.................................................................... 327 10.14.4 Chitosan-Stabilized Silver Nanoparticle (Chi-AgNP)-Based Colorimetric Sensor...........................................328 Nanosensors for Detection of Lead Ions............................................................................................................................328 10.15.1 Glutathione (GSH)-Stabilized Silver Nanoparticle (AgNP) Sensor................................................................... 328 10.15.2 Maleic acid (MA)-FunctionaIized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor.............................................................. 330 10.15.3 Label-Free Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) in the Presence of Glutathione (GSH)..............................................330 10.15.4 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) Conjugated with Thioctic Acid (TA) and Fluorescent Dansyl Hydrazine (DNS) Molecules.................................................................................................................................331 10.15.5 Valine-Capped Gold Nanoparticle Sensor........................................................................................................... 331 10.15.6 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)-Stabilized Colloidal Silver Nanoparticles (Ag NPs) in the Presence of Dithizone........331 10.15.7 Gold
Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Graphene (GR)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE).................................. 331 Nanosensors for Detection of As(III) ions........................................................................................................................331 10.16.1 Portable Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) System....................................................................331 10.16.2 Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Nanosensor..................................................................................................331 10.16.3 FePt Bimetallic Nanoparticle (FePt-NP) Sensor.................................................................................................332 10.16.4 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) for Co-Detection of As(III) and Se(IV).............................................................................................................................................................332 10.16.5 Silver Nanoparticle-Modified Gold Electrode....................................... 332 10.16.6 Carbon Nanoparticle (CNP)/Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) Aptasensor............................................... 333 10.16.7 Gold Nanostructured Electrode on a Gold Foil (Au/GNE).................................................................................333 10.16.8 Bimetallic Nanoparticle (NP) and [Bimetallic NP + Polyaniline (PANI)] Composite-Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode
(SPCE)........................................................................................................... 333
Contents 10.16.9 Ranolazine (Rano)-Functionalized Copper Nanoparticles (CuNPs).................................. 10.17 Nanosensors for Detection of Cr(VI) Ions......................................................................................... 10.17.1 Colloidal Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Probe-Based Immunochromatographic Sensor.... 10.17.2 Amyloid-Fibril-Based Sensor.............................................................................................................. 10.17.3 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Decorated Titanium Dioxide Nanotubes (Ti02NTs) on a Ті Substrate.. 10.18 Nanosensors for Detection of Cd2+ ions.............................................................................................................. 10.18.1 Gold Nanoparticle Amalgam (AuNPA)-Modified Screen-Printed Electrode (SPE)......................... 10.18.2 Thrn-On Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Sensor........................................................ 10.18.3 Thioglycerol (TG)-Capped CdSe Quantum Dots (QDs)............................................. 10.18.4 CdTe Quantum (CdTe QD) Dot-Based Hybrid Probe................................................. 10.18.5 Aptamer-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor..................................... 10.19 Nanosensors for Detection of Cu2+ ions....................................................................................... 10.19.1 Azide and Terminal Alkyne-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor...... 10.19.2 Cadmium Sulfide Nanoparticle (CdS NP)-Gold Quantum Dot (Au QD) Sensor...........
........................ 10.19.3 Multiple Antibiotic Resistance Regulator (MarR)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor. 10.19.4 Casein Peptide-Functionalized Silver Nanoparticle (AgNP) Sensor....................................................... 10.20 Nanosensors for Detection of Pesticides................................................................................................................... 10.20.1 DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane).................................................................................................. 10.20.2 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid (2,4-D)................................................................................................. 10.20.3 Carbofuran (CBF)..................................................................................................................................... 10.20.3.1 Amperometric Immunosensor......................................................................................... ...... 10.20.3.2 Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (MIP)-Reduced Graphene Oxide and Gold Nanoparticle (rGO@AuNP)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE)............................. 10.20.3.3 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Based Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS). 10.20.4 Methomyl................................................................................................ 10.20.5 Dimethoate............................................................................................. 10.20.6 Atrazine.................................................................................................. 10.20.6.1
Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Modified Gold (Au) Electrode. 10.20.6.2 Cysteamine (Cys)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs). 10.20.6.3 Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Quantum Dot-Based Luminescent Probe...... 10.20.7 Paraoxon-Ethyl......................................................................................................... 10.20.8 Acetamiprid.............................................................................................................. 10.20.9 Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), Perchlorobenzene....................................................... 10.20.10 Malathion (MLT): Diethyl 2-[(dimethoxyphosphorothioyl)sulfanyl]butanedioate. 10.20.11 Dithiocarbamate (DTC) Pesticide Group................................................................ 10.21 Discussion and Conclusions...................................................................................................... 10.21.1 Particulate Matter..................................................................................................... 10.21.2 Gases......................................................................................................................... 10.21.3 Pathogens.................................................................................................................. 10.21.4 Metals....................................................................................................................... 10.21.5 Pesticides.................................................................................................................. Review Exercises References......... 11.
Nanosensors for Industrial Applications............................................ 11.1 Nanosensors for Detection of Food-Borne Pathogenic Bacteria., Salmonella typhimurium............................................................................................... 11.1.1 11.1.1.1 DNA Aptamers and Magnetic Nanoparticle (MNP)-Based Colorimetric Sensor....... 11.1.1.2 Strip Sensor Using Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Labeled Genus-Specific Anti-Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) Monoclonal Antibody (mAb).................................... Clostridium perfringens................................................................................................ 11.1.2 Listeria monocytogenes.................................................................................................................... 11.1.3 11.1.3.1 Immunomagnetic Nanoparticles (IMNPs) with Microfluidic Chip and Interdigitated Microelectrodes.............................................................................................................. 11.1.3.2 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)/DNA Colorimetric Probe Assay....................................... Campylobacterjejuni.................................................................................................... 11.1.4 Yersinia enterocolitica.................................................................................................. 11.1.5 11.2 Nanosensors for Detection of Food-Borne Toxins. XVII ...333 ...333 ...333 ...333 ...334 ...334 ..334 ...334 ..335 ..335 ..336 ..338 .338 ..339 ..339 ..339 ..339 ..339 ..341 ..341 ..341 ..343 ..344 ..344 „344 „344 „344
„345 .346 .346 .347 .347 .349 .349 .351 .351 .351 .351 .351 .352 .352 .361 .365 .365 .365 .365 .365 .366 .367 .368 .368 .369 .369 .370
хѵщ Contents 11.2.1 Botulinum Neurotoxin Serotype A (BoNT/A).......... ................................................ -....................................... 370 11.2.1.1 Gold Nanodendrite (AuND)/Chitosan Nanoparticle (CSNP)-Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode (SPCE) for Botulinum Neurotoxin Serotype A (BoNT/A)...................................371 11.2.1.2 Peptide-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)-Based Colorimetric Assay for Botulinum Serotype A Light Chain (BoLcA).................................................................................... 371 11.2.2 Staphylococcal Enterotoxin В (SEB)......................................................................·........................................... 373 11.3 Nanosensors for Cancer Cell/Biomarker Detection....................................... 374 11.3.1 Breast Cancer Cell MCF-7................................................................................................................................... 375 11.3.2 HER2, A Medical Sign of Breast Cancer........................................................................................................... 376 11.3.3 Serum Amyloid Al (SAAI) Antigen, a Lung-Cancer-Specific Biomarker................... 376 11.3.4 Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA), a Biomarker for Prostate Cancer...................................................................378 11.3.5 miRNA-106a, the Biomarker of Gastric Cancer................................................................................................ 378 11.3.6 Colorectal Carcinoma
Cell.................................................................................................................................. 380 11.3.7 Cluster of Differentiation 10 (CD10) Antigen, the Common Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Antigen................................................................................................................................................ 380 11.4 Nanosensors for Detection of Infectious Disease Indicators..............................................................................................381 11.4.1 IgG Antibodies to Hepatitis В Surface Antigen (a-HbsAg IgG Antibodies)......................................................381 11.4.2 Dengue-1 RNA..................................................................................................................................................... 383 11.4.3 Japanese Encaphilitis Virus (JEV) Antigen....................................................................................................... 383 11.4.4 HIV-l p24 Antigen.............................................................................................. 385 11.4.5 Zika Virus (ZIKV).............................................................................................................................................. 386 11.4.6 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2.......................................................................................... 388 11.4.7 Pneumococcus or Streptococcus
pneumoniae...................................................................................................388 11.4.8 Acid-Fast Bacilli (AFB)...................................................................................................................................... 388 11.4.9 Streptococcus pyogenes Single-Stranded Genomic-DNA (S. pyogenes ssg-DNA).......................................... 389 11.4.10 Plasmodium falciparum Heat-Shock Protein 70 (PfHsp70).............................................................................. 391 11.5 Nanosensors for Automotive, Aerospace, and Consumer Applications............................................................................ 393 11.5.1 Strain/Pressure Sensors.......................................................................................................................................393 11.5.1.1 Polymer-Metallic Nanoparticles Composite Pressure Sensor........... .................................................393 11.5.1.2 Percolative Pd Nanoparticle (PdNP) Array-Based Pressure Sensor..................................................395 11.5.1.3 Silver Nanoparticle (AgNP)/Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) Strain/Pressure Sensor...................... 396 11.5.1.4 Polyacrylamide (PAAm)/Gold nanoparticle (AuNP) Pressure Sensor..............................................397 11.5.2 Acoustic Vibration Sensor.................................................................................................................................. 399 11.5.3 Acceleration
Sensor............................................................................................................................................. 399 11.5.4 Orientation, Angular Rate, or Angle Sensors..................................................................................................... 399 11.5.4.1 CNT Field-Emission Nano Gyroscope................................................................................................399 11.5.4.2 Magnetic Nanoparticles-Based Gyroscopic Sensor............................................................................401 11.5.5 Ultrasound Sensor................................................................................................................................................ 401 11.5.6 Magnetic Field Sensor.......................................................................................................................................... 402 11.5.6.1 Nanoparticle Core-Based Fluxgate Magnetometer............................................................................ 403 11.5.6.2 Magnetic Nanoparticle (MNP)-Functionalized Magnetometer......................................................... 403 11.6 Discussion and Conclusions...............................................................................................................................................404 11.6.1 Pathogens............................................................................................................................................................. 404 11.6.2
Toxins...................................................................................................................................................................404 11.6.3 Cancer......................................................................................................................... 404 11.6.4 Infectious Diseases..............................................................................................................................................406 11.6.5 Automotive, Aerospace, and Consumer Applications........................................................................................ 406 Review Exercises...........................................................................................................................................................................406 References..................................................................................................................... 409 12. Nanosensors for Homeland Security......................................................................................................................................... 411 12.1 Necessity of Nanosensors for Trace Explosive Detection.................................................................................................. 411 12.2 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) Nanosensors......................................................................................................................... 411 12.2.1 Curcumin Nanomaterials Surface Energy Transfer (NSET) Probe...................................................................
