Grammar of spoken and written English:
Gespeichert in:
| Hauptverfasser: | , , , , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Amsterdam ; Philadelphia
John Benjamins Publishing Company
[2021]
|
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Klappentext Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | xxviii, 1220 Seiten |
| ISBN: | 9789027207968 |
Internformat
MARC
| LEADER | 00000nam a2200000 c 4500 | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | BV047219872 | ||
| 003 | DE-604 | ||
| 005 | 20221031 | ||
| 007 | t | ||
| 008 | 210330s2021 |||| 00||| eng d | ||
| 020 | |a 9789027207968 |c HB |9 978-90-272-0796-8 | ||
| 035 | |a (OCoLC)1291614486 | ||
| 035 | |a (DE-599)BVBBV047219872 | ||
| 040 | |a DE-604 |b ger |e rda | ||
| 041 | 0 | |a eng | |
| 049 | |a DE-19 |a DE-384 |a DE-739 |a DE-11 |a DE-29 | ||
| 084 | |a HF 181 |0 (DE-625)48785: |2 rvk | ||
| 100 | 1 | |a Biber, Douglas |d 1952- |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)137511272 |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Grammar of spoken and written English |c Douglas Biber, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey N. Leech, Susan Conrad, Edward Finegan |
| 264 | 1 | |a Amsterdam ; Philadelphia |b John Benjamins Publishing Company |c [2021] | |
| 264 | 4 | |c © 2021 | |
| 300 | |a xxviii, 1220 Seiten | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Gesprochene Sprache |0 (DE-588)4020717-1 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Grammatik |0 (DE-588)4021806-5 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Englisch |0 (DE-588)4014777-0 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 689 | 0 | 0 | |a Englisch |0 (DE-588)4014777-0 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | 1 | |a Grammatik |0 (DE-588)4021806-5 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | 2 | |a Gesprochene Sprache |0 (DE-588)4020717-1 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | |5 DE-604 | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Johansson, Stig |d 1939-2010 |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)12135377X |4 aut | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Leech, Geoffrey N. |d 1936-2014 |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)119411350 |4 aut | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Conrad, Susan |d 1960- |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)137511507 |4 aut | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Finegan, Edward |d 1940- |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)124545420X |4 aut | |
| 776 | 0 | 8 | |i Erscheint auch als |n Online-Ausgabe, E-Book |z 978-90-272-6047-5 |
| 856 | 4 | 2 | |m Digitalisierung UB Augsburg - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032624508&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Klappentext |
| 856 | 4 | 2 | |m Digitalisierung UB Passau - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032624508&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| 943 | 1 | |a oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-032624508 | |
Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1809946819338174464 |
|---|---|
| adam_text |
Grammar of Spoken and Written English The completely redesigned Grammar of Spoken and Written English is а comprehensive corpus-based reference grammar. GSWE describes the structural characteristics of grammatical constructions in English, as do other reference grammars. But GSWE is unique in that it gives equal attention to describing the patterns of language use for each grammatical feature, based on empirical analyses of grammatical patterns in a 40-million-word corpus of spoken and written registers. Grammar-in-use is characterized by three inter-related kinds ofinformation: frequency of grammatical features in spoken and written registers, frequencies of the most common lexico-grammatical patterns, and analysis of the discourse factors influencing choices among related grammatical features. GSWE includes over 350 tables and figures highlighting the results of corpus-based investigations. Throughout the book, authentic examples illustrate all research findings. The empirical descriptions document the lexico-grammatical features that are especially common in face-to-face-conversation compared to those that are. especially common in academic writing. Analyses of fiction and newspaper articles are included as further benchmarks of language use. GSWE contains over 6,000 authentic examples from these four registers, illustrating the range of lexico-grammatical features in real-world speech and writing. In addition, comparisons between British and American English reveal specific regional differences. Now completely redesigned and available in an electronic edition, the
Grammar of Spoken and Written English remains a unique and indispensable reference work for researchers, language teachers, and students alike.
Table of contents Abbreviations and symbols xi Preface xiii Symbols and notational conventions 1.1 Section A. Introductory 1 Chapter 1. Introduction 3 Introduction 1.1.1 1.2 1.3.4 1.7 1.8 1.10 25 Register distinctions in the LSWE Corpus 25 Dialect distinctions in the LSWE Corpus 26 Size of the LSWE Corpus 27 Representativeness and accuracy of the LSWE Corpus Conversation 29 Fiction 30 News 31 Academic prose 33 Supplementary registers 34 Grammatical analysis of the LSWE Corpus 35 Quantitative findings in the grammar 38 Functional interpretation of quantitative findings 1.8.1 1.8.2 1.8.3 1.8.4 1.9 15 Registers of English 15 Dialect distinctions 17 Standard and non-standard English 18 1.3.3.1 Variation within standard English 18 1.3.3.2 Variation within non-standard English 20 The relative importance of register and dialect differences 21 27 Description of the register categories in the LSWE Corpus 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.5.4 1-5.5 1.6 б Register distribution 9 Lexico-grammatical patterns 13 Grammatical/discourse factors 14 Representation of varieties in the LSWE Corpus 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.5 5 Varieties of English 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.4 4 Major goals of the GSWE Structure and use in English grammar 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.3 xvii Function as the performance of tasks 41 Function as a reflection of processing constraints Function as social or situational indexing 43 Other explanatory considerations 44 Overview of the grammar 44 Potential users and uses of the GSWE 45 41 43 29
vi Grammar of Spoken and Written English 49 Section B. Basic grammar Chapter 2. Word and phrase grammar 51 2.1 The nature of grammatical units 2.2 Words and their characteristics 53 2.2.1 Word types and word tokens 54 2.2.1.1 Use of words in text examples 54 2.2.1.2 TTR across the registers 55 2.2.2 Orthographic words, grammatical words, and lexemes 2.2.3 The three major word classes 57 2.2.3.1 Lexical words 57 2.2.3.2 Function words 57 2.2.3.3 Inserts 58 2.2.4 Closed systems v. open classes 58 2.2.5 The structure of words: Morphology 59 2.2.5.1 Inflection 59 2.2.5.2 Derivation бо 2.2.5.3 Compounding 60 2.2.5.4 Multi-word lexical units 61 2.2.6 Core v. peripheral members of word classes 61 2.2.7 Multiple class membership 62 2.2.8 Use of lexical words, function words, and inserts 63 2.2.9 Lexical density 64 2.3 2.4 52 Survey of lexical words 64 2.3.1 Nouns 65 2.3.2 Lexical verbs 65 2.3.3 Adjectives 66 2.3.4 Adverbs 66 2.3.5 Lexical word classes 67 2.3.6 Borderline cases of lexical word class membership 56 69 Survey of function words 71 2.4-1 Determiners 72 2.4.2 Pronouns 72 2.4.2л Overlap of pronoun, determiner, and adverb classes 73 շ.4.շ.շ Other pro-forms 74 2.4.3 Primary auxiliaries 75 2.4.4 Modal auxiliaries 75 2.4.5 Prepositions 76 2.4.5.1 Free v. bound prepositions 76 2.4·5·2 Complex prepositions 77 2.4.5.3 Overlap between prepositions and other word classes 78 2.4.6 Adverbial particles 80 2.4.6.1 Adverbial particles v. adverbs 80 շ.4.6.շ Adverbial particles v. prepositions 80