411 12.2.2 Amine-Functionalized Silica Nanoparticles (SiOj-NH^ Colorimetric Sensor....................... .........................411 12.2.3 Amine-Modified Gold@Silver Nanoparticles-Based Colorimetric Paper Sensor..............................................411 12.2.4 Polyethylenimine (PEI)-Capped Downconverting ß-NaYF4:Gd3+,Tb3+@PEI Nanophosphor Luminescence Sensor....................................................... 412
Contents 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 xix 12.2.5 Janus Amine-Modified Upconverting NaYF4:Yb3+/Er3+ Nanoparticle (UCNP) Micromotor-Based On-Off Luminescence Sensor............................................................................................................................. 413 12.2.6 AgInS2 (AIS) Quantum Dot (QD) Fluorometric Probe......................................................................................415 12.2.7 TNT Recognition Peptide Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs) Hybrid Anchored Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Chip.......................................................................................................................... 415 12.2.8 Non-Imprinted and Molecularly Imprinted Bis-Aniline-Cross-Linked Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) Composite/Gold Layer for Surface Plasmon Resonance, and Related Sensors.................................................415 TNT/Tetryl (Tetranitro-N-methylamine) Nanosensors.....................................................................................................418 12.3.1 Diaminocyclohexane (DACH)-Functionalized/Thioglycolic Acid (TGA)-Modified Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Sensor for TNT/Tetryl.................................................................................................................... 418 12.3.2 Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (СТАВ) Surfactant Stabilized/Diethyldithiocarbamate-Functi onalized Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Sensor for TNT/Tetryl.....................................................................418 Picric Acid
Nanosensors..................................................................................................................................................... 418 12.4.1 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Nanopeanuts-Modified Screen-Printed Electrode (SPE)................................................... 418 12.4.2 Nanostructured Cuprous Oxide (Cu20)-Coated Screen-Printed Electrode...................................................... 418 12.4.3 ß-Cyclodextrin-Functionalized Reduced Graphene Oxide (rGO) Sensor..........................................................418 12.4.4 Conjugated Polymer Nanoparticles (CPNPs) Fluorescence/Current Response Sensor.................................... 421 12.4.5 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Using Hydrophobic Silver Nanopillar Substrates.................... 421 Nanosensors for l,3,5-Trinitro-l,3,5-Triazacyclohexane (RDX) and Other Explosives.................................................. 422 12.5.1 Gold Nanoparticles Substrate for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine) Detection by SERS......................... 422 12.5.2 4-Aminothiophenol (4-ATP)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Sensor for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine)/HMX (Octahydro-l,3,5,7-Tetranitro-l,3,5,7-Tetrazocine)..............................423 12.5.3 Cadmium Sulfide-Diphenylamine (CdS QD-DPA) FRET-Based Fluorescence Sensor for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine)/PETN (Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate).............................................................. 423 12.5.4 Gold Nanoparticles/Nitroenergetic Memory-Poly(Carbazole-Aniline) P(Cz-co-ANI) Film-
Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), TNT (2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene), DNT (2,4-Dinitrotoluene), and HMX (Octahydro-l,3,5,7-Tetranitro-l,3,5,7-Tetrazocine) Detection................424 Nanosensor Requirements for Detection of Biothreat Agents..........................................................................................425 Anthrax Spore Nanosensors..............................................................................................................................................425 12.7.1 Europium Nanoparticle (Eu+ NP) Fluorescence Immunoassay (ENIA) for Bacillus anthracis Protective Antigen.................................................................................................................................................................425 12.7.2 Gold Nanoparticle-Amplified DNA Probe-Functionalized Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) Biosensor for B. Anthracis at Gene Level........................................................................................................... 427 Rapid Screening Lateral Flow Plague Bacterium (Yersinia pestis) Nanosensor..............................................................427 Francisella tularensis Bacterium Nanosensors................................................................................................................ 430 12.9.1 Gold Nanoparticle Signal Enhancement-Based Quartz Crystal Microbalance Biosensor and Gold Nanoparticle Absorbance
Biosensor....................................................................................................................430 12.9.2 Detection Antibody and Quantum Dots Decorated Apoferritin Nanoprobe.....................................................430 Brucellosis Bacterium (Brucella) Nanosensors.................................................................................................................432 12.10.1 Gold Nanoparticle-Modified Disposable Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode (SPCE) Immunosensor for Brucella melitensis......................................................................... 432 12.10.2 Oligonucleotide-Activated Gold Nanoparticle (Oligo-AuNP) Colorimetric Probe for Brucella Abortus........ 432 12.10.3 Colored Silica Nanoparticles Colorimetric Immunoassay for Brucella abortus.............................................. 433 Oligonucleotide/Gold Nanoparticles/Magnetic Beads-Based Smallpox Virus (Variola) Colorimetric Sensor............. 434 Ebola Virus (EBOV) Nanosensors...................................................................................................................................436 12.12.1 Reduced Graphene Oxide-Based Field Effect Transistor (FET)...................................................................... 436 12.12.2 Bio-Memristor for Ebola VP40 Matrix Protein Detection................................................................................. 437 12.12.3 3-D Plasmonic Nanoantenna Sensor....................................................................................................................439
Ricin Toxin Nanosensors......................................................................................................................................... 440 12.13.1 Silver Enhancement Immunoassay with Interdigitated Array Microelectrodes (IDAMs)............................... 440 12.13.2 Modified Bio-Barcode Assay (BCA).................................................................................................................. 443 12.13.3 Electroluminescence Immunosensor.................................................................................................................. 443 Staphylococcal Enterotoxin В (SEB) Toxin Nanosensors................................................................................................445 12.14.1 SEB Detection Through Hydrogen Evolution Inhibition by Enzymatic Deposition of Metallic Copper on Platinum Nanoparticles (PtNPs)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode.............................................. 445 12.14.2 4-Nitrothiophenol (4-NTP)-Encoded Gold Nanoparticle Core/Silver Shell (AuNP@Ag)-Based SERS Immunosensor......................................................................................................................................................446 12.14.3 Aptamer Recognition Element and Gold Nanoparticle Color Indicator-Based Assay......................................447
Contents XX 12.15 Aflatoxin Nanosensors.............................................................................................................................................................. 450 12.15.1 Polyaniline (PANI) Nanofibers-Gold Nanoparticles Composite-Based Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Disk Electrode for AFB1.......................................................................................................................................... 450 12.15.2 Gold Nanodots (AuNDs)/Reduced Graphene Oxide Nanosheets/Indium Tin Oxide Substrate for Raman Spectroscopy and Electrochemical Measurements for AFB1.................................................................. 451 12.15.3 AFM1 Aptamer-Triggered and DNA-Fueled Signal-On Fluorescence Sensor for AFM1................................. 451 12.16 Discussion and Conclusions......................................................................................................................................................453 12.16.1 Nanosensors for Explosives....................................................................................................................................... 453 12.16.1.1 TNT............................................................................................................................................................ 453 12.16.1.2 TNTTetryl..................................................................................................................................................454 12.16.1.3 Picric
Acid................................................................................................................................................. 454 12.16.1.4 RDX/Other Explosives..............................................................................................................................455 12.16.2 Nanosensors for Biothreat Agents............................................................................................................................ 455 Review Exercises................................................................................................................................................................................... 456 References....................................................................................................................................................... 462 Part VI Powering, Networking, and Trends of Nanosensors 13. Nanogenerators and Self-Powered Nanosensors........................................................................................................................... 467 13.1 Devising Ways to Get Rid of Environment-Devastating Batteries.......................................................................................467 13.1.1 Vibration: The Abundant Energy Source in the Environment..............................................................................467 13.1.2 Phenomena for Harvesting Vibrational Energy: Tribo- and Piezoelectricity.......................................................467 13.1.3 Role of Nanotechnology in Energy
Harvesting....................................................................................................... 468 13.1.4 Other Energy Sources: Do Not Overlook Light and Heat!.....................................................................................468 13.2 Output Current of Tribo/Piezoelectric Nanogenerators as the Outcome of Second Term in Maxwell’s Displacement Current............................................................................................................................................................... 468 13.2.1 Principle of TENG..................................................................................................................................................... 468 13.2.2 Principle of PENG................................................................................................................... 470 13.3 Triboelectricity-Powered Nanosensors....................................................................................................................................470 13.3.1 TENG Made From Micropatterned Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) Membrane/Ag Nanoparticles and Ag Nanowires Composite Covered Aluminum Foil as a Static/Dynamic Pressure Nanosensor................ 470 13.3.2 Electrolytic Solution/Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene (FEP) Film TENG Nanosensor for pH Measurement......... 472 13.3.3 Ethanol Nanosensor Using Dual-Mode TENG: Water/Ti02 Nanomaterial TENG and Si02 Nanoparticles (Si02 NPs)/Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
TENG................................................................................................ 474 13.3.4 Dopamine Nanosensor Using Al/PTFE with Nanoparticle Array TENG........................................................... 476 13.3.5 Mercury Ion Nanosensor Using Au Film with Au Nanoparticles/PDMS TENG................................................477 13.4 Piezoelectricity-Powered Nanosensors................................................................................................................................... 479 13.4.1 ZnO Nanowire PENG as a Pressure/Speed Nanosensor.........................................................................................479 13.4.2 UV and pH Nanosensors with ZnO Nanowire PENG............................................................................................ 481 13.4.3 CNT Hg2+ Ion Nanosensor with ZnO Nanowire PENG.........................................................................................484 13.4.4 Smelling Electronic Skin (e-Skin) with ZnO Nanowire PENG............................................................................ 485 13.5 Miscellaneous Powered Nanosensors......................................................................................................................................487 13.5.1 Photovoltaic Effect-Powered H2S Nanosensor Using P-SWCNTs/N-Si Heterojunction.................................... 487 13.5.2 Thermoelectricity-Powered Temperature Nanosensor Using Ag2Te Nanowires/Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythi ophene):Poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOTPSS)
Composite..................................................................................... 487 13.6 Discussion and Conclusions..................................................................................................................................................... 488 Review Exercises....................................................................................................................... 489 References..............................................................................................................................................................................................491 14. Wireless Nanosensor Networks and IoNT.......................................................................... 493 14.1 Evolution of Wireless Nanosensor Concept............................................................................................................................493 14.2 Promising Communication Approaches for Nanonetworking..............................................................................................493 14.3 Molecular Communication (MC)............................................................................................................................................ 493 14.3.1 A Common Natural Phenomenon............................................................................................................................. 493 14.3.2 Steps in Molecular Communication......................................................................................................................... 493 14.3.3
Advantages of MC......................................................................................................................................................495 14.3.4 Difficulties of MC.......................................................................................................................................................495 14.4 Electromagnetic Communication (EMC)............................................................................................................................... 495
Contents xxi 14.5 Envisaged Electromagnetic Integrated Nanosensor Module............................................................................................ 497 14.5.1 Nanosensor Unit...................................................................................................................................................497 14.5.2 Nanoactuation Unit..............................................................................................................................................497 14.5.3 Power Unit............................................................................................................................................................ 497 14.5.4 Nanoprocessor Unit..............................................................................................................................................499 14.5.5 Nanomemory Unit................................................................................................................................................499 14.5.6 Nanoantenna........................................................................................................................................................500 14.5.7 Nano Transceiver.................................................................................................................................................500 14.5.8 Alternative Nanotube Electromechanical Nano Transceiver..............................................................................501 14.6 WNNs Formation Using EMC Nanosensor Modules: The WNN
Architecture..............................................................502 14.7 Frequency Bands of Electromagnetic WNN Operation...................................................................................................504 14.7.1 THz Channel Model for Intrabody WNNs..........................................................................................................505 14.7.2 Channel Capacity for WNNs...............................................................................................................................505 14.7.3 Multi-Path Fading...............................................................................................................................................505 14.8 Modulation Techniques for Electromagnetic WNNs....................................................................................................... 505 14.8.1 Time Spread On-Off Keying (TS-OOK) Modulation Scheme.......................................................................... 505 14.8.2 Symbol Rate Hopping (SRH)-TSOOK Modulation Scheme.............................................................................. 506 14.9 Channel Sharing Protocol in WNN...................................................................................................................................506 14.10 Information Routing in WNNs..........................................................................................................................................506 14.10.1 Multi-Hop
Routing...............................................................................................................................................506 14.10.2 Sensing-Aware Information Routing: The Cross-Layer Protocol...................................................................... 506 14.11 Failure Mechanisms and Reliability Issues of WNNs.....................................................................................................506 14.12 Internet of Nano Things (IoNT): The Nanomachine....................................................................................................... 507 14.13 Discussion and Conclusions...............................................................................................................................................507 Review Exercises........................................................................................................................................................................... 508 References..................................................................................................................................................................................... 508 15. Overview and Future Trends of Nanosensors.......................................................................................................................... 511 15.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................ 511 15.1.1 Interfacing Nanosensors with Human
Beings.....................................................................................................511 15.1.2 Three Main Types of Nanosensors......................................................................................................................511 15.1.3 Using the Response Properties of the Same Nanomaterial in Different Types of Nanosensors....................... 511 15.1.4 Nanosensor Science, Engineering, and Technology: Three Interrelated Disciplines........................................ 511 15.1.5 Scope of the Chapter............................................................................................................................................ 512 15.2 Scanning Thnneling Microscope....................................................................................................................................... 512 15.3 Atomic Force Microscope.................................................................................................................................................512 15.4 Mechanical Nanosensors.................................................................................................................................................. 512 15.5 Thermal Nanosensors........................................................................................................................................................514 15.6 Optical Nanosensors.......................................................................................................................................................... 515 15.7
Magnetic Nanosensors....................................................................................................................................................... 516 15.8 Chemical Nanosensors........................................................................................................................................ 517 15.9 Nanobiosensors.................................................................................................................................................................. 518 15.10 Nanosensor Fabrication Aspects........................................................................................................................................ 519 15.11 In Vivo Nanosensor Problems............................................................................................................................................520 15.12 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Biosensors.............................................................................................................. 520 15.13 Applications Perspectives of Nanosensors........................................................................................................................521 15.13.1 Nanosensors for Societal Benefits.......................................................................................................................521 15.13.2 Nanosensors for Industrial Applications.............................................................................................................521 15.13.3 Nanosensors for Homeland
Security................................................................................................................... 521 15.14 Interfacing Issues for Nanosensors: Power Consumption and Sample Delivery Problems............................................ 521 15.15 Depletion-Mediated Piezoelectric Actuation for NEMS...................................................................................................522 15.16 Batteryless Nanosensors.................................................................................................................................................... 522 15.17 Networking Nanosensors Wirelessly................................................................................................................................. 522 15.18 Discussion and Conclusions............................................................................................................................................... 523 Review Exercises........................................................................................................................................................................... 523 References..................................................................................................................................................................................... 524 Index 527
SERIES IN SENSORS SERIES EDITORS: BARRY E. JONES and HAIYING HUANG Nanosensors Physical, Chemical, and Biological SECOND EDITION Nanosensors are innovative devices that exploit the unique properties exhibited by matter at the nanoscale. A growing and exciting field, nanosensors have recently spurred considerable research endeavors across the globe, driving a need for the development of new device concepts and engineering nanostructured materials with controlled properties. Nanosensors: Physical, Chemical, and Biological, Second Edition offers a panoramic view of the field and related nanotechnologies with extraordinary clarity and depth. Presenting an interdisciplinary approach, blending physics, chemistry, and biology, this new edition is broad in scope and organized into six parts beginning with the fundamentals before moving onto nanomaterials and nanofabrication technologies in the second part. The third and fourth parts provide a critical appraisal of physical nanosensors and explore the chemical and biological categories of nanosensors. The fifth part sheds light on the emerging applications of nanosensors in the sectors of society, industry, and defense and details the cutting-edge applications of state-of-the-art nanosensors in environmental science, food technology, medical diagnostics, and biotechnology. The final part addresses self-powering and networking issues of nanosensors and provides glimpses of future trends. This is an ideal reference for researchers and industry professionals engaged in the frontier areas of material science and semiconductor
fabrication as well as graduate students in physics and engineering pursuing electrical engineering and electronics courses with a focus on nanoscience and nanotechnology. Key features: • Provides an updated, all-encompassing exploration of contemporary nanosensors and highlights the exclusive nanoscale properties on which nanosensors are designed • Presents an accessible approach with a question-and-answer format to allow an easy grasp of the intricacies involved in the complex working mechanisms of devices • Contains clear, illustrative diagrams enabling the visualization of nanosensor operations, along with worked examples, end-of-chapter questions, and comprehensive up-to-date bibliographies appended to each chapter Physics ISBN 978-0-367-45705-1 I CRC Press Taylor . Francis Group an informa business WWW. routledge.com CRC Press titles are available as eBook editions In a range of digital formats 9780367457051
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Contents Preface to the Second Edition. xxiii Preface to the First Edition.xxv Acknowledgments. xxvii Author’s Profile. xxix About the Book (2nd Edition).xxxi Abbreviations and Acronyms. xxxiii Mathematical Notation.xli Part I Fundamental Concepts of Nanosensors 1. Introduction to
Nanosensors.3 1.1 Getting Started with Nanosensors. 3 1.2 Natural Sciences .3 1.3 Physics.3 1.3.1 Definition of Physics. 3 1.3.2 Branches of Physics. 3 1.3.3 Matter: Its States, Materials, and Particles.3 1.3.4 Molecules, Atoms, and Atomic Structure.3 1.3.5
Mechanics.4 1.3.6 Heat. 5 1.3.7 Sound.5 1.3.8 Light.5 1.3.9 Electricity. 5 1.3.10 Magnetism. 6 1.3.11 Electromagnetism.6 1.3.12 SI System of Units. 6 1.4 Chemistry. 7 1.4.1 Definition of
Chemistry.7 1.4.2 Elements and Compounds. 7 1.4.3 Organic and Inorganic Compounds.7 1.4.4 Subdivisions of Chemistry. 7 1.4.5 Natural and Artificial Elements. 7 1.4.6 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids.7 1.4.7 Periodic Table of Elements. 7 1.4.8 Chemical Change and Reaction. 7 1.4.9 Electronic Configuration (Structure) of Elements. 8 1.4.10 Chemical
Bond. 8 1.4.11 Oxidation and Reduction.8 1.4.12 Acid, Base, and Salt. 8 1.4.13 Expressing Concentrations of Solutions and Gases.8 1.4.14 Hydrocarbons: Saturated and Unsaturated. 8 1.4.15 Alkyl and Aryl Groups.9 1.4.16 Alcohols and Phenols. 9 1.4.17 Carboxylic Acids.9 1.4.18 Aldehydes and Ketones.9 1.4.19 Amines and Amino
Acids. 9 1.4.20 Lipids. 9 1.4.21 Carbohydrates.9 1.4.22 Proteins and Enzymes.Ю 1.5 Biology. Ю 1.5.1 What Is Biology?. Ю vii
Contents viii 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.5.2 Branches of Biology.10 1.5.3 Origin and Evolution of Life. 10 1.5.4 The Cell. Ю 1.5.5 Differences between Bacteria and Viruses.11 1.5.6 Heredity, Chromosomes, Genes, and Related Terms. 11 Semiconductor Electronics. . 11 1.6.1 What Is Semiconductor Electronics?.11 1.6.2 Energy Bands in Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators.11 1.6.3 Interesting Properties of Semiconductors.11 1.6.4 P-N
Junction. 13 1.6.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor. 13 1.6.6 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor.13 1.6.7 Analog and Digital Circuits.14 Nanometer and Appreciation of Its Magnitude.15 Nanoscience and Nanotechnology.15 Nanomaterials and the Unusual Behavior at Nanoscales.16 Moving toward Sensors and Transducers: Meaning of Terms “Sensors”and “Transducers”.17 Definition of Sensor Parameters and Characteristics. 18 Evolution of Semiconductor-Based Microsensors.18 From the
Macrosensor to the Microsensor Age and the Necessity for Nanoscale Measurements.18 1.13.1 A Miniaturized Sensor Can Accomplish Many Tasks That a Bulky Device Cannot Perform.18 1.13.2 The Issue of Power Consumption. 19 1.13.3 Low Response Times.19 1.13.4 Multi-Analyte Detection and Multifunctionality.19 1.13.5 Sensitivity Considerations and Need for Functionalization. 20 1.13.6 Interfacing with Biomolecules. 20 1.13.7 Low Costs. 20 1.13.8 Possibility of a New Genre of Devices.20 Definition and Classification of Nanosensors.20 Physical, Chemical, and Biological
Nanosensors. 21 Some Examples of Nanosensors. . 22 1.16.1 Common Nanosensors. 22 1.16.2 Carbon Nanotube-Based Nanosensors. 22 1.16.3 Nanoscaled Thin-Film Sensors.22 1.16.4 Microcantilever- and Nanocantilever-Enabled Nanosensors. 22 Getting Familiar with Analytical and Characterization Tools: Microscopic Techniques to View Nanomaterials and Nanosensors. 22 1.17.1 Scanning Electron Microscope. 23 1.17.2 Transmission Electron Microscope.23 1.17.3 Scanning Ihnneling
Microscope.23 1.17.4 Atomic Force Microscope. 23 Spectroscopic Techniques for Analyzing Chemical Composition of Nanomaterials and Nanosensors. 25 1.18.1 Infrared Spectroscopy. 25 1.18.2 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy. 26 1.18.3 Raman Spectroscopy. 27 1.18.4 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX). 27 1.18.5 Auger Electron Spectroscopy. 27 1.18.6 X-Ray Diffraction.27 1.18.7 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy or Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis.27 1.18.8 Secondary Ion Mass
Spectrometry. 28 The Displacement Nanosensor: STM.28 1.19.1 Principle of Operation. 28 1.19.2 Transmission Coefficient. 29 1.19.3 Ihnneling Current.32 1.19.4 Measurements with STM.33 1.19.4.1 Topography. 33 1.19.4.2 Density of States.33 1.19.4.3 Linecut. 34 1.19.4.4 DOS
Map.34
Contents ix 1.20 The Force Nanosensor: AFM. 34 1.20.1 Operating Principle.34 1.20.2 Lennard-Jones Potential and the Van der Waals Forces.34 1.20.3 Other Forces and Potentials.36 1.20.4 Force Sensor (Cantilever) and Force Measurement.37 1.20.5 Static and Dynamic Atomic Force Microscopy. 38 1.20.6 Classification of Modes of Operation of AFM on the Basis of Contact. 38 1.20.6.1 Contact Mode. 38 1.20.6.2 Noncontact Mode. 39 1.20.6.3 Tapping Mode (Intermittent-Contact Mode).39 1.20.7 Frequency-Modulation Atomic Force
Microscopy.39 1.20.8 Generic Calculation. 40 1.21 Outline and Organization of the Book . 41 1.22 Discussion and Conclusions. 42 Review Exercises.42 References.43 Part II Nanomaterials and Micro/Nanofabrication Facilities 2. Materials for Nanosensors.47 2.1 Introduction. 47 2.2 Nanoparticles or Nanoscale Particles, the Importance of the Intermediate Regime between Atoms and Molecules, and Bulk
Matter.47 2.3 Classification of Nanoparticles on the Basis of Their Composition and Occurrence. 47 2.4 Core-/Shell-Structured Nanoparticles .48 2.4.1 Inorganic Core/Shell Nanoparticles. 48 2.4.2 Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Core/Shell Nanoparticles. 49 2.5 Shape Dependence of Properties at the Nanoscale . 49 2.6 Dependence of Properties of Nanoparticles on Particle Size. 49 2.7 Surface Energy of a Solid.49 2.8 Metallic Nanoparticles and Plasmons .50 2.8.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance on Bulk Metals.