Table of contents 2.4.7 Coordinators 8i 2.4.7.1 Correlative coordinators 82 Coordinators v. other word classes 82 2.4.7.3 Simple coordinators: Distribution 83 2.4·7·4 Sentence/turn-initial coordinators 86 2.4.7.5 Correlative coordinators: Distribution 88 2.48 Subordinators 88 2.4.8 .1 Complex subordinators 88 2-4-8.2 Correlative subordinators 89 2.4.8 .3 Overlap between subordinators and other word classes 2-4-9 И/Л-words 90 2.4.10 Existential there 91 2.4.11 The negator not 91 2.4.12 The infinitive marker to 92 շ.4-7.2 2.4- 13 Numerals 92 2-4-13-1 Cardinals 92 2.4-13-2 Ordinals 93 2.4.13.3 Numerals: Distribution 93 2.4.14 Major function word classes: Distribution ■ 2.5 Survey of inserts 2.6 Phrases and their characteristics 2.6.1 Constituency 98 2.6.2 2.6.3 2.7 2.7-1 2.7.3 2.7.4 2.7.5 101 Discontinuous noun phrases 102 104 Verb phrases 104 2.7.2.1 The syntactic role of verb phrases շ.7.շ.շ Discontinuous verb phrases 105 2.7.2.3 Auxiliary-only verb phrases 105 105 Adjective phrases 106 2.7.3 -1 The syntactic roles of adjective phrases 2.7.3 .2 Discontinuous adjective phrases 106 Adverb phrases 107 106 2.7.4.1 The syntactic roles of adverb phrases 107 Prepositional phrases 108 2.7.5.1 Extended prepositional phrases 108 2.7- 5.2 The syntactic roles of prepositional phrases 109 .5-3 Stranded prepositions 109 ·5·4 Stranded prepositions in independent w/i-questions Genitive phrases 113 2.7 2.7 2.7.6 99 Noun phrases 101 2.7.1.1 The syntactic roles of noun phrases 2.7.1.2 2.7.2 98 Form v. syntactic role of phrases Phrases in text samples 99 Types of phrases 94 97 no 89 vii
viii Grammar of Spoken and Written English 2.7.7 Numeral phrases 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 .7.1 ·7·2 .7.3 ·7·4 113 Complex numbers 114 Types of numerical expressions 114 Approximate numbers 116 Approximating numeral expressions 2.8 Embedding of phrases 2.9 Coordination of phrases 118 2.9.1 Phrasal v. clausal coordination 2.9.2 117 117 119 Coordination tags 120 2.9.2.1 Distribution of coordination tags 120 2.10 Simple v. complex phrases 3.1 Clause v. non-clausal material 124 3.1.1 Use of clauses v. non-clausal material in text samples 121 Chapters. Clause grammar 3.2 123 Major clause elements 3.2.1 126 127 Semantic roles of subjects 128 Dummy subjects 129 Subjects in non-finite clauses 129 Subject (S) 3.2.1.1 3.2.1.2 3.2.1.3 3.2.2 3.2.3 Verb phrase (V) 130 Subject predicative (Ps) 3.2.4 Direct object (Od) 130 3.2.4.1 Semantic roles of direct objects 3.2.4.2 Dummy objects 132 130 3.2.5 3.2.6 Indirect object (O¡) 132 Prepositional object (Op) 3.2.7 3.2.8 Object predicative (Po) 134 Adverbials (A) 134 3.2.8.1 Circumstance adverbials (Ac) 3.2.8.2 Stance adverbials (As) 135 3.2.8.3 Linking adverbials (A¡) 137 The operator 137 3.2.9 133 135 3.3 Clause links 3.4 Peripheral elements 140 3.4.1 Detached predicatives and related forms 3.4.2 Parentheticals 141 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.5 3.4.6 3.5 131 138 Prefaces 141 142 Tags 143 Discourse markers Vocatives 144 144 Major clause patterns 145 3.5.1 Subject ֊ verb phrase 145 3.5.2 Subject - verb phrase - obligatory adverbial 147 124
Table of contents Subject ֊ verb phrase - subject predicative 149 3.5.3.1 The characterizing pattern 149 3.5.3.2 The identifying pattern 150 3.5.4 Subject - verb phrase - direct object 150 3·5·5 Subject-verb phrase-prepositional object 152 3.5.6 Subject ֊ verb phrase - indirect object - direct object 154 3-5.7 Subject - verb phrase - direct object - prepositional object 154 3.5.8 Subject - verb phrase - direct object - object predicative 154 3·5·9 Subject ֊ verb phrase - direct object - obligatory adverbial 155 3.5.10 More complex patterns 156 3.5.3 3.6 Variations on clause patterns 156 3.6.1 Order variations 156 3.6.1.1 Inversion 156 3.6.1.2 Fronting 156 3.6.1.3 Postponement 157 3.6.2 The passive 157 3.6.3 Existential there 158 3.6.4 Extraposition 158 3.6.5 Clefting 158 3.6.6 Condensation 159 3.7 Ellipsis 159 3.7.1 Ellipsis in coordinated clauses 159 3.7.2 Ellipsis in comparative clauses 160 3.7.3 Ellipsis in question-answer sequences 160 3.7-4 Other types of textual ellipsis 160 3.7.5 Omission of function words and situational ellipsis 3.8 Negation 162 3.8.1 Overall frequency of negation 162 3.8.2 A/ot-negation 163 3.8.2.1 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with transitive have (got) 163 3.8.2.2 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with the semi-modal have to 165 3.8.2.3 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with dare and need 166 3.8.2.4 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with ought to and used to 167 3.8.2.5 Full form v. operator contraction v. not-contraction 168 3.8.2.6 Aren't I and ain’t 169 3.8.3 Л/o-negation 170 3.8.4 Occurrence of not-negation v. no-negation
172 3.8.4л Variability of not-negation and no-negation 172 3.8.4.2 Relative frequency of not-negation v. no-negation 173 3.8.4.3 Choice of no-negation v. not-negation 173 3.8.4.4 Л/ot-negation collocations 176 3.8.5 The scope of negation 177 3.8.6 Assertive and non-assertive forms 178 3.8.7 Multiple negation 180 3.8.7 л Dependent multiple negation 180 3.8.7 .2 Independent multiple negation 181 161 ix
x Grammar of Spoken and Written English 39 Subject-verb concord 3.9л 3.9.2 3.9.3 3.9.4 3.9.5 ЗЛО 3·11 ЗЛ2 182 Complications with concord patterns 183 3.9.1л Concord with plural forms not ending in-s 183 3.9Л.2 Concord with singular forms ending in-s 184 3.9Л.3 Concord with coordinated subjects 184 3.9Л.4 Concord with indefinite pronouns and quantifying expressions 3.9Л.5 Concord with existential there 187 3.9Л.6 Concord with clausal subjects 188 Notional concord 189 3.9.2.1 Concord with names, titles, and quotations 189 3.9.2.2 Concord with measure expressions 189 3.9.2.3 Concord with collective nouns 190 Concord and proximity 191 Non-standard concord in conversation 192 Subject-verb concord and pronominal reference 3.11.1 3.11.2 3.11.3 Nominal clauses 195 Adverbial clauses 196 Relative clauses 197 3.11.4 3.П.5 3.11.6 3.11.7 Comparative clauses and other degree clauses Reporting clauses 198 Comment clauses 198 Other peripheral clauses 199 Non-finite clauses 3.12.1 3.12.2 3.12.3 Ed-clauses 200 202 202 Major types of independent clauses 3.13.1 3.13.2 197 199 Infinitive clauses /ng-clauses 201 3.12.4 Supplementive clauses 3.12.5 Verbless clauses 203 ЗЛЗ 194 Types of dependent clauses 194 Finite dependent clauses 195 Declarative clauses 203 204 Interrogative clauses 205 3.13.2.1 IVh-questions 205 3.13.2.2 Ves/no-questions 208 3.13.2.3 Alternative questions 209 3.13.2.4 Question tags 209 3.13.2.5 Interrogatives in general: Distribution 3.13.2.6 Question types: Distribution 212 213 3.13.2.7 Choice between interrogative who and whom 215 3.13.2.8 Auxiliary do in independent
interrogative clauses 216 3.13.3 Exclamative clauses 220 3.13.4 Imperative clauses 220 3.13.4.1 The realization of imperative clauses 3.13.4.2 Imperative clauses: Distribution ЗЛ4 Unembedded dependent clauses 224 222 221 t86
Table of contents 3.15 Non-clausal material 3.15.1 3.15.2 225 Non-clausal material in writing 225 Non-clausal material in conversation 226 Chapter 4. Nouns, pronouns, and the simple noun phrase 4.1 Overview of nominals in discourse 232 4.1.1 Use of nominals in discourse 232 4.1.1.1 Density and types of nominal elements 232 4.1.1.2 The role of nominal elements in discourse 233 4.1.1.3 Establishing reference 234 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.1.4 Chains of reference 236 Pronouns v. full noun phrases 237 The forms of anaphoric expressions 239 Forms of anaphoric expression in relation to distance 4.2 The basic structure of noun-headed phrases 4.3 Types of nouns 243 4.3.1 Use of countable nouns in Text samples 244 4.3.2 Use of uncountable nouns in Text samples 244 4·3·2.1 4.3.2.2 4.3.3 242 Countable and uncountable uses of nouns Plural uncountables 246 Proper nouns 246 4.3.3.1 Initial capitals 240 245 247 4.3.4 4·3·3·2 Proper nouns regularly occurring with the definite article 4-3.3.3 Proper nouns functioning as common nouns 248 Collective nouns 249 4.3.5 4.3.4.1 Collocations of quantifying collectives Unit nouns 251 4.3.6 4.3.7 4.3.8 4-4 231 250 4֊3·5·1 Collocations of unit nouns 252 Quantifying nouns 253 4.3.6.1 Collocations of types of quantifying nouns 4.3.6.2 Pair v. couple 256 Species nouns 256 4.3.7.1 Species nouns: Distribution Noun v. determiner 258 247 253 257 Determiners 259 4.4.1 The articles 260 4.4-1.1 4.4.1.2 4.4.1.3 4.4.1.4 4.4.1.5 4.4.1.6 4.4.1.7 4.4.1.8 The indefinite article 260 The zero article 262 The definite article 264 Generic reference 266 Reference patterns of
definite noun phrases 267 Definite and indefinite articles: Distribution 268 Definite and indefinite articles in relation to syntactic role Definite determiners: Distribution 271 270 xi