51 2.8.2 Surface Plasmon Band Phenomenon in Metal Nanoparticles. 53 2.9 Optical Properties of Bulk Metals and Metallic Nanoparticles. 53 2.9.1 Light Absorption by Bulk Metals and Metallic Nanoparticles. 53 2.9.2 Light Scattering by Nanoparticles.56 2.10 Parameters Controlling the Position of Surface Plasmon Band of Nanoparticles. 56 2.10.1 Effect of the Surrounding Dielectric Medium. 56 2.10.2 Influence of Agglomeration-Preventing Ligands and Stabilizers.57 2.10.3 Effect of Nanoparticle Size and Shape. 57 2.10.4 Compositional Effect.57 2.11 Quantum Confinement.57 2.11.1 Quantum Confinement in
Metals.58 2.11.2 Quantum Confinement in Semiconductors. 58 2.11.3 Bandgap Energies. 59 2.11.4 Bandgap Behavior Explanation by Particle-in-a-One-Dimensional Box Model of Electron Behavior. 59 2.12 Quantum Dots. 62 2.12.1 Fundamentals. 62 2.12.2 Tight-Binding Approach to Optical Bandgap (Exciton Energy)Versus Quantum Dot Size. 63 2.12.3 Comparison of Quantum Dots With Organic Fluorophores.65 2.12.4 Types of Quantum Dots Depending on Composition.67 2.12.5 Classification of Quantum Dots Based on Structure.67 2.12.6 Capping Molecules or Ligands on the Surfaces of Quantum
Dots. 67 2.13 Carbon Nanotubes . 68 2.13.1 What Are Carbon Nanotubes?. 68 2.13.2 Structure of Graphene. 69 2.13.3 Structure of SWCNTs. 69
x Contents 2.13.4 Mechanical Properties of CNTs. 70 2.13.5 Electrical, Electronic, and Magnetic Properties of CNTs. 71 2.14 Inorganic Nanowires.71 2.15 Nanoporous Materials.71 2.15.1 Nanoporous Silicon. 72 2.15.2 Nanoporous Alumina. 72 2.15.3 Nano-Grained Thin Films. 73 2.16 Discussion and Conclusions. 73 Review Exercises. 73
References.74 3. Nanosensor Laboratory.77 3.1 Introduction.77 3.2 Nanotechnology Division.77 3.2.1 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles. 77 3.2.1.1 Gold Nanoparticles. 77 3.2.1.2 Silver Nanoparticles. 77 3.2.1.3 Platinum Nanoparticles. 78 3.2.1.4 Palladium Nanoparticles. 78 3.2.2 Synthesis of Semiconductor
Nanoparticles.78 3.2.3 Synthesis of Semiconductor Nanocrystals: Quantum Dots.79 3.2.3.1 CdSe/ZnS Core/Shell QDs. 79 3.2.3.2 CdSe/CdS Core/Shell QDs. 79 3.2.3.3 PbS and PbS/CdS Core/Shell QDs. 79 3.2.4 Synthesis of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles. 80 3.2.5 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes. 81 3.2.5.1 Arc Discharge Method of CNT Production. 81 3.2.5.2 Laser Ablation Method of CNT Production.82 3.2.5.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition Method of CNT Production.82 3.2.5.4 Difficulties Faced with Carbon Nanotubes.84 3.3 Micro- and
Nanoelectronics Division.84 3.3.1 Semiconductor Clean Room. 84 3.3.2 Silicon Single-Crystal Growth and Wafer Production.85 3.3.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy. 85 3.3.4 Mask Making. 85 3.3.5 Thermal Oxidation. 86 3.3.6 Diffusion of Impurities in a Semiconductor. 87 3.3.7 Ion Implantation. 89 3.3.8 Photolithography. 90 3.3.8.1 Physical
Limits. 91 3.3.8.2 Optical Lithography.92 3.3.8.3 Electron-Beam Lithography.92 3.3.8.4 X-Ray Lithography.92 3.3.8.5 Dip-Pen Nanolithography.92 3.3.8.6 Nanoimprint Lithography.92 3.3.8.7 Nanosphere Lithography.93 3.3.9 Chemical Vapor Deposition. 93 3.3.10 Wet Chemical Etching and Common Etchants. 94 3.3.11 Reactive Ion Etching.95 3.3.12 Focused Ion Beam Etching and
Deposition. 96 3.3.13 Metallization.96 3.3.14 Dicing, Wire Bonding, and Encapsulation.96 3.3.15 IC Downscaling: Special Technologies and Processes. 97 3.3.15.1 Downscaling Trends. 97 3.3.15.2 SOI-MOSFETs. 97 3.3.15.3 SIMOX Process. 98 3.3.15.4 Smart Cut Process. 98 3.3.15.5 Strained Silicon Process.98 3.3.15.6 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches. 99
Contents xi 3.3.15.7 DNA Electronics. 99 3.3.15.8 Spintronics. 99 3.4 MEMS and NEMS Division. 100 3.4.1 Surface and Bulk Micromachining.100 3.4.2 Machining by Wet and Dry Etching Techniques.100 3.4.3 Deep Reactive-Ion Etching. 101 3.4.4 Front- and Back-Side Mask Alignment. 103 3.4.5 Multiple Wafer Bonding and Glass-Silicon Bonding. 103 3.4.6 Wafer Lapping. 103 3.4.7 Chemical Mechanical Polishing. 103 3.4.8 Electroplating. 104 3.4.9 LIGA
Process. 104 3.4.10 Micro-Injection Molding.104 3.4.11 Hot Embossing and Electroforming.105 3.4.12 Combination of MEMS/NEMS and CMOS Processes. 105 3.5 Biochemistry Division.105 3.5.1 Surface Functionalization and Biofunctionalization of Nanomaterials. 105 3.5.2 Immobilization of Biological Elements. 106 3.5.3 Protocols for Attachment of Antibodies on Sensors. 108 3.5.4 Functionalization of CNTs for Biological Applications.109 3.5.5 Water Solubility of Quantum Dots. 109 3.5.6 Low Cytotoxicity
Coatings. 109 3.6 Chemistry Division. HO 3.6.1 Nanoparticle Thin-Film Deposition.110 3.6.2 Polymer Coatings in Nano Gas Sensors. HO 3.6.3 Metallic Nanoparticle Functionalization of Si Nanowires for Gas Sensing Applications.110 3.7 Nanosensor Characterization Division. HO 3.8 Nanosensor Powering, Signal Processing,and Communication Division.110 3.8.1 Power Unit.HI 3.8.1.1 Lithium Nanobatteries. Ill 3.8.1.2 Self-Powered Nanogenerators. Ill 3.8.1.3 Energy Harvestingfrom the
Environment. Ill 3.8.1.4 Synthetic Chemical Batteries Based on Adenosine Triphosphate. Ill 3.8.2 Signal Processing Unit. Ill 3.8.3 Integrated Nanosensor Systems. 112 3.8.4 Wireless Nanosensor Networks. 112 3.9 Discussion and Conclusions.П2 Review Exercises.П2 References.ПЗ Part III Physical Nanosensors 4. Mechanical Nanosensors.П7 4.1 Introduction. П7 4.2 Nanogram Mass Sensing by Quartz Crystal
Microbalance. 117 4.3 Attogram (10֊18g) and Zeptogram (10_2Jg) Mass Sensing by MEMS/NEMS Resonators. 120 4.3.1 Microcantilever Definitions and Theory.120 4.3.1.1 Resonance Frequency Formula.125 4.3.1.2 Deflection Formula. 129 4.3.2 Energy Dissipation and ß-Factor of Cantilever. 130 4.3.3 Noise of Cantilever and Its Mass Detection Limit. 131 4.3.4 Doubly Clamped and Free-Free Beam Resonators.132 4.4 Electron Tbnneling Displacement Nanosensor. 133 4.5 Coulomb Blockade Electrometer-Based Nanosensor. 134 4.5.1 Coulomb Blockade Effect. 134 4.5.2
Comparison with Ihnneling Sensors. 135 4.6 Nanometer-Scale Displacement Sensing by Single-Electron Transistor. 135 4.7 Magnetomotive Displacement Nanosensor. 136
Contents xii 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 Piezoresistive and Piezoelectric Displacement Nanosensors. 137 Optical Displacement Nanosensor.137 Femtonewton Force Sensors Using Doubly Clamped Suspended Carbon Nanotube Resonators. 138 Suspended CNT Electromechanical Sensors for Displacement and Force. 140 Membrane-Based CNT Electromechanical Pressure Sensor. 142 Thnnel Effect Accelerometer. 143 4.13.1 Principle of Motion Detection. 143 4.13.2 Construction and Working. 143 4.13.3 Micromachined Accelerometer. 144 4.14 NEMS Accelerometer. 145 4.15 Silicon Nanowire
Accelerometer. 145 4.16 CNT Flow Sensor for Ionic Solutions. 146 4.17 Discussion and Conclusions. 147 Review Exercises. 147 References. 149 5. Thermal Nanosensors.151 5.1 Introduction. 151 5.2 Nanoscale Thermocouple Formed by Thngsten and Platinum Nanosized Strips. 151 5.3 Resistive Thermal Nanosensor Fabricated by Focused-Ion-Beam Chemical-Vapor-Deposition (FIB-CVD). 152 5.4 Carbon “Nanowire-on-Diamond” Resistive Temperature Nanosensor. 152 5.5 Carbon Nanotube Grown on Nickel Film as a Resistive Low-
temperature (10-300 K) Nanosensor.152 5.6 Laterally Grown CNTs between T\vo Microelectrodes as a Resistive Temperature Nanosensor.153 5.7 Silicon Nanowire Temperature Nanosensors: Resistors and Diode Structures.154 5.8 Ratiometric Fluorescent Nanoparticles for Temperature Sensing. 155 5.9 Er3+/Yb֊,+ Co-Doped Gd203 Nanophosphor as a Temperature Nanosensor, Using Fluorescence Intensity Ratio Technique.157 5.10 Optical Heating of Yb3+-Er3+ Co-Doped Fluoride Nanoparticles and Distant Temperature Sensing through Luminescence. 159 5.11 Porphyrin-Containing Copolymer as a Thermochromie Nanosensor.159 5.12 Silicon-Micromachined Scanning Thermal Profiler (STP).160 5.13 Superconducting Hot Electron Nanobolometers.161 5.14 Thermal Convective Accelerometer Using CNT Sensing