xii Grammarof Spoken and Written English 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4·4·5 4-5 272 4.4.2.1 Possessive determiners: Distribution 272 Demonstrative determiners 273 4.4.3.1 Demonstrative determiners: Distribution 275 Quantifiers 276 4.4.4.1 Quantifiers: Distribution 278 4.4.6 Numerals 279 4.4.5.1 Numerals across the registers Semi-determiners 281 4.4.7 4.4.6л Other uses of the semi-determiners 282 4·4·6.2 Semi-determiners: Distribution 283 wh-determiners 284 4.4.8 Determiner v. pronoun 280 285 4.5.2 285 Regular plurals 285 4.5.1.1 Plurals of words ending in-o Irregular plurals 286 4-5-3 4.5.4 Latin and Greek plurals Zero plurals 289 4-5-5 4.5.6 Plural-only nounsand nouns in-S 290 Singular v. plural nouns: Distribution 291 Case 4.6л 4.6.2 292 The form of the genitive 293 4.6.1.1 Genitive v. common case 294 The frequency of genitive case forms 294 4.6.3 4.6.4 Specifying genitives Classifying genitives 4.6.5 4.6.6 4.6.7 4-6.8 Genitives of time 296 Genitives of measure 296 Number 4·5·ΐ 4.6 Possessive determiners 4.6.4.1 286 287 294 295 Classifying genitives: Use 296 297 Other independent genitives 298 4.6.8 л Independent genitives unsupported by the linguistic context 4.6.9 Group genitives 298 4.6.10 The double genitive 299 4.6.11 Density of genitives 300 Elliptic genitives 4.6.12 Choice between s-genitives and of-phrases 4.6.12.1 S-genitives and of-phrases overall 301 302 4.6.12.2 S-genitives and of-phrases and the dependent noun 4.6.12.3 4.6.12.4 4.6.12.5 4.6.12.6 4.6.12.7 303 Meanings of s-genitives and of-phrases 304 S-genitives and of-phrases and length 305 S-genitives and of-phrases
and information status 306 S-genitives and of-phrases in collocations 306 Summary of choice between s-genitives and of-phrases 307 298
Table of contents 4.6.13 Choice between elliptic genitives and of-constructions 307 4.6.13.1 Elliptic genitives v. of-constructions: Distribution 308 4.6.14 Choice between the double genitive and related constructions 308 4.6.14.1 The double genitive v. corresponding constructions with possessive pronouns 308 4.6.14.2 The double genitive v. ordinary of-phrases 310 4.7 Gender 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.8 312 Lexical expression of gender 312 4·7.1.1 Words for masculine/feminine gender 313 4.7.1.2 Lexical means of expressing dual gender reference Gender-specific v. dual gender pronoun reference 316 4-7.2.1 Grammatical means for dual gender reference 317 Personal v. non-personal reference with pronouns 317 Noun formation 4.8.1 315 318 Derived nouns 318 4.8.1.1 Derivational prefixes used to form new nouns 319 Some common derivational suffix patterns 320 Frequency of common noun derivational suffixes 322 4.8.1.4 Productivity of common noun derivations 322 Formation of nouns through compounding 325 4.8.1.2 4.8.1.3 4.8.2 4.8.2.1 Noun compounds in conversation and news in AmE 4.9 The role of pronouns in discourse 4.10 Personal pronouns 327 4.10.1 Specific reference 328 325 327 4.10.1.1 Problems in the use of first person plural pronouns 328 4.10.1.2 Problems in the use of second person pronouns 329 4.10.1.3 Problems in the use of third person pronouns 330 4.10.2 Referring to people in general 330 4.10.3 Special problems with collective nouns 4.10.4 Special uses of/t 331 331 4.10.5 Personal pronouns: Distribution 332 4.10.6 Nominative v. accusative forms of personal pronouns 4.10.6.1
4.10.6.2 4.10.6.3 4.10.6.4 334 334 Pronoun choice after as and than 335 Pronoun choice in coordinated noun phrases 336 Pronoun choice in peripheral and non-integrated noun phrases Pronoun choice after forms of be 4.10.6.5 Summary of factors affecting pronoun case choice 4.11 Possessive pronouns 339 4.11.1 The type a friend of mine 340 4.11.2 Possessive pronouns: Distribution 4.12 340 Reflexive pronouns 341 4.12.1 Reflexive pronouns: Distribution 343 4.12.2 Emphatic reflexive pronouns 344 338 338 xiii
xiv Grammar of Spoken and Written English 4.13 Reciprocal pronouns 4.13.1 4.14 345 Reciprocal pronouns: Distribution 345 Demonstrative pronouns 346 Demonstrative pronouns: Distribution 4.14.1 347 4.14.2 This/these in academic prose 348 4.14.3 Those with postmodifying phrases or clauses 348 4.14.4 The demonstrative pronoun that in conversation 348 4.15 4.14.5 That in general 349 Indefinite pronouns 350 4.15.1 Indefinite pronouns: Distribution 4.15.2 The pronoun one 351 351 4.15.2.1 The pronoun one: Distribution 4.16 Other pronouns 5.1 Major verb functions and classes 352 353 Chapters. Verbs 5.2 355 5.1.1 356 Frequency of lexical, modal, and primary auxiliary verbs 5.1.2 Distribution of lexical verbs and copula be across registers 356 357 Single-word lexical verbs 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 359 Classification ofverbs into semantic domains 359 5.2.1.1 Major semantic domains of single-word verbs 5.2.1.2 Distribution of semantic domains 363 5.2.1.3 Semantic domains of verbs 364 Most common lexical verbs 371 5.2.2.1 Overall use of the most common lexical verbs 371 5.2.2.2 Most common verbs in each register 373 Verbs with animate and inanimate subjects 378 Valency patterns for single-word lexical verbs 380 5.2.4л Valencies of common verbs across semantic domains 382 5.2.4.2 Variation in verb valency patterns 384 5.2.4.3 Intransitive and monotransitive patterns 384 5.2.4.4 Intransitive, monotransitive, and complex transitive patterns 5.2.4·5 Intransitive, monotransitive, and ditransitive patterns 387 5.2.4·6 Monotransitive and ditransitive but not intransitive patterns 5.2.4.7
Verbstaking almost all patterns 389 Տ.շ.4.8 General patterns 391 Regular lexical verb inflections 392 5.2.5.1 Consonant doubling of regularly inflected verbs 393 Doubling of base-final/followed by-ed across dialects Irregular lexical verb inflections 393 5.2.6.1 Classes of irregular verbs 394 5.2.6.2 Regular and irregular forms 395 5.2.6.3 Got and gotten 398 S.2.5.2 5.2.6 360 393 386 388
Table of contents 5.2.7 5-3 Verb derivation 399 5.2.7.1 Most frequent verb derivational affixes 5.2.7.2 Productivity of verb derivational affixes Multi-word lexical verbs 403 5.3л Features distinguishing multi-word verb combinations 403 5.3.1.1 Multi-word combinations functioning as different structural categories 405 5.3.2 Phrasal verbs 407 5.3.2л Semantic domains of phrasal verbs 407 5.3.2.2 Register distribution of phrasal verbs 408 5.3.2.3 5.3.2.4 53·3 412 414 Register distribution of prepositional verbs 414 The most common prepositional verbs 415 Productivity of particular verbs and prepositions 421 5.3.4 Phrasal-prepositional verbs 422 5.3.4.1 Register distribution of phrasal-prepositional verbs 422 5.3.4.2 The most common phrasal-prepositional verbs 423 5.3.5 Other multi-word verb constructions 425 Main and auxiliary functions of primary verbs 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4- 5.5 408 Productivity of particular verbs and adverbial particles The most common phrasal verbs Prepositional verbs 413 5.3.3.1 Semantic domains of prepositional verbs 5.3.3.2 5.3.3.3 5.3.3.4 5·4 399 400 426 Be 426 Have 427 3 Do 428 5.4.3.1 5.4.3.2 5.4.3.3 5.4.3.4 5.4.3.5 5.4.3.6 Main verb do in idiomatic expressions 428 Do as pro-verb 428 Register distribution of main verb and pro-verb do 429 Auxiliary do in emphatic function 430 Lexical associations of emphatic do 431 Auxiliary do-support in negatives and interrogatives 432 Copular verbs 433 5.5.1 Verbs functioning as copulas 434 5.5.2 Complements of copular verbs 434 5.5.3 Register distribution of copular verbs and common predicative adjectives 5.5.3.1
Current (non-sensory) copular verbs 437 5.5.3.2 Sensory copular verbs 439 5.5.3.3 Resulting copular verbs 441 5.5.4 Valency patterns of the copulas be, seem, and appear 443 5.5.4.1 Complement types with be, seem, and appear 444 5·5·4.2 Subject and complement types with be 446 435 xv
xvi Grammar of Spoken and Written English Chapter 6. Variation in the verb phrase: Tense, aspect, voice, and modality 449 6.1 Structure and meaning distinctions in the verb phrase 6.2 Tense 6.2.1 450 451 Basic tense and time distinctions 451 6.2.1.1 Simple present tense marking past or future time 452 Past tense in reported speech 453 The marking of future time 454 Register distribution of tense and modality 454 Lexical associations of present and past tense 457 6.2.1.2 6.2.1.3 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.3 Aspect 6.3.1 6.3.2 458 Perfect and progressive aspect across registers and dialects 459 6.3.1.1 Register distribution of perfect and progressive aspect 459 6.3.1.2 Perfect and progressive aspect across dialects 460 Perfect aspect 461 6.3.2.1 Lexical associations of present perfect aspect 462 6.3.2.2 6.3.2.3 6.3.2.4 6.3.3 6.4 464 6.3.2.5 Past perfect aspect v. simple past tense 467 Progressive aspect 469 6.3.3.1 Lexical associations of progressive aspect 469 Active and passive voice 6.4.1 6.4.2 473 Register distribution of active and passive voice Verbs uncommon in the passive Complex combinations of aspect and voice Modals and semi-modals 482 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3 6.6.4 474 Lexical associations of the passive 476 6.4.2.1 Verbs that commonly occur in the passive 6.4.2.2 Verbs common with the get passive 479 6.4.2.3 6.5 6.6 Present perfect forms of get and have across dialects Present perfect aspect v. simple past tense 465 Lexical associations of past perfect aspect 466 476 480 481 Distribution of modalsand semi-modals 484 Individual modals/semi-modals across registers and dialects 485
Lexical associations of modality 489 Extrinsic v. intrinsic uses of individual modals 489 6.6.4.1 The permission/possibility/ability modals 489 6.6.4.2 The obligation/necessity modals and semi-modals 492 6.6.4.3 The volition/prediction modals and semi-modals 493 6.7 Combinations of modal verbs with marked aspect or voice 6.8 Sequences of modals and semi-modals 499 495
Table of contents 7.1 Chapter 7. Adjectives and adverbs Overview 502 7.1.1 7.2 7.4 519 Gradable adjectives with -er and -est 519 Inflectional v. phrasal comparison 520 Inflectional comparison across registers 521 Phrasal comparison with more and most 522 Doubly marked comparatives and superlatives 523 Adjectives with superlative or absolute meanings 523 Comparative constructions across registers 7.9.2 7.9.3 527 Participial adjectives 527 7.9.1.1 Common participial adjectives 527 Derived adjectives 527 7.9.2.1 Common adjectives with derivational suffixes Adjectival compounds 530 7.9.3.1 Distribution of adjectival compounds 532 Adjectives in combination 533 7.10.1 Repeated comparative adjectives 533 7.10.2 The intensifiers good and and nice and 534 7.11 7.12 524 525 Formation of adjectives 7.9.1 7.10 516 Postposed adjectives 516 Adjectives as noun phrase heads 517 Adjectives with a clause linking function 518 Adjectives as exclamations 518 Adjectives as detached predicatives 518 Comparative clauses and other degree complements 7.8.1 7.9 508 513 Most common predicative adjectives 514 Comparative and superlative degree 7.7.1 7.7.2 7.7-3 7.7.4 7.7.5 7.7.6 7.8 Semantic domains of attributive adjectives Most common attributive adjectives 509 Adjectives in other syntactic roles 7.6.1 7.6.2 7.6.3 7.6.4 7.6.5 7.7 506 Predicative adjectives 7.5.1 7.6 503 Attributive and predicative adjectives across registers 504 Central and peripheral adjectives 505 Adjectives strongly associated with attributive or predicative position Semantic grouping of adjectives Attributive adjectives 508 7.4.1
7.4.2 7.5 502 Defining characteristics of adjectives 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.3 Use of adjectives and adverbs 501 Overview of adverbs 535 The form of adverbs 536 7.12.1 Formation of adverbs 536 7.12.1.1 Adverb forms 537 528 506 xvii
xviii Grammar of Spoken and Written English 7.12.2 7.12.3 7.13 Adverbs and adjectives with the same form 7.12.2.1 Good and real as adverbs 540 Comparative and superlative forms 541 539 Syntactic roles of adverbs 542 7.13.1 Adverbs modifying adjectives 542 7.13.1.1 Adverbs modifying adjectives in conversation and academic prose 542 7.13.2 Adverbs modifying other adverbs 543 7.13.2.1 Adverbs modifying adverbs in conversation and academic prose 543 7.13.3 Adverbs modifying other elements 545 7.13.4 Adverbs as complements of prepositions 545 7.13.5 Adverbs as clause elements: Adverbials 546 7.13.6 Adverbs with degree complements 7.13.7 7.14 Adverbs standing alone 546 547 Semantic categories of adverbs 548 7.14.1 Importance of context in the semantics of adverbs 7.14.2 Description of semantic categories 549 7.14.2.1 Place 549 548 7.14.2.2 Time 549 7.14.2.3 Manner 550 7.14.2.4 Degree 551 7.14.2.5 Additive/restrictive 553 7.14.2.6 Stance 553 7.14.2.7 Linking 555 7.14.2.8 Other meanings 556 7.14.3 Semantic domains of adverbs in conversation and academic prose 7.15 556 Discourse choices for degree adverbs as modifiers 560 7.15.1 Amplifiers in conversation and academic prose 560 7.15.2 Degree modifiers other than amplifiers in conversation and academic prose 562 Section D. More complex structures 656 Chapter 8. Complex noun phrases 567 8.1 Overview 568 8.1.1 Register distribution of noun phrases with pre- and postmodifiers 572 8.1.2 Co-occurrence of modifiers with head noun types 574 8.1.3 Discourse distribution of noun phrase types in academic prose 579 8.2 Structural types of
premodification 8.2.1 582 Structural types of premodification across registers 583 8.3 Meaning relations expressed by noun + noun sequences 8.3.1 Noun + noun sequences across registers 586 8.3.2 Plural nouns as premodifiers 588 8.4 Noun phrases with multiple premodifiers 591 8.4.1 Length of sequences of premodifiers 591 8.4.2 8.4.3 Order of multiple premodifiers 592 Coordinated premodifiers 595 584
Table of contents 8.5 8.6 8.7 Restrictive v. non-restrictive postmodifiers 596 8.5.1 Distribution of restrictive v. non-restrictive relative clauses Major structural types of postmodification 598 8.6.1 Postmodifier types across registers боо Postmodification by finite relative clause 8.7.1 8.7.2 8.7.3 8.7.4 Subject v. non-subject head nouns 618 Relative clauses with adverbial gaps 619 8.7.4 л Relative adverbs across registers Common prepositions in postmodifying prepositional phrases Choice of prepositional phrase v. relative clause 631 632 Appositive noun phrases in news and academic prose Noun phrases with multiple postmodifiers 8.11.1 Structural types of noun complement clause 636 639 639 Noun complement clause types across registers Head nouns taking noun complement clauses 8.14.1 633 634 Order of constituents in postmodifier complexes Noun complement clauses v. nominal postmodifiers 8.13.1 627 628 Postmodification by appositive noun phrase 8.10.1 8.14 627 Structural types of postmodifying to-clause Postmodification by prepositional phrase 8.9.1 8.9.2 8.12 8.13 619 Head nouns taking relative clauses with adverbial gaps 7b-clauses as postmodifiers 8.8.2.1 8.11 .2 612 Postmodification by non-finite clause 624 8.8.1 Participle clauses as postmodifiers 625 8.8.1.1 Passive and -ing forms of verbs in postmodifying participle clauses v. relative clauses 625 8.8.2 8.10 603 Variant relativizers in non-standard dialects 604 Distribution of relativizers across registers 604 8.7.1.3 Who v. which, that, and zero 607 8.7.1.4 Who v. whom, that, and zero 608 8.7.1.5 Which v. that біо
8.7.1.6 Discourse choice between whose and of which 8.7.1.7 Whose v. of which across registers 613 8.7.1.8 Discourse choice of the zero relativizer 614 Grammatical role of the relative clause gap біб 8.7.2.1 Relative clause gaps in conversation 617 8.7.4 8.9 602 The discourse choice among relativizers 8.7.1.1 8.7.1.2 8.8 597 641 642 Head nouns taking tfiat-clauses 642 8.14.1.1 Head nouns that take both that-complement clauses and relative clauses 644 8.14.2 Head nouns taking to-clauses 646 8.14.3 Head nouns taking of+ /ng-clauses 647 8.14.4 Head nouns taking wh-interrogative clauses 650 629 621 xix
xx Grammar of Spoken and Written English Chapter 9. The form and function of complement clauses 9.1 Overview 652 9.1.1 Complementation by clauses 652 9.1.2 Structural types of complement clause 652 9.1.3 Grammatical positions of complement clauses 9.2 That-dauses 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.2.5 9.2.6 9.2.7 9.4 653 654 Discourse functions of tbat-clauses 654 Post-predicate that-clauses - controlled by verbs 655 9.2.2.1 Structural patterns 655 9.2.2.2 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain 656 9.2.2.3 Common controlling verbs across registers 66i Verbs taking extraposed foat-clauses 664 Subject noun phrases with subject predicative that-clauses 664 rhat-clauses controlled by adjectival predicates 665 9.2.5.1 Adjectival predicates taking post-predicate that-clauses 665 9.2.S.2 Adjectival predicatestaking extraposed that-clauses 666 Register distribution of font-clause types 668 Pre-predicate v. extraposed that-clauses 669 Register factors 670 9.2.7.1 g.2.7.2 Information structure 9.2.7֊3 9.2.7.4 Grammatical factors 672 Topic and style 673 671 Retention v. omission of the that complementizer 9.2.8л Register factors 674 9.2.8.2 Discourse factors favoring that omission 674 Discourse factors favoring that retention 675 9.2.8.3 93 651 673 И/h-clauses 676 9.31 Structural types of wfi-clauses 676 9.3.2 Post-predicate wh-clauses controlled by verbs 678 9.3-2.1 Grammatical patterns 678 9.3.2.2 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain 679 9.3.2.3 Common controlling verbs across registers 68i 9.3.2.4 Post-predicate wh-clauses introduced by whether and if 682 9.3-2-5 Common verbs controlling