Element. 162 5.15 Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Sensor for Airflow Measurement. 163 5.16 Vacuum Pressure and Flow Velocity Sensors, Using Batch-Processed CNT Wall. 163 5.17 Nanogap Pirani Gauge.164 5.18 Carbon Nanotube-Polymer Nanocomposite as a Conductivity Response Infrared Nanosensor. 165 5.19 Nanocalorimetry.166 5.20 Discussion and Conclusions.168 Review Exercises. 170 References. 170 6. Optical
Nanosensors.173 6.1 Introduction. 173 6.2 Noble-Metal Nanoparticles With LSPR and UV-Visible Spectroscopy. 174 6.3 Nanosensors Based on Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering. 176 6.4 Colloidal SPR Colorimetric Gold Nanoparticle Spectrophotometric Sensor. 178 6.5 Fiber-Optic Nanosensors. 181 6.5.1 Fabry-Perot Reflectometric Optochemical Nanosensor, Using Optical Fibers and SWCNTs. 181 6.5.2 In-Fiber Nanocavity Sensor. 184 6.5.3 Fiber-Optic Nanosensors for Probing Living Cells. 185 6.6 Nanograting-Based Optical Accelerometer.186 6.7 Fluorescent pH-Sensitive
Nanosensors.186 6.7.1 Renewable Glass Nanopipette with Fluorescent Dye Molecules. .186 6.7.2 Ratiometric pH Nanosensor.187 6.7.3 pH-Sensitive Microcapsules With Nanoparticle Incorporation in the Walls.188 6.8 Disadvantages of Optical Fiber and Fluorescent Nanosensors for Living Cell Studies.188 6.9 PEBBLE Nanosensors to Measure the Intracellular Environment. 189
Contents xiii 6.10 Quantum Dots as Fluorescent Labels. 192 6.11 Quantum Dot FRET-Based Probes. 195 6.11.1 QD-FRET Protein Sensor. 197 6.11.2 QD-FRET Protease Sensor. 197 6.11.3 QD-FRET Maltose Sensor. 197 6.11.4 Sensor for Determining the Dissociation Constant (Κά) between Rev and RRE. 198 6.12 Electrochemiluminescent Nanosensors for Remote Detection.200 6.13 Crossed Zinc Oxide Nanorods As Resistive UV-Nanosensors. 200 6.14 Discussion and Conclusions. 202 Review Exercises. 202
References.203 7. Magnetic Nanosensors. 207 7.1 Introduction. 207 7.2 Magnetoresistance Sensors.207 7.2.1 Ordinary Magnetoresistance: The Hall Effect.208 7.2.2 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance.208 7.2.3 Giant Magnetoresistance. 208 7.2.3.1 Scientific Explanation of GMR.209 7.2.3.2 Simple Analogies of GMR. 213 7.2.3.3 Optimizing
Parameters. 213 1.23 A GMR Sensor Structures. 213 7.3 Tbnneling Magnetoresistance. 214 7.4 Limitations, Advantages, and Applications of GMR and TMR Sensors.215 7.4.1 Shortcomings. 215 7.4.2 Advantages.;. 215 7.4.3 Applications. 215 7.5 Magnetic Nanoparticle Probes for Studying Molecular Interactions.215 7.5.1 DNA Analysis. 219 7.5.2 Protein
Detection.220 7.5.3 Virus Detection.220 7.5.4 Telomerase Activity Analysis. 221 7.6 Protease-Specific Nanosensors for MRI.222 7.7 Magnetic Relaxation Switch Immunosensors.223 7.8 Magneto Nanosensor Microarray Biochip.223 7.8.1 Rationale and Motivation.223 7.8.2 Sensor Choice, Design Considerations, Passivation, and Magnetic Nanotag Issues.224 7.8.3 Understanding Magnetic Array Operation. 226 7.8.4 Influence of Reaction Conditions on the Sensor. 227
7.8.5 DNA and Tbmor Marker Detection.222 7.8.6 GMR-Based Detection System With Zeptomole (10~21 Mol) Sensitivity.229 7.8.7 Bead ARray Counter (BARC) Biosensor. 230 7.9 Needle-iype SV-GMR Sensor for Biomedical Applications.231 7.10 Superconductive Magnetic Nanosensor.232 7.11 Electron Tbnneling-Based Magnetic Field Sensor.232 7.12 Nanowire Magnetic Compass and Position Sensor.233 7.13 Discussion and Conclusions. :. 234 Review Exercises. 234
References.235 Part IV Chemical and Biological Nanosensors 8. Chemical Nanosensors.239 8.1 Introduction.239 8.2 Gas Sensors Based on Nanomaterials. 239 8.3 Metallic Nanoparticle-Based GasSensors. 240 8.4 Metal Oxide Gas Sensors. 240
Contents XIV 8.4.1 Sensing Mechanism of Metal Oxide Sensors. 8.4.2 Sensitivity Controlling Parameters and the Influence of Heat Treatment. 8.4.3 Effect of Additives on Sensor Response. 8.5 Carbon Nanotube Gas Sensors. 8.5.1 Gas-Sensing Properties of CNTs. 8.5.2 Responses of SWCNTs and MWCNTs. 8.5.3 Modification of CNTs. 8.5.4 CNT-Based FET-Tÿpe Sensor. 8.5.5 MWCNTs/ՏոՕշ Ammonia Sensor. 8.5.6 CNT-Based Acoustic Gas Sensor. 8.6 Porous Silicon-Based Gas Sensor. 8.7 Thin Organic Polymer Film-Based Gas Sensors. 8.8 Electrospun Polymer Nanofibers as Humidity Sensors. 8.9 Toward Large Nanosensor Arrays and Nanoelectronic Nose. 8.10 CNT-, Nanowire- and Nanobelt-Based Chemical Nanosensors. 8.10.1 CNT-Based ISFET for Nano pH Sensor. 8.10.2 NW Nanosensor for pH Detection. 8.10.3 ZnS/Silica Nanocable FET pH Sensor. 8.10.4 Bridging Nanowire As Vapor Sensor. 8.10.5 Palladium Functionalized Si NW H2 Sensor. 8.10.6 Polymer-Functionalized Piezoelectric-FET Humidity Nanosensor. 8.11 Optochemical Nanosensors. 8.11.1 Low-Potential Quantum Dot ECL Sensor for Metal Ion. 8.11.2 BSA-Activated CdTe QD Nanosensor for Sb3+ Ion. 8.11.3 Functionalized CdSe/ZnS QD
Nanosensor for Hg(II) Ion. 8.11.4 Marine Diatom Gas Sensors. 8.12 Discussion and Conclusions. Review Exercises. References. 9. Nanobiosensors. 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Nanoparticle-Based Electrochemical Biosensors. 9.2.1 Nitric Oxide Electrochemical Sensor. 9.2.2 Determination of Dopamine, Uric Acid, and Ascorbic Acid. Detection of CO. 9.2.3 Glucose Detection. 9.2.4 Gold Nanoparticle DNA Biosensor. 9.2.5 9.2.6 Monitoring Allergen-Antibody Reactions. 9.2.7 Hepatitis В Immunosensor. Carcinoembryonic Antigen Detection. 9.2.8 9.2.9 Escherichia coli Detection in Milk Samples. CNT-Based Electrochemical Biosensors. 9.3 9.3.1 Oxidation of Dopamine. 9.3.2 Direct Electrochemistry or Electrocatalysis of Catalase. CNT-Based Electrochemical DNA Biosensor. 9.3.3 Glucose Biosensor. 9.3.4 Cholesterol Biosensor. 9.3.5 9.3.6 H202
Biosensor. Functionalization of CNTs for Biosensor Fabrication., 9.4 QD (Quantum Dot)-Based Electrochemical Biosensors. 9.5 9.5.1 Uric Acid Biosensor. 9.5.2 Hydrogen Peroxide Biosensor. 9.5.3 CdS Nanoparticles Modified Electrode for Glucose Detection. 9.5.4 QD Light-Triggered Glucose Detection. Nanotube and Nanowire-Based FET Nanobiosensors. 9.6 9.6.1 Nanotube versus Nanowire. 9.6.2 Functionalization of SiNWs. 9.6.3 DNA and Protein Detection. .242 .244 .248 .249 .249 .250 .250 .251 „251 „252 „253 „253 „253 „254 „255 „255 „255 „257 „258 „258 „258 „259 „259 „260 „261 „262 „262 „262 „264 „267 „267 „267 „270 „271 „271 „272 „273 „275 „275 „275 „276 „276 „278 „281 „281 „281 „283 „284 „285 „285 „285 „285 .286 .286 .287 .287 .287 .289
Contents XV 9.7 Cantilever-Based Nanobiosensors. 289 9.7.1 Biofunctionalization of the Microcantilever Surface.291 9.7.2 Biosensing Applications. 293 9.8 Optical Nanobiosensors. 295 9.8.1 Aptamers. 295 9.8.2 Aptamer-Modified Au Nanoparticles as a Colorimetric Adenosine Nanosensor. 297 9.8.3 Aptamer-Based Multicolor Fluorescent Gold Nanoprobe for Simultaneous Adenosine, Potassium Ion, and Cocaine Detection. 297 9.8.4 Aptamer-Capped QD as a Thrombin Nanosensor.298 9.8.5 QD Aptameric Cocaine Nanosensor.299 9.9 Biochips (or
Microarrays).300 9.10 Discussion and Conclusions. 301 Review Exercises. 301 References. 303 Part Y Emerging Applications of Nanosensors 10. Nanosensors for Societal Benefits. 309 10.1 Air Pollutants. 309 10.2 Nanosensors for Particulate Matter Detection.309 10.2.1 Cantilever-Based Airborne Nanoparticle Detector (CANTOR).309 10.2.2 Nanomechanical Resonant Filter-
Fiber. 309 10.2.3 Aerosol Sensing by Voltage Modulation.309 10.2.4 MEMS-Based Particle Detection System.310 10.3 Nanosensors for Carbon Monoxide Detection. 311 10.3.1 Au Nanoparticle-Based Miniature CO Detector.312 10.3.2 CuO Nanowire Sensor on Micro-Hotplate.312 10.3.3 ZnO Nanowall-Based Conductometric Sensor. 312 10.3.4 ZnO NPs-Loaded 3D Reduced Graphene Oxide (ZnO/3D-rGO) Sensor.312 10.3.5 Europium-Doped Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles Thick-Film Sensor. 312 10.3.6 Pt-decorated Sn02 Nanoparticles Sensor. 313 10.4 Nanosensors for Sulfur Dioxide
Detection.313 10.4.1 Tbngsten Oxide Nanostructures-Based Sensor.313 10.4.2 ՏոՕշ Thin-Film Sensor with Nanoclusters of Metal Oxide Modifiers/Catalysts. 313 10.4.3 Fluorescence Nanoprobe. 313 10.4.4 Niobium-Loaded Thngsten Oxide Film Sensor.313 10.4.5 Nickel Nanowall-Based Sensor. 313 10.5 Nanosensors for Nitrogen Dioxide Detection.313 10.5.1 ՏոՕշ Nanoribbon Sensor. 313 10.5.2 Tris(hydroxymethyl) Aminomethane (THMA)-Capped ZnO Nanoparticle-Coated ZnO Nanowire Sensor. 313 10.5.3 In203-Sensitized CuO-ZnO Nanoparticle Composite Film Sensor. 313 10.5.4 UV-Activated, Pt-Decorated Single-Crystal ZnO Nanowire