whether- and //-clauses 684 Infinitive clauses 686 Overview 686 9.4.2 Post-predicate infinitive clauses controlled by verbs 9.4.2.1 Grammatical patterns 686 9.4.1 686 Pattern i: Verb + to-clause 687 Pattern 2: Verb + NP + fo-clause 688 Pattern 2: NP2 + passive verb + to-clause 9.4.շ.շ 9.4.2.3 9.4.2.4 9.4.2.5 9.4.2.6 9·4·2.7 690 690 Register distribution of verb patterns 691 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain 692 9.4.2.8 9.4.2.9 Interaction between the characteristics of controlling verbs Common controlling verbs across registers 701 Pattern 3: Verb + for NP + to-clause 700
Table of contents 9.43 9-4-4 9.4.5 9.4.6 9.4.7 Verbstaking extraposed fo-clauses 706 Subject noun phrases and subject predicative to-clauses 707 То-clauses controlled by adjectives 708 9-4-5-1 Grammatical patterns 708 9-4-5.2 Adjectives taking post-predicate to-clauses 709 9·4·53 Adjectival predicates taking extraposed to-clauses 712 Grammatical distribution of to-clauses 713 Pre-predicate v. extraposed to-clauses 715 9.4.7.1 Register factors 715 9·4·7·2 Information structure 717 9.4.7.3 Grammatical complexity 719 9-4-8 9·4·7·4 Stylistic preference 720 Object-to-subject raising v. extraposed to-clauses with adjectives 9.4.8.1 Register factors 721 9.4.9 9.4.8.2 Grammatical complexity and information packaging 9.4.8.3 Stylistic preference 723 Subject-to-subject raising v. extraposed that-clauses 723 9.4.9.1 Information packaging 723 9·4·9.2 Register factors 724 9-4-93 Clauses with seem and appear 725 9-4.9-4 Clauses with likely and unlikely 726 9.4.10 То-clause v. bare infinitive clause with dore and help 720 721 727 9.4.10.1 Dialect factors 727 9.4.10.2 Register factors 728 9.4.10.3 The pattern to help + infinitive 9.4.11 Try + to + verb v. try + and + verb 9.4.11.1 9.5 /ng-clauses 9.59-5-2 9-6 732 Grammatical patterns 732 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain 733 Common controlling verbs across registers 738 Adjectival predicates controlling/ng-clauses 741 Post-predicate /ng-clauses across registers 742 Objective v. possessive NP with rng-clauses 742 9.5.5.1 Register distribution 743 Ellipsis and pro-form substitution in post-predicate complement clauses 9.6.1 9-7 732 1
Overview 732 Post-predicate fng-clauses controlled by verbs 9.5.2.1 9-S-2.2 9.5.2.3 9-53 9-5-4 9.5.5 Distributional factors 729 730 730 Verbs occurring commonly with ellipsis and pro-form substitution Choice of complement clause type 9.7.1 9.7.2 9.73 9.7.4 746 Register distribution, structural factors, and semantic factors Lexico-grammatical factors 748 Thaf-clauses v. non-finite clauses 748 Infinitive v./ng-clause 750 746 744 743 xxi
xxii Grammar of Spoken and Written English Chapter io. Adverbials 10.1 10.2 Overview 754 10.1.1 The three classes of adverbial 755 10.1.1.1 Frequency of the three classes of adverbial 757 10.1.2 Syntactic realizations of adverbials 759 10.1.2.1 Syntactic realizations of the three adverbial classes 10.1.3 Positions of adverbials in the clause 762 10.1.3.1 Frequencies of positions of adverbials 764 10.1.4 Adverbial variation in relation to other elements 767 753 760 Circumstance adverbials 768 10.2.1 Semantic categories of circumstance adverbials 768 10.2.1.1 Place 768 10.2.1.2 Time 769 10.2.1.3 Process 769 10.2.1.4 Contingency 771 10.2.1.5 Extent/degree 772 10.2.1.6 Addition/restriction 772 10.2.1.7 Recipient 773 10.2.1.8 Other semantic relationships 773 10.2.1.9 Overlap and ambiguity 774 10.2.2 Distribution of semantic categories 775 10.2.3 Overview of syntactic realizations of semantic categories 779 10.2.4 Syntactic realizations of circumstance adverbials (excluding clauses) 781 10.2.4.1 Semantic categories within syntactic forms 781 10.2.4.2 Length of prepositional phrases 783 10.2.4.3 Diversity in adverb and prepositional phrase circumstance adverbials 785 10.2.5 Most common circumstance adverbials 788 10.2.6 Position of circumstance adverbials 793 10.2.6.1 Associations between positions and semantic categories 794 10.2.6.2 Relationships between position, grammatical structure, and length 798 Ю.2.7 Circumstance adverbials in series 802 10.2.7.1 Heterosemantic place, time, and manner series 803 10.2.7.2 Homosemantic place, time, and manner series 807 10.2.7.3 Series of
three and more adverbials 809 10.2.8 Clauses as circumstance adverbials 810 10.2.8л Semantic categories of circumstance adverbial clauses 811 10.2.8.2 Distribution of clausal semantic categories 813 10.2.8.3 Syntactic forms of circumstance adverbial clauses 818 10.2.8.4 Distribution of clausal syntactic forms 818 10.2.8.5 Dangling participles 822 10.2.8.6 Positions of adverbial clauses 823 10.2.8.7 Subordinators and adverbial clauses 830 10.2.8.8 Subordinators with non-finite adverbial clauses 831
Table of contents xxiii 10.2.8.9 Most common subordinators across registers 833 10.2.8.10 Common subordinators with multiple semantic roles 838 10.2.8.11 Though as subordinatorv. linking adverbial 842 10.2.8.12 Conditional clauses with if v. subject-operator inversion 844 10.3 Stance adverbials 845 10.3.1 Semantic categories of stance adverbials 846 10.3.1.1 Epistemic stance adverbials 846 10.3.1.2 Attitude adverbials 848 10.3.1.3 Style adverbials 849 10.3.1.4 Ambiguity with other adverbial classes 849 10.3.1.5 Distribution of semantic categories 851 10.3.2 Syntactic realizations of stance adverbials 853 10.3.2.1 Distribution of syntactic forms 854 10.3.2.2 Sentence relatives as stance adverbials 859 10.3.3 Most common stance adverbials across registers 860 10.3.4 Positions of stance adverbials 864 10.3.5 Other discourse functions of stance adverbials 866 10.4 Linking adverbials 867 10.4.1 Semantic categories of linking adverbials 867 10.4.1.1 Enumeration and addition 867 10.4.1.2 Summation 868 10.4.1.3 Apposition 868 10.4.1.4 Result/inference 869 10.4.1.5 Contrast/concession 870 10.4.1.6 Transition 871 10.4.1.7 Overlap of linking adverbials and other adverbial classes 10.4.1.8 Distribution of semantic categories 872 10.4.2 Syntactic realizations of linking adverbials 876 10.4.2.1 Distribution of syntactic forms 876 10.4.3 Most common linking adverbials 878 10.4.3.1 Most common linking adverbials in conversation and academic prose 878 10.4.3.2 Stylistic preferences for linking adverbials 881 10.4.4 Positions of linking adverbials 882 Section E. Grammar in a wider
perspective 885 Chapter 11. Word order and related syntactic choices 11.1 11.2 Overview 888 11.1.1 Information flow 888 11.1.2 Focus, emphasis, contrast, and intensification 11.1.3 Weight 890 Word order 890 11.2.1 Grammatical principles of word order 891 871 889 887
xxiv Grammar of Spoken and Written English 11.2.2 Fronting 892 11.2.2.1 Fronted objects and other nominals 11.2.2.2 Fronted predicatives 894 892 11.2.2.3 Fronted infinitive predicates 897 11.2.2.4 Fronted ed- and /rig-predicates 898 11.2.2.5 Fronting in dependent clauses 900 11.2.2.6 Fronting in exclamations 901 11.2.2.7 Fronting: Distribution 901 11.2.3 Inversion of subject and verb or operator 903 11.2.3.1 Subject-verb inversion 903 11.2.3.2 Subject-operator inversion 907 11.2.3.3 Inversion after the linking forms so, nor, and neither 11.2.3.4 Special cases of inversion in independent clauses 11.2.3.5 Inversion in dependent clauses 910 11.2.3.6 11.2.3.7 11.2.3.8 11.2.4 Inversion in reporting clauses 913 Reporting clauses in fiction and news 914 Inversion in general: Distribution 917 Word-order options at the end of the clause 918 11.2.4.1 The placement of direct and indirect objects 919 11.2.4.2 Pronoun sequences as direct and indirect object 11.2.4.3 Clauses with direct objects and object predicatives 11.2.4.4 The placement of objects of phrasal verbs 923 11.3 The passive 927 11.3.1 Types of passive construction 11.3.2 11.3.3 11.3.4 11.4 909 909 920 922 927 Passives across syntactic positions and registers 928 The long passive 931 11.3. 3.1 Length of subject v. agent phrase in long passives 931 11.3.3 -2 Givenness of subject v. agent phrase 932 Comparison of discourse functions of the long and short passive 934 Existential there 934 11.4.1 The grammatical status of existential there 935 11.4.2 Variation in the verb phrase 936 11.4.2.1 Verb constructions other than simple
be 11.43 The notional subject 937 11.4.4 Adverbial expansions 938 11.4.5 Existential and locative there 939 11.4.6 Simple v. complex existential clauses 940 11.4.7 Discourse functions of existential clauses 942 936 11.4.8 Existential clause v. locative inversion 945 11.4.8.1 Existential clause v. locative inversion: Distribution 11.4.9 Existential constructions with there v. have 946 11.5 Dislocation 947 11.5.1 Prefaces 948 11.5.2 Noun phrase tags 11.5.3 948 Prefaces and noun phrase tags: Distribution 948 945
Table of contents 11.6 Clefting 11.6.1 11.6.2 950 /r-clefts fVfi-clefts 950 951 11.6.3 Reversed wfi-clefts 951 11.6.4 Cleft constructions: Distribution 11.7 952 Syntactic choices in conversation v. academic prose 955 Chapter 12. The grammatical marking of stance 12.1 Overview 12.1.1 12.1.2 12.2 12.4 958 Paralinguistic and non-linguistic devices Lexical marking of stance 959 960 Major grammatical devices used to express stance 12.2.1 12.3 957 961 Variability in the structural characteristics of stance devices Major semantic distinctions conveyed by stance markers 12.3.1 12.3.2 Epistemic stance 964 Attitudinal stance 966 123.3 Style of speaking stance 967 Attribution of stance to the speaker or writer 12.4.1 Explicit attribution of stance 968 968 12.4.2 Implicit attribution of stance to the speaker/writer 12.4.3 Ambiguous attribution of stance 969 12.5 963 964 Register differences in the marking of stance 969 970 12.5.1 12.5.2 Major stance devices across registers 970 Stance adverbials across registers 973 12.5.3 Stance complement constructions across registers 976 Chapter 13. Lexical expressions in speech and writing 13.1 13.2 Overview 980 Lexical bundles 13.2.1 13.2.2 13.2.3 982 Operational definition of lexical bundles 984 13.2.1.1 Lexical bundles in conversation and academic prose Key to lists of lexical bundles 993 Lexical bundles in conversation 994 13.2.3.1 Personal pronoun + lexical verb phrase (+complement-clause fragment) 995 13.2.3.2 Pronoun/noun phrase + be + 998 13.2.3.3 Verb phrase with active verb 999 13.2.3.4 Ves-no question fragments 13.23.5 13.2.3.6 13.2.3.7
13.2.3.8 13.23.9 13.2.3.10 979 1000 Hffi-question fragments 1001 Lexical bundles with wh-clause fragments 1002 Lexical bundles with to-clause fragments 1003 Verb + řfiař-clause fragments 1003 Adverbial clause fragments 1004 Noun phrase expressions 1005 985 xxv
xxvi Grammar of Spoken and Written English 13.2.3.11 Prepositional phrase expressions 13.2.3.12 Quantifier expressions 1006 1005 13.2.3.13 Other expressions 1007 13.2.3.14 Meaningless sound bundles 1007 13.2.4 Lexical bundles in academic prose 1007 13.2.4.1 13.2.4.2 13.2.4.3 13.2.4.4 13.2.4.5 13.2.4.6 Noun phrase with or-phrase fragment 1008 Noun phrase with other post-modifier fragments 1009 Prepositional phrase with embedded of-phrase fragment Other prepositional phrase (fragment) 1011 Anticipatory it + verb phrase/adjective phrase 1012 Passive verb + prepositional phrase fragment 1013 13.2.4.7 13.2.4.8 13.2.4.9 13.2.4.10 13.2.4.11 Copula be + noun phrase/adjective phrase 1014 (Verb phrase +) that-clause fragment 1014 (Verb/adjective+) to-clause fragment Adverbial clause fragment 1016 Pronoun/noun phrase + be (+ .) 13.2.4.12 Other expressions 13.3 13.4 13-5 1016 1018 Verb + noun phrase combinations with have, make, and take Free combinations of verb + particle Coordinated binomial phrases 13.5.1 13.5.2 1015 1017 Idiomatic phrases 1017 13.3.1 Idiomatic phrases across registers 13.3.2 1010 1019 1022 1023 Key to lists of binomial phrases Verb and/or verb 1024 1024 13·5·3 Noun and/or noun 1026 13.5.4 Adjective and/or adjective 1027 13.5.5 Adverb and/or adverb 1029 Chapter 14. The grammar of conversation 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 14.1.2 1031 1032 An example of conversation 1034 Afunctional survey of conversation 1035 14.1.2.1 Conversation takes place in the spoken medium 1035 14.1.2.2 Conversation takes place in shared context 1036 14.1.2.3 Conversation avoids elaboration or
specification of meaning 14.1.2.4 Conversation is interactive 1039 14.1.2.5 Conversation is expressive of politeness, emotion, and attitude 14.1.2.6 Conversation takes place in real time 1042 14.1.2.7 Conversation has a restricted and repetitive repertoire 1043 14.1.2.8 Conversation employs a vernacular range of expression 1044 14.1.2.9 Lack of functional explanation 1045 14.2 Performance phenomena: Dysfluency and error 14.2.1 Hesitations: Silent and filled pauses 14.2.1.1 1046 1047 Frequency of filled and unfilled pauses 1048 1038 1041
Table of contents xxvii 14-2.2 14.2.3 Repeats 1049 14.2.2.1 Multiple consecutive repeats 14.2.2.2 Frequency of repeats 1051 1049 14.2.2.3 Repeats of forms with verb contractions 1055 Retrace-and-repair sequences: Reformulations 1056 1057 14.2.4 Utterances left grammatically incomplete 14.2.5 Syntactic blends 1059 14.2.5.1 14.3 14.3.1 14.3.2 1060 Syntactic blends v. semantic gap-filling clauses The constructional principles of spoken grammar 1060 Principles of online production 1061 14.3.1.1 Parenthetical structures 1062 14.3.1.2 The'add-on'strategy 1062 14.3.1.3 Clausal and non-clausal units (C-units) 1063 14.3.1.4 Distribution of clausal and non-clausal units 1065 Prefaces, bodies, and tags 1066 14.3.2.1 Prefaces and other utterance launchers 1068 14.3.2.2 The ambivalent grammatical status of utterance launchers 14.3.2.3 Extending the body 1073 14.3.2.4 Tags 1074 14·3·3 More on non-clausal units: Inserts 1076 14.3.3.1 Interjections 1078 14.3.3.2 Greetings and farewells 1080 14·3·3·3 Discourse markers 1081 14.3.3.4 Attention signals 1083 14·3.3·5 Response elicitors 1083 14.3.3.6 Response forms 1084 14.3·3·7 Hesitators 1087 14.3.3.8 Various polite speech-act formulae 1087 14·3·3·9 Expletives 1088 14.3.3.10 Distribution of inserts 1090 14.3.4 Syntactic non-clausal units 1093 14.3.4.1 Elliptic replies 1094 14.3.4.2 Other types of syntactic non-clausal unit 14.3.5 14·3·5·5 14.4 Distribution of initial, medial, and end ellipsis Selected topics in conversational grammar 14.4.1 1095 14.3.4.3 Elliptic phrasal non-clausal units in their context Ellipsis in clausal units 1099
14.3.5.1 Initial (situational) ellipsis 1099 14.3.5.2 Initial ellipsis 1100 14·3.5·3 Final (post-operator) ellipsis 1101 14.3.5.4 Medial (operator) ellipsis 1102 A closer look at vocatives 1103 14.4.1.1 The distribution of vocatives 1103 1105 1098 1102 1070
xxviii Grammar of Spoken and Written English 14-4-2 Conducive yes-no interrogatives 1108 14.4.2.1 Negative yes-no interrogatives 1108 14.4.2.2 Negative v. positive yes-no interrogatives 1109 14.4.2.3 Assertive yes-no questions 1110 14.4.2.4 Assertive v. non-assertive yes-no questions wo 14.4.3 First person imperatives with let's 1111 14.4.3.1 Common accompaniments of let's 1112 14.4.4 Direct speech reporting (quoted speech) 1113 14.4.4.1 Using utterance-launchers to open quoted speech 14.4.4.2 Repetition of reporting clauses 1114 14.4.4.3 Reporting clauses with go 1114 14.4.4.4 Opening quoted speech with be + like, all 14.4.4.5 The past progressive with reporting verbs 14.4.5 Vernacular or non-standard grammar 1116 1113 1114 1115 14.4.5.1 Morphophonemic variants 1117 14.4.5.2 Morphological variants 1117 14.4.5.3 Morphosyntactic variants 14.4.5.4 Syntactic variants 1119 14.4.5.5 Conclusion 1120 1118 Appendix: Contractions 1121 Notes 1133 Bibliography 1143 Lexical index 1159 Conceptual index 1189 |
| adam_txt |
Grammar of Spoken and Written English The completely redesigned Grammar of Spoken and Written English is а comprehensive corpus-based reference grammar. GSWE describes the structural characteristics of grammatical constructions in English, as do other reference grammars. But GSWE is unique in that it gives equal attention to describing the patterns of language use for each grammatical feature, based on empirical analyses of grammatical patterns in a 40-million-word corpus of spoken and written registers. Grammar-in-use is characterized by three inter-related kinds ofinformation: frequency of grammatical features in spoken and written registers, frequencies of the most common lexico-grammatical patterns, and analysis of the discourse factors influencing choices among related grammatical features. GSWE includes over 350 tables and figures highlighting the results of corpus-based investigations. Throughout the book, authentic examples illustrate all research findings. The empirical descriptions document the lexico-grammatical features that are especially common in face-to-face-conversation compared to those that are. especially common in academic writing. Analyses of fiction and newspaper articles are included as further benchmarks of language use. GSWE contains over 6,000 authentic examples from these four registers, illustrating the range of lexico-grammatical features in real-world speech and writing. In addition, comparisons between British and American English reveal specific regional differences. Now completely redesigned and available in an electronic edition, the
Grammar of Spoken and Written English remains a unique and indispensable reference work for researchers, language teachers, and students alike.