Sensor.313 10.6 Nanosensors for Ozone Detection. 314 10.6.1 ՏոՕշ/SWCNT Hybrid Thin-Film Sensor.314 10.6.2 Nanocrystalline SiTij JFe։03 (STF) Thin-Film Sensor.314 10.6.3 ZnO Nanoparticle Sensor. 314 10.6.4 Pd-Decorated MWCNT Sensor. 314 10.6.5 UV-Illuminated ZnO Nanocrystal Sensor. 314 10.7 Nanosensors for VOC Detection. 314 10.7.1 Chemiresistive Sensor Using Gold Nanoparticles. 314 10.7.2 Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) Nanoparticle-Based Capacitive Sensor.315 10.7.3 Al-Doped ZnO Nanowire {(ZnO:Al)NW}Sensor.
315 10.7.4 Nickel-Doped Tin Oxide Nanoparticle (Ni-ՏոՕշ NP) Sensor for Formaldehyde.315 10.7.5 Palladium Nanoparticle (PdNP)/Nickel Oxide (NiO) Thin- Film/Palladium (Pd) Thin-Film Sensor for Formaldehyde. 315 10.7.6 Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Sensor With Polymer-Sensitive Film Containing Embedded Nanoparticles. 315 10.7.7 Resorcinol-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Probe for Formaldehyde Detection. 316
Contents XVI 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 Nanosensors for Ammonia Detection. 316 10.8.1 Polyaniline Nanoparticle Conductimetric Sensor. 316 10.8.2 Mo03 Nanoparticle Gel-Coated Sensor. .316 10.8.3 ZnO:Eu2+ Fluorescence Quenching Nanoparticle-Based Optical Sensor. 316 10.8.4 Pt Nanoparticle (Pt NP)-Decorated W03 Sensor. 316 Water Pollutants. 317 Nanosensors for Detection of Escherichia coli 0157:H7. 317 10.10.1 Magnetoelastic Sensor Amplified With Chitosan-Modified Fe304 Magnetic Nanoparticles (CMNPs). 317 10.10.2 Mercaptoethylamine (MEA)-Modified Gold Nanoparticle Sensor. 319 10.10.3 Cysteine-Capped Gold Nanoparticle Sensor. . 319 10.10.4 Three
Nanoparticles-Based Biosensor (Iron Oxide, Gold, and Lead Sulfide).319 10.10.5 Magneto-Fluorescent Nanosensor (MfnS).319 10.10.6 Signal-Off Impedimetric Nanosensor With a Sensitivity Enhancement by Captured Nanoparticles. 321 10.10.7 An Impedimetric Biosensor for E. coli 0157:H7 Based on the Use of Self-Assembled Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) and Protein G-Thiol (PrG-Thiol) Scaffold. 321 10.10.8 Gold Nanoparticles Surface Plasmon Resonance (AuNP SPR) Chip. 321 10.10.9 Microfluidic Nanosensor Working on Aggregation of Gold Nanoparticles and Imaging by Smartphone. 321 Nanosensors for Detection of Vibrio cholerae and Cholera Toxin. 322 10.11.1 Lactose-Stabilized Gold Nanoparticles.322 10.11.2 ssDNA/Nanostructured MgO (nMgO)/Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Bioelectrode.323 10.11.3 Nanostructured MgO (nMgO) Photoluminescence Sensor. 323 10.11.4 Lyophilized Gold Nanoparticle/Polystyrene-Co-Acrylic Acid-Based Genosensor. 323 10.11.5
Polystyrene-co-Acrylic Acid (PSA) Latex Nanospheres. 324 10.11.6 Graphene Nanosheet Bioelectrode with Lipid Film Containing Ganglioside GM1 Receptor of Cholera Toxin.324 Nanosensors for Detection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.324 10.12.1 Probe-Modified Magnetic Nanoparticles-Based Chemiluminescent Sensor.324 10.12.2 Reduced Graphene Electrode Decorated with Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs).325 10.12.3 Polyaniline(PANI)/Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Decorated Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Electrode.325 Nanosensors for Detection of Legionella pneumophila. 326 10.13.1 ZnO Nanorod (ZnO-NR) Matrix-Based Immunosensor. 326 10.13.2 Azimuthally-Controlled Gold Grating-Coupling Surface Plasmon Resonance (GC-SPR) Platform. 326 Nanosensors for Detection of Mercury Ions.327 10.14.1 Thymine Derivative (N-T) Decorated Gold Nanoparticle
Sensor. 327 10.14.2 Smartphone-Based Microwell Reader (MR S-phone) AuNP-Aptamer Colorimetric Sensor.327 10.14.3 Starch-Stabilized Silver Nanoparticle-Based Colorimetric Sensor. 327 10.14.4 Chitosan-Stabilized Silver Nanoparticle (Chi-AgNP)-Based Colorimetric Sensor.328 Nanosensors for Detection of Lead Ions.328 10.15.1 Glutathione (GSH)-Stabilized Silver Nanoparticle (AgNP) Sensor. 328 10.15.2 Maleic acid (MA)-FunctionaIized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor. 330 10.15.3 Label-Free Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) in the Presence of Glutathione (GSH).330 10.15.4 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) Conjugated with Thioctic Acid (TA) and Fluorescent Dansyl Hydrazine (DNS) Molecules.331 10.15.5 Valine-Capped Gold Nanoparticle Sensor. 331 10.15.6 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)-Stabilized Colloidal Silver Nanoparticles (Ag NPs) in the Presence of Dithizone.331 10.15.7 Gold
Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Graphene (GR)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE). 331 Nanosensors for Detection of As(III) ions.331 10.16.1 Portable Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) System.331 10.16.2 Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Nanosensor.331 10.16.3 FePt Bimetallic Nanoparticle (FePt-NP) Sensor.332 10.16.4 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) for Co-Detection of As(III) and Se(IV).332 10.16.5 Silver Nanoparticle-Modified Gold Electrode. 332 10.16.6 Carbon Nanoparticle (CNP)/Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) Aptasensor. 333 10.16.7 Gold Nanostructured Electrode on a Gold Foil (Au/GNE).333 10.16.8 Bimetallic Nanoparticle (NP) and [Bimetallic NP + Polyaniline (PANI)] Composite-Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode
(SPCE). 333
Contents 10.16.9 Ranolazine (Rano)-Functionalized Copper Nanoparticles (CuNPs). 10.17 Nanosensors for Detection of Cr(VI) Ions. 10.17.1 Colloidal Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Probe-Based Immunochromatographic Sensor. 10.17.2 Amyloid-Fibril-Based Sensor. 10.17.3 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Decorated Titanium Dioxide Nanotubes (Ti02NTs) on a Ті Substrate. 10.18 Nanosensors for Detection of Cd2+ ions. 10.18.1 Gold Nanoparticle Amalgam (AuNPA)-Modified Screen-Printed Electrode (SPE). 10.18.2 Thrn-On Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Sensor. 10.18.3 Thioglycerol (TG)-Capped CdSe Quantum Dots (QDs). 10.18.4 CdTe Quantum (CdTe QD) Dot-Based Hybrid Probe. 10.18.5 Aptamer-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor. 10.19 Nanosensors for Detection of Cu2+ ions. 10.19.1 Azide and Terminal Alkyne-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor. 10.19.2 Cadmium Sulfide Nanoparticle (CdS NP)-Gold Quantum Dot (Au QD) Sensor.
. 10.19.3 Multiple Antibiotic Resistance Regulator (MarR)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor. 10.19.4 Casein Peptide-Functionalized Silver Nanoparticle (AgNP) Sensor. 10.20 Nanosensors for Detection of Pesticides. 10.20.1 DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane). 10.20.2 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid (2,4-D). 10.20.3 Carbofuran (CBF). 10.20.3.1 Amperometric Immunosensor. . 10.20.3.2 Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (MIP)-Reduced Graphene Oxide and Gold Nanoparticle (rGO@AuNP)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE). 10.20.3.3 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Based Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS). 10.20.4 Methomyl. 10.20.5 Dimethoate. 10.20.6 Atrazine. 10.20.6.1
Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Modified Gold (Au) Electrode. 10.20.6.2 Cysteamine (Cys)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs). 10.20.6.3 Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Quantum Dot-Based Luminescent Probe. 10.20.7 Paraoxon-Ethyl. 10.20.8 Acetamiprid. 10.20.9 Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), Perchlorobenzene. 10.20.10 Malathion (MLT): Diethyl 2-[(dimethoxyphosphorothioyl)sulfanyl]butanedioate. 10.20.11 Dithiocarbamate (DTC) Pesticide Group. 10.21 Discussion and Conclusions. 10.21.1 Particulate Matter. 10.21.2 Gases. 10.21.3 Pathogens. 10.21.4 Metals. 10.21.5 Pesticides. Review Exercises References. 11.