Table of contents Abbreviations and symbols xi Preface xiii Symbols and notational conventions 1.1 Section A. Introductory 1 Chapter 1. Introduction 3 Introduction 1.1.1 1.2 1.3.4 1.7 1.8 1.10 25 Register distinctions in the LSWE Corpus 25 Dialect distinctions in the LSWE Corpus 26 Size of the LSWE Corpus 27 Representativeness and accuracy of the LSWE Corpus Conversation 29 Fiction 30 News 31 Academic prose 33 Supplementary registers 34 Grammatical analysis of the LSWE Corpus 35 Quantitative findings in the grammar 38 Functional interpretation of quantitative findings 1.8.1 1.8.2 1.8.3 1.8.4 1.9 15 Registers of English 15 Dialect distinctions 17 Standard and non-standard English 18 1.3.3.1 Variation within standard English 18 1.3.3.2 Variation within non-standard English 20 The relative importance of register and dialect differences 21 27 Description of the register categories in the LSWE Corpus 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.5.4 1-5.5 1.6 б Register distribution 9 Lexico-grammatical patterns 13 Grammatical/discourse factors 14 Representation of varieties in the LSWE Corpus 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.5 5 Varieties of English 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.4 4 Major goals of the GSWE Structure and use in English grammar 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.3 xvii Function as the performance of tasks 41 Function as a reflection of processing constraints Function as social or situational indexing 43 Other explanatory considerations 44 Overview of the grammar 44 Potential users and uses of the GSWE 45 41 43 29
vi Grammar of Spoken and Written English 49 Section B. Basic grammar Chapter 2. Word and phrase grammar 51 2.1 The nature of grammatical units 2.2 Words and their characteristics 53 2.2.1 Word types and word tokens 54 2.2.1.1 Use of words in text examples 54 2.2.1.2 TTR across the registers 55 2.2.2 Orthographic words, grammatical words, and lexemes 2.2.3 The three major word classes 57 2.2.3.1 Lexical words 57 2.2.3.2 Function words 57 2.2.3.3 Inserts 58 2.2.4 Closed systems v. open classes 58 2.2.5 The structure of words: Morphology 59 2.2.5.1 Inflection 59 2.2.5.2 Derivation бо 2.2.5.3 Compounding 60 2.2.5.4 Multi-word lexical units 61 2.2.6 Core v. peripheral members of word classes 61 2.2.7 Multiple class membership 62 2.2.8 Use of lexical words, function words, and inserts 63 2.2.9 Lexical density 64 2.3 2.4 52 Survey of lexical words 64 2.3.1 Nouns 65 2.3.2 Lexical verbs 65 2.3.3 Adjectives 66 2.3.4 Adverbs 66 2.3.5 Lexical word classes 67 2.3.6 Borderline cases of lexical word class membership 56 69 Survey of function words 71 2.4-1 Determiners 72 2.4.2 Pronouns 72 2.4.2л Overlap of pronoun, determiner, and adverb classes 73 շ.4.շ.շ Other pro-forms 74 2.4.3 Primary auxiliaries 75 2.4.4 Modal auxiliaries 75 2.4.5 Prepositions 76 2.4.5.1 Free v. bound prepositions 76 2.4·5·2 Complex prepositions 77 2.4.5.3 Overlap between prepositions and other word classes 78 2.4.6 Adverbial particles 80 2.4.6.1 Adverbial particles v. adverbs 80 շ.4.6.շ Adverbial particles v. prepositions 80
Table of contents 2.4.7 Coordinators 8i 2.4.7.1 Correlative coordinators 82 Coordinators v. other word classes 82 2.4.7.3 Simple coordinators: Distribution 83 2.4·7·4 Sentence/turn-initial coordinators 86 2.4.7.5 Correlative coordinators: Distribution 88 2.48 Subordinators 88 2.4.8 .1 Complex subordinators 88 2-4-8.2 Correlative subordinators 89 2.4.8 .3 Overlap between subordinators and other word classes 2-4-9 И/Л-words 90 2.4.10 Existential there 91 2.4.11 The negator not 91 2.4.12 The infinitive marker to 92 շ.4-7.2 2.4- 13 Numerals 92 2-4-13-1 Cardinals 92 2.4-13-2 Ordinals 93 2.4.13.3 Numerals: Distribution 93 2.4.14 Major function word classes: Distribution ■ 2.5 Survey of inserts 2.6 Phrases and their characteristics 2.6.1 Constituency 98 2.6.2 2.6.3 2.7 2.7-1 2.7.3 2.7.4 2.7.5 101 Discontinuous noun phrases 102 104 Verb phrases 104 2.7.2.1 The syntactic role of verb phrases շ.7.շ.շ Discontinuous verb phrases 105 2.7.2.3 Auxiliary-only verb phrases 105 105 Adjective phrases 106 2.7.3 -1 The syntactic roles of adjective phrases 2.7.3 .2 Discontinuous adjective phrases 106 Adverb phrases 107 106 2.7.4.1 The syntactic roles of adverb phrases 107 Prepositional phrases 108 2.7.5.1 Extended prepositional phrases 108 2.7- 5.2 The syntactic roles of prepositional phrases 109 .5-3 Stranded prepositions 109 ·5·4 Stranded prepositions in independent w/i-questions Genitive phrases 113 2.7 2.7 2.7.6 99 Noun phrases 101 2.7.1.1 The syntactic roles of noun phrases 2.7.1.2 2.7.2 98 Form v. syntactic role of phrases Phrases in text samples 99 Types of phrases 94 97 no 89 vii
viii Grammar of Spoken and Written English 2.7.7 Numeral phrases 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 .7.1 ·7·2 .7.3 ·7·4 113 Complex numbers 114 Types of numerical expressions 114 Approximate numbers 116 Approximating numeral expressions 2.8 Embedding of phrases 2.9 Coordination of phrases 118 2.9.1 Phrasal v. clausal coordination 2.9.2 117 117 119 Coordination tags 120 2.9.2.1 Distribution of coordination tags 120 2.10 Simple v. complex phrases 3.1 Clause v. non-clausal material 124 3.1.1 Use of clauses v. non-clausal material in text samples 121 Chapters. Clause grammar 3.2 123 Major clause elements 3.2.1 126 127 Semantic roles of subjects 128 Dummy subjects 129 Subjects in non-finite clauses 129 Subject (S) 3.2.1.1 3.2.1.2 3.2.1.3 3.2.2 3.2.3 Verb phrase (V) 130 Subject predicative (Ps) 3.2.4 Direct object (Od) 130 3.2.4.1 Semantic roles of direct objects 3.2.4.2 Dummy objects 132 130 3.2.5 3.2.6 Indirect object (O¡) 132 Prepositional object (Op) 3.2.7 3.2.8 Object predicative (Po) 134 Adverbials (A) 134 3.2.8.1 Circumstance adverbials (Ac) 3.2.8.2 Stance adverbials (As) 135 3.2.8.3 Linking adverbials (A¡) 137 The operator 137 3.2.9 133 135 3.3 Clause links 3.4 Peripheral elements 140 3.4.1 Detached predicatives and related forms 3.4.2 Parentheticals 141 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.5 3.4.6 3.5 131 138 Prefaces 141 142 Tags 143 Discourse markers Vocatives 144 144 Major clause patterns 145 3.5.1 Subject ֊ verb phrase 145 3.5.2 Subject - verb phrase - obligatory adverbial 147 124
Table of contents Subject ֊ verb phrase - subject predicative 149 3.5.3.1 The characterizing pattern 149 3.5.3.2 The identifying pattern 150 3.5.4 Subject - verb phrase - direct object 150 3·5·5 Subject-verb phrase-prepositional object 152 3.5.6 Subject ֊ verb phrase - indirect object - direct object 154 3-5.7 Subject - verb phrase - direct object - prepositional object 154 3.5.8 Subject - verb phrase - direct object - object predicative 154 3·5·9 Subject ֊ verb phrase - direct object - obligatory adverbial 155 3.5.10 More complex patterns 156 3.5.3 3.6 Variations on clause patterns 156 3.6.1 Order variations 156 3.6.1.1 Inversion 156 3.6.1.2 Fronting 156 3.6.1.3 Postponement 157 3.6.2 The passive 157 3.6.3 Existential there 158 3.6.4 Extraposition 158 3.6.5 Clefting 158 3.6.6 Condensation 159 3.7 Ellipsis 159 3.7.1 Ellipsis in coordinated clauses 159 3.7.2 Ellipsis in comparative clauses 160 3.7.3 Ellipsis in question-answer sequences 160 3.7-4 Other types of textual ellipsis 160 3.7.5 Omission of function words and situational ellipsis 3.8 Negation 162 3.8.1 Overall frequency of negation 162 3.8.2 A/ot-negation 163 3.8.2.1 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with transitive have (got) 163 3.8.2.2 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with the semi-modal have to 165 3.8.2.3 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with dare and need 166 3.8.2.4 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with ought to and used to 167 3.8.2.5 Full form v. operator contraction v. not-contraction 168 3.8.2.6 Aren't I and ain’t 169 3.8.3 Л/o-negation 170 3.8.4 Occurrence of not-negation v. no-negation
172 3.8.4л Variability of not-negation and no-negation 172 3.8.4.2 Relative frequency of not-negation v. no-negation 173 3.8.4.3 Choice of no-negation v. not-negation 173 3.8.4.4 Л/ot-negation collocations 176 3.8.5 The scope of negation 177 3.8.6 Assertive and non-assertive forms 178 3.8.7 Multiple negation 180 3.8.7 л Dependent multiple negation 180 3.8.7 .2 Independent multiple negation 181 161 ix