Nanosensors for Industrial Applications. 11.1 Nanosensors for Detection of Food-Borne Pathogenic Bacteria., Salmonella typhimurium. 11.1.1 11.1.1.1 DNA Aptamers and Magnetic Nanoparticle (MNP)-Based Colorimetric Sensor. 11.1.1.2 Strip Sensor Using Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Labeled Genus-Specific Anti-Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) Monoclonal Antibody (mAb). Clostridium perfringens. 11.1.2 Listeria monocytogenes. 11.1.3 11.1.3.1 Immunomagnetic Nanoparticles (IMNPs) with Microfluidic Chip and Interdigitated Microelectrodes. 11.1.3.2 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)/DNA Colorimetric Probe Assay. Campylobacterjejuni. 11.1.4 Yersinia enterocolitica. 11.1.5 11.2 Nanosensors for Detection of Food-Borne Toxins. XVII .333 .333 .333 .333 .334 .334 .334 .334 .335 .335 .336 .338 .338 .339 .339 .339 .339 .339 .341 .341 .341 .343 .344 .344 „344 „344 „344
„345 .346 .346 .347 .347 .349 .349 .351 .351 .351 .351 .351 .352 .352 .361 .365 .365 .365 .365 .365 .366 .367 .368 .368 .369 .369 .370
хѵщ Contents 11.2.1 Botulinum Neurotoxin Serotype A (BoNT/A). . -. 370 11.2.1.1 Gold Nanodendrite (AuND)/Chitosan Nanoparticle (CSNP)-Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode (SPCE) for Botulinum Neurotoxin Serotype A (BoNT/A).371 11.2.1.2 Peptide-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)-Based Colorimetric Assay for Botulinum Serotype A Light Chain (BoLcA). 371 11.2.2 Staphylococcal Enterotoxin В (SEB).·. 373 11.3 Nanosensors for Cancer Cell/Biomarker Detection. 374 11.3.1 Breast Cancer Cell MCF-7. 375 11.3.2 HER2, A Medical Sign of Breast Cancer. 376 11.3.3 Serum Amyloid Al (SAAI) Antigen, a Lung-Cancer-Specific Biomarker. 376 11.3.4 Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA), a Biomarker for Prostate Cancer.378 11.3.5 miRNA-106a, the Biomarker of Gastric Cancer. 378 11.3.6 Colorectal Carcinoma
Cell. 380 11.3.7 Cluster of Differentiation 10 (CD10) Antigen, the Common Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Antigen. 380 11.4 Nanosensors for Detection of Infectious Disease Indicators.381 11.4.1 IgG Antibodies to Hepatitis В Surface Antigen (a-HbsAg IgG Antibodies).381 11.4.2 Dengue-1 RNA. 383 11.4.3 Japanese Encaphilitis Virus (JEV) Antigen. 383 11.4.4 HIV-l p24 Antigen. 385 11.4.5 Zika Virus (ZIKV). 386 11.4.6 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2. 388 11.4.7 Pneumococcus or Streptococcus
pneumoniae.388 11.4.8 Acid-Fast Bacilli (AFB). 388 11.4.9 Streptococcus pyogenes Single-Stranded Genomic-DNA (S. pyogenes ssg-DNA). 389 11.4.10 Plasmodium falciparum Heat-Shock Protein 70 (PfHsp70). 391 11.5 Nanosensors for Automotive, Aerospace, and Consumer Applications. 393 11.5.1 Strain/Pressure Sensors.393 11.5.1.1 Polymer-Metallic Nanoparticles Composite Pressure Sensor. .393 11.5.1.2 Percolative Pd Nanoparticle (PdNP) Array-Based Pressure Sensor.395 11.5.1.3 Silver Nanoparticle (AgNP)/Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) Strain/Pressure Sensor. 396 11.5.1.4 Polyacrylamide (PAAm)/Gold nanoparticle (AuNP) Pressure Sensor.397 11.5.2 Acoustic Vibration Sensor. 399 11.5.3 Acceleration
Sensor. 399 11.5.4 Orientation, Angular Rate, or Angle Sensors. 399 11.5.4.1 CNT Field-Emission Nano Gyroscope.399 11.5.4.2 Magnetic Nanoparticles-Based Gyroscopic Sensor.401 11.5.5 Ultrasound Sensor. 401 11.5.6 Magnetic Field Sensor. 402 11.5.6.1 Nanoparticle Core-Based Fluxgate Magnetometer. 403 11.5.6.2 Magnetic Nanoparticle (MNP)-Functionalized Magnetometer. 403 11.6 Discussion and Conclusions.404 11.6.1 Pathogens. 404 11.6.2
Toxins.404 11.6.3 Cancer. 404 11.6.4 Infectious Diseases.406 11.6.5 Automotive, Aerospace, and Consumer Applications. 406 Review Exercises.406 References. 409 12. Nanosensors for Homeland Security. 411 12.1 Necessity of Nanosensors for Trace Explosive Detection. 411 12.2 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) Nanosensors. 411 12.2.1 Curcumin Nanomaterials Surface Energy Transfer (NSET) Probe.
411 12.2.2 Amine-Functionalized Silica Nanoparticles (SiOj-NH^ Colorimetric Sensor. .411 12.2.3 Amine-Modified Gold@Silver Nanoparticles-Based Colorimetric Paper Sensor.411 12.2.4 Polyethylenimine (PEI)-Capped Downconverting ß-NaYF4:Gd3+,Tb3+@PEI Nanophosphor Luminescence Sensor. 412
Contents 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 xix 12.2.5 Janus Amine-Modified Upconverting NaYF4:Yb3+/Er3+ Nanoparticle (UCNP) Micromotor-Based On-Off Luminescence Sensor. 413 12.2.6 AgInS2 (AIS) Quantum Dot (QD) Fluorometric Probe.415 12.2.7 TNT Recognition Peptide Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs) Hybrid Anchored Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Chip. 415 12.2.8 Non-Imprinted and Molecularly Imprinted Bis-Aniline-Cross-Linked Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) Composite/Gold Layer for Surface Plasmon Resonance, and Related Sensors.415 TNT/Tetryl (Tetranitro-N-methylamine) Nanosensors.418 12.3.1 Diaminocyclohexane (DACH)-Functionalized/Thioglycolic Acid (TGA)-Modified Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Sensor for TNT/Tetryl. 418 12.3.2 Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (СТАВ) Surfactant Stabilized/Diethyldithiocarbamate-Functi onalized Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Sensor for TNT/Tetryl.418 Picric Acid
Nanosensors. 418 12.4.1 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Nanopeanuts-Modified Screen-Printed Electrode (SPE). 418 12.4.2 Nanostructured Cuprous Oxide (Cu20)-Coated Screen-Printed Electrode. 418 12.4.3 ß-Cyclodextrin-Functionalized Reduced Graphene Oxide (rGO) Sensor.418 12.4.4 Conjugated Polymer Nanoparticles (CPNPs) Fluorescence/Current Response Sensor. 421 12.4.5 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Using Hydrophobic Silver Nanopillar Substrates. 421 Nanosensors for l,3,5-Trinitro-l,3,5-Triazacyclohexane (RDX) and Other Explosives. 422 12.5.1 Gold Nanoparticles Substrate for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine) Detection by SERS. 422 12.5.2 4-Aminothiophenol (4-ATP)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Sensor for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine)/HMX (Octahydro-l,3,5,7-Tetranitro-l,3,5,7-Tetrazocine).423 12.5.3 Cadmium Sulfide-Diphenylamine (CdS QD-DPA) FRET-Based Fluorescence Sensor for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine)/PETN (Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate). 423 12.5.4 Gold Nanoparticles/Nitroenergetic Memory-Poly(Carbazole-Aniline) P(Cz-co-ANI) Film-
Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), TNT (2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene), DNT (2,4-Dinitrotoluene), and HMX (Octahydro-l,3,5,7-Tetranitro-l,3,5,7-Tetrazocine) Detection.424 Nanosensor Requirements for Detection of Biothreat Agents.425 Anthrax Spore Nanosensors.425 12.7.1 Europium Nanoparticle (Eu+ NP) Fluorescence Immunoassay (ENIA) for Bacillus anthracis Protective Antigen.425 12.7.2 Gold Nanoparticle-Amplified DNA Probe-Functionalized Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) Biosensor for B. Anthracis at Gene Level. 427 Rapid Screening Lateral Flow Plague Bacterium (Yersinia pestis) Nanosensor.427 Francisella tularensis Bacterium Nanosensors. 430 12.9.1 Gold Nanoparticle Signal Enhancement-Based Quartz Crystal Microbalance Biosensor and Gold Nanoparticle Absorbance
Biosensor.430 12.9.2 Detection Antibody and Quantum Dots Decorated Apoferritin Nanoprobe.430 Brucellosis Bacterium (Brucella) Nanosensors.432 12.10.1 Gold Nanoparticle-Modified Disposable Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode (SPCE) Immunosensor for Brucella melitensis. 432 12.10.2 Oligonucleotide-Activated Gold Nanoparticle (Oligo-AuNP) Colorimetric Probe for Brucella Abortus. 432 12.10.3 Colored Silica Nanoparticles Colorimetric Immunoassay for Brucella abortus. 433 Oligonucleotide/Gold Nanoparticles/Magnetic Beads-Based Smallpox Virus (Variola) Colorimetric Sensor. 434 Ebola Virus (EBOV) Nanosensors.436 12.12.1 Reduced Graphene Oxide-Based Field Effect Transistor (FET). 436 12.12.2 Bio-Memristor for Ebola VP40 Matrix Protein Detection. 437 12.12.3 3-D Plasmonic Nanoantenna Sensor.439
Ricin Toxin Nanosensors. 440 12.13.1 Silver Enhancement Immunoassay with Interdigitated Array Microelectrodes (IDAMs). 440 12.13.2 Modified Bio-Barcode Assay (BCA). 443 12.13.3 Electroluminescence Immunosensor. 443 Staphylococcal Enterotoxin В (SEB) Toxin Nanosensors.445 12.14.1 SEB Detection Through Hydrogen Evolution Inhibition by Enzymatic Deposition of Metallic Copper on Platinum Nanoparticles (PtNPs)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode. 445 12.14.2 4-Nitrothiophenol (4-NTP)-Encoded Gold Nanoparticle Core/Silver Shell (AuNP@Ag)-Based SERS Immunosensor.446 12.14.3 Aptamer Recognition Element and Gold Nanoparticle Color Indicator-Based Assay.447
Contents XX 12.15 Aflatoxin Nanosensors. 450 12.15.1 Polyaniline (PANI) Nanofibers-Gold Nanoparticles Composite-Based Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Disk Electrode for AFB1. 450 12.15.2 Gold Nanodots (AuNDs)/Reduced Graphene Oxide Nanosheets/Indium Tin Oxide Substrate for Raman Spectroscopy and Electrochemical Measurements for AFB1. 451 12.15.3 AFM1 Aptamer-Triggered and DNA-Fueled Signal-On Fluorescence Sensor for AFM1. 451 12.16 Discussion and Conclusions.453 12.16.1 Nanosensors for Explosives. 453 12.16.1.1 TNT. 453 12.16.1.2 TNTTetryl.454 12.16.1.3 Picric
Acid. 454 12.16.1.4 RDX/Other Explosives.455 12.16.2 Nanosensors for Biothreat Agents. 455 Review Exercises. 456 References. 462 Part VI Powering, Networking, and Trends of Nanosensors 13. Nanogenerators and Self-Powered Nanosensors. 467 13.1 Devising Ways to Get Rid of Environment-Devastating Batteries.467 13.1.1 Vibration: The Abundant Energy Source in the Environment.467 13.1.2 Phenomena for Harvesting Vibrational Energy: Tribo- and Piezoelectricity.467 13.1.3 Role of Nanotechnology in Energy
Harvesting. 468 13.1.4 Other Energy Sources: Do Not Overlook Light and Heat!.468 13.2 Output Current of Tribo/Piezoelectric Nanogenerators as the Outcome of Second Term in Maxwell’s Displacement Current. 468 13.2.1 Principle of TENG. 468 13.2.2 Principle of PENG. 470 13.3 Triboelectricity-Powered Nanosensors.470 13.3.1 TENG Made From Micropatterned Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) Membrane/Ag Nanoparticles and Ag Nanowires Composite Covered Aluminum Foil as a Static/Dynamic Pressure Nanosensor. 470 13.3.2 Electrolytic Solution/Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene (FEP) Film TENG Nanosensor for pH Measurement. 472 13.3.3 Ethanol Nanosensor Using Dual-Mode TENG: Water/Ti02 Nanomaterial TENG and Si02 Nanoparticles (Si02 NPs)/Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
TENG. 474 13.3.4 Dopamine Nanosensor Using Al/PTFE with Nanoparticle Array TENG. 476 13.3.5 Mercury Ion Nanosensor Using Au Film with Au Nanoparticles/PDMS TENG.477 13.4 Piezoelectricity-Powered Nanosensors. 479 13.4.1 ZnO Nanowire PENG as a Pressure/Speed Nanosensor.479 13.4.2 UV and pH Nanosensors with ZnO Nanowire PENG. 481 13.4.3 CNT Hg2+ Ion Nanosensor with ZnO Nanowire PENG.484 13.4.4 Smelling Electronic Skin (e-Skin) with ZnO Nanowire PENG. 485 13.5 Miscellaneous Powered Nanosensors.487 13.5.1 Photovoltaic Effect-Powered H2S Nanosensor Using P-SWCNTs/N-Si Heterojunction. 487 13.5.2 Thermoelectricity-Powered Temperature Nanosensor Using Ag2Te Nanowires/Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythi ophene):Poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOTPSS)
Composite. 487 13.6 Discussion and Conclusions. 488 Review Exercises. 489 References.491 14. Wireless Nanosensor Networks and IoNT. 493 14.1 Evolution of Wireless Nanosensor Concept.493 14.2 Promising Communication Approaches for Nanonetworking.493 14.3 Molecular Communication (MC). 493 14.3.1 A Common Natural Phenomenon. 493 14.3.2 Steps in Molecular Communication. 493 14.3.3
Advantages of MC.495 14.3.4 Difficulties of MC.495 14.4 Electromagnetic Communication (EMC). 495
Contents xxi 14.5 Envisaged Electromagnetic Integrated Nanosensor Module. 497 14.5.1 Nanosensor Unit.497 14.5.2 Nanoactuation Unit.497 14.5.3 Power Unit. 497 14.5.4 Nanoprocessor Unit.499 14.5.5 Nanomemory Unit.499 14.5.6 Nanoantenna.500 14.5.7 Nano Transceiver.500 14.5.8 Alternative Nanotube Electromechanical Nano Transceiver.501 14.6 WNNs Formation Using EMC Nanosensor Modules: The WNN
Architecture.502 14.7 Frequency Bands of Electromagnetic WNN Operation.504 14.7.1 THz Channel Model for Intrabody WNNs.505 14.7.2 Channel Capacity for WNNs.505 14.7.3 Multi-Path Fading.505 14.8 Modulation Techniques for Electromagnetic WNNs. 505 14.8.1 Time Spread On-Off Keying (TS-OOK) Modulation Scheme. 505 14.8.2 Symbol Rate Hopping (SRH)-TSOOK Modulation Scheme. 506 14.9 Channel Sharing Protocol in WNN.506 14.10 Information Routing in WNNs.506 14.10.1 Multi-Hop
Routing.506 14.10.2 Sensing-Aware Information Routing: The Cross-Layer Protocol. 506 14.11 Failure Mechanisms and Reliability Issues of WNNs.506 14.12 Internet of Nano Things (IoNT): The Nanomachine. 507 14.13 Discussion and Conclusions.507 Review Exercises. 508 References. 508 15. Overview and Future Trends of Nanosensors. 511 15.1 Introduction. 511 15.1.1 Interfacing Nanosensors with Human
Beings.511 15.1.2 Three Main Types of Nanosensors.511 15.1.3 Using the Response Properties of the Same Nanomaterial in Different Types of Nanosensors. 511 15.1.4 Nanosensor Science, Engineering, and Technology: Three Interrelated Disciplines. 511 15.1.5 Scope of the Chapter. 512 15.2 Scanning Thnneling Microscope. 512 15.3 Atomic Force Microscope.512 15.4 Mechanical Nanosensors. 512 15.5 Thermal Nanosensors.514 15.6 Optical Nanosensors. 515 15.7
Magnetic Nanosensors. 516 15.8 Chemical Nanosensors. 517 15.9 Nanobiosensors. 518 15.10 Nanosensor Fabrication Aspects. 519 15.11 In Vivo Nanosensor Problems.520 15.12 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Biosensors. 520 15.13 Applications Perspectives of Nanosensors.521 15.13.1 Nanosensors for Societal Benefits.521 15.13.2 Nanosensors for Industrial Applications.521 15.13.3 Nanosensors for Homeland
Security. 521 15.14 Interfacing Issues for Nanosensors: Power Consumption and Sample Delivery Problems. 521 15.15 Depletion-Mediated Piezoelectric Actuation for NEMS.522 15.16 Batteryless Nanosensors. 522 15.17 Networking Nanosensors Wirelessly. 522 15.18 Discussion and Conclusions. 523 Review Exercises. 523 References. 524 Index 527
\ SERIES IN SENSORS SERIES EDITORS: BARRY E. JONES and HAIYING HUANG Nanosensors Physical, Chemical, and Biological SECOND EDITION Nanosensors are innovative devices that exploit the unique properties exhibited by matter at the nanoscale. A growing and exciting field, nanosensors have recently spurred considerable research endeavors across the globe, driving a need for the development of new device concepts and engineering nanostructured materials with controlled properties. Nanosensors: Physical, Chemical, and Biological, Second Edition offers a panoramic view of the field and related nanotechnologies with extraordinary clarity and depth. Presenting an interdisciplinary approach, blending physics, chemistry, and biology, this new edition is broad in scope and organized into six parts beginning with the fundamentals before moving onto nanomaterials and nanofabrication technologies in the second part. The third and fourth parts provide a critical appraisal of physical nanosensors and explore the chemical and biological categories of nanosensors. The fifth part sheds light on the emerging applications of nanosensors in the sectors of society, industry, and defense and details the cutting-edge applications of state-of-the-art nanosensors in environmental science, food technology, medical diagnostics, and biotechnology. The final part addresses self-powering and networking issues of nanosensors and provides glimpses of future trends. This is an ideal reference for researchers and industry professionals engaged in the frontier areas of material science and semiconductor
fabrication as well as graduate students in physics and engineering pursuing electrical engineering and electronics courses with a focus on nanoscience and nanotechnology. Key features: • Provides an updated, all-encompassing exploration of contemporary nanosensors and highlights the exclusive nanoscale properties on which nanosensors are designed • Presents an accessible approach with a question-and-answer format to allow an easy grasp of the intricacies involved in the complex working mechanisms of devices • Contains clear, illustrative diagrams enabling the visualization of nanosensor operations, along with worked examples, end-of-chapter questions, and comprehensive up-to-date bibliographies appended to each chapter Physics ISBN 978-0-367-45705-1 I CRC Press Taylor . Francis Group an informa business WWW. routledge.com CRC Press titles are available as eBook editions In a range of digital formats 9780367457051 |
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| index_date | 2024-07-03T16:59:13Z |
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| spelling | Khanna, Vinod Kumar 1952- Verfasser (DE-588)129277800 aut Nanosensors physical, chemical, and biological Vinod Kumar Khanna Second edition Boca Raton ; London ; New York CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group 2021 xlv, 531 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Series in sensors Sensor (DE-588)4038824-4 gnd rswk-swf Nanotechnologie (DE-588)4327470-5 gnd rswk-swf Sensor (DE-588)4038824-4 s Nanotechnologie (DE-588)4327470-5 s DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe 978-1-00-302555-9 Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032630572&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032630572&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Klappentext |
| spellingShingle | Khanna, Vinod Kumar 1952- Nanosensors physical, chemical, and biological Sensor (DE-588)4038824-4 gnd Nanotechnologie (DE-588)4327470-5 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4038824-4 (DE-588)4327470-5 |
| title | Nanosensors physical, chemical, and biological |
| title_auth | Nanosensors physical, chemical, and biological |
| title_exact_search | Nanosensors physical, chemical, and biological |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Nanosensors physical, chemical, and biological |
| title_full | Nanosensors physical, chemical, and biological Vinod Kumar Khanna |
| title_fullStr | Nanosensors physical, chemical, and biological Vinod Kumar Khanna |
| title_full_unstemmed | Nanosensors physical, chemical, and biological Vinod Kumar Khanna |
| title_short | Nanosensors |
| title_sort | nanosensors physical chemical and biological |
| title_sub | physical, chemical, and biological |
| topic | Sensor (DE-588)4038824-4 gnd Nanotechnologie (DE-588)4327470-5 gnd |
| topic_facet | Sensor Nanotechnologie |
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