x Grammar of Spoken and Written English 39 Subject-verb concord 3.9л 3.9.2 3.9.3 3.9.4 3.9.5 ЗЛО 3·11 ЗЛ2 182 Complications with concord patterns 183 3.9.1л Concord with plural forms not ending in-s 183 3.9Л.2 Concord with singular forms ending in-s 184 3.9Л.3 Concord with coordinated subjects 184 3.9Л.4 Concord with indefinite pronouns and quantifying expressions 3.9Л.5 Concord with existential there 187 3.9Л.6 Concord with clausal subjects 188 Notional concord 189 3.9.2.1 Concord with names, titles, and quotations 189 3.9.2.2 Concord with measure expressions 189 3.9.2.3 Concord with collective nouns 190 Concord and proximity 191 Non-standard concord in conversation 192 Subject-verb concord and pronominal reference 3.11.1 3.11.2 3.11.3 Nominal clauses 195 Adverbial clauses 196 Relative clauses 197 3.11.4 3.П.5 3.11.6 3.11.7 Comparative clauses and other degree clauses Reporting clauses 198 Comment clauses 198 Other peripheral clauses 199 Non-finite clauses 3.12.1 3.12.2 3.12.3 Ed-clauses 200 202 202 Major types of independent clauses 3.13.1 3.13.2 197 199 Infinitive clauses /ng-clauses 201 3.12.4 Supplementive clauses 3.12.5 Verbless clauses 203 ЗЛЗ 194 Types of dependent clauses 194 Finite dependent clauses 195 Declarative clauses 203 204 Interrogative clauses 205 3.13.2.1 IVh-questions 205 3.13.2.2 Ves/no-questions 208 3.13.2.3 Alternative questions 209 3.13.2.4 Question tags 209 3.13.2.5 Interrogatives in general: Distribution 3.13.2.6 Question types: Distribution 212 213 3.13.2.7 Choice between interrogative who and whom 215 3.13.2.8 Auxiliary do in independent
interrogative clauses 216 3.13.3 Exclamative clauses 220 3.13.4 Imperative clauses 220 3.13.4.1 The realization of imperative clauses 3.13.4.2 Imperative clauses: Distribution ЗЛ4 Unembedded dependent clauses 224 222 221 t86
Table of contents 3.15 Non-clausal material 3.15.1 3.15.2 225 Non-clausal material in writing 225 Non-clausal material in conversation 226 Chapter 4. Nouns, pronouns, and the simple noun phrase 4.1 Overview of nominals in discourse 232 4.1.1 Use of nominals in discourse 232 4.1.1.1 Density and types of nominal elements 232 4.1.1.2 The role of nominal elements in discourse 233 4.1.1.3 Establishing reference 234 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.1.4 Chains of reference 236 Pronouns v. full noun phrases 237 The forms of anaphoric expressions 239 Forms of anaphoric expression in relation to distance 4.2 The basic structure of noun-headed phrases 4.3 Types of nouns 243 4.3.1 Use of countable nouns in Text samples 244 4.3.2 Use of uncountable nouns in Text samples 244 4·3·2.1 4.3.2.2 4.3.3 242 Countable and uncountable uses of nouns Plural uncountables 246 Proper nouns 246 4.3.3.1 Initial capitals 240 245 247 4.3.4 4·3·3·2 Proper nouns regularly occurring with the definite article 4-3.3.3 Proper nouns functioning as common nouns 248 Collective nouns 249 4.3.5 4.3.4.1 Collocations of quantifying collectives Unit nouns 251 4.3.6 4.3.7 4.3.8 4-4 231 250 4֊3·5·1 Collocations of unit nouns 252 Quantifying nouns 253 4.3.6.1 Collocations of types of quantifying nouns 4.3.6.2 Pair v. couple 256 Species nouns 256 4.3.7.1 Species nouns: Distribution Noun v. determiner 258 247 253 257 Determiners 259 4.4.1 The articles 260 4.4-1.1 4.4.1.2 4.4.1.3 4.4.1.4 4.4.1.5 4.4.1.6 4.4.1.7 4.4.1.8 The indefinite article 260 The zero article 262 The definite article 264 Generic reference 266 Reference patterns of
definite noun phrases 267 Definite and indefinite articles: Distribution 268 Definite and indefinite articles in relation to syntactic role Definite determiners: Distribution 271 270 xi
xii Grammarof Spoken and Written English 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4·4·5 4-5 272 4.4.2.1 Possessive determiners: Distribution 272 Demonstrative determiners 273 4.4.3.1 Demonstrative determiners: Distribution 275 Quantifiers 276 4.4.4.1 Quantifiers: Distribution 278 4.4.6 Numerals 279 4.4.5.1 Numerals across the registers Semi-determiners 281 4.4.7 4.4.6л Other uses of the semi-determiners 282 4·4·6.2 Semi-determiners: Distribution 283 wh-determiners 284 4.4.8 Determiner v. pronoun 280 285 4.5.2 285 Regular plurals 285 4.5.1.1 Plurals of words ending in-o Irregular plurals 286 4-5-3 4.5.4 Latin and Greek plurals Zero plurals 289 4-5-5 4.5.6 Plural-only nounsand nouns in-S 290 Singular v. plural nouns: Distribution 291 Case 4.6л 4.6.2 292 The form of the genitive 293 4.6.1.1 Genitive v. common case 294 The frequency of genitive case forms 294 4.6.3 4.6.4 Specifying genitives Classifying genitives 4.6.5 4.6.6 4.6.7 4-6.8 Genitives of time 296 Genitives of measure 296 Number 4·5·ΐ 4.6 Possessive determiners 4.6.4.1 286 287 294 295 Classifying genitives: Use 296 297 Other independent genitives 298 4.6.8 л Independent genitives unsupported by the linguistic context 4.6.9 Group genitives 298 4.6.10 The double genitive 299 4.6.11 Density of genitives 300 Elliptic genitives 4.6.12 Choice between s-genitives and of-phrases 4.6.12.1 S-genitives and of-phrases overall 301 302 4.6.12.2 S-genitives and of-phrases and the dependent noun 4.6.12.3 4.6.12.4 4.6.12.5 4.6.12.6 4.6.12.7 303 Meanings of s-genitives and of-phrases 304 S-genitives and of-phrases and length 305 S-genitives and of-phrases
and information status 306 S-genitives and of-phrases in collocations 306 Summary of choice between s-genitives and of-phrases 307 298
Table of contents 4.6.13 Choice between elliptic genitives and of-constructions 307 4.6.13.1 Elliptic genitives v. of-constructions: Distribution 308 4.6.14 Choice between the double genitive and related constructions 308 4.6.14.1 The double genitive v. corresponding constructions with possessive pronouns 308 4.6.14.2 The double genitive v. ordinary of-phrases 310 4.7 Gender 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.8 312 Lexical expression of gender 312 4·7.1.1 Words for masculine/feminine gender 313 4.7.1.2 Lexical means of expressing dual gender reference Gender-specific v. dual gender pronoun reference 316 4-7.2.1 Grammatical means for dual gender reference 317 Personal v. non-personal reference with pronouns 317 Noun formation 4.8.1 315 318 Derived nouns 318 4.8.1.1 Derivational prefixes used to form new nouns 319 Some common derivational suffix patterns 320 Frequency of common noun derivational suffixes 322 4.8.1.4 Productivity of common noun derivations 322 Formation of nouns through compounding 325 4.8.1.2 4.8.1.3 4.8.2 4.8.2.1 Noun compounds in conversation and news in AmE 4.9 The role of pronouns in discourse 4.10 Personal pronouns 327 4.10.1 Specific reference 328 325 327 4.10.1.1 Problems in the use of first person plural pronouns 328 4.10.1.2 Problems in the use of second person pronouns 329 4.10.1.3 Problems in the use of third person pronouns 330 4.10.2 Referring to people in general 330 4.10.3 Special problems with collective nouns 4.10.4 Special uses of/t 331 331 4.10.5 Personal pronouns: Distribution 332 4.10.6 Nominative v. accusative forms of personal pronouns 4.10.6.1
4.10.6.2 4.10.6.3 4.10.6.4 334 334 Pronoun choice after as and than 335 Pronoun choice in coordinated noun phrases 336 Pronoun choice in peripheral and non-integrated noun phrases Pronoun choice after forms of be 4.10.6.5 Summary of factors affecting pronoun case choice 4.11 Possessive pronouns 339 4.11.1 The type a friend of mine 340 4.11.2 Possessive pronouns: Distribution 4.12 340 Reflexive pronouns 341 4.12.1 Reflexive pronouns: Distribution 343 4.12.2 Emphatic reflexive pronouns 344 338 338 xiii
xiv Grammar of Spoken and Written English 4.13 Reciprocal pronouns 4.13.1 4.14 345 Reciprocal pronouns: Distribution 345 Demonstrative pronouns 346 Demonstrative pronouns: Distribution 4.14.1 347 4.14.2 This/these in academic prose 348 4.14.3 Those with postmodifying phrases or clauses 348 4.14.4 The demonstrative pronoun that in conversation 348 4.15 4.14.5 That in general 349 Indefinite pronouns 350 4.15.1 Indefinite pronouns: Distribution 4.15.2 The pronoun one 351 351 4.15.2.1 The pronoun one: Distribution 4.16 Other pronouns 5.1 Major verb functions and classes 352 353 Chapters. Verbs 5.2 355 5.1.1 356 Frequency of lexical, modal, and primary auxiliary verbs 5.1.2 Distribution of lexical verbs and copula be across registers 356 357 Single-word lexical verbs 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 359 Classification ofverbs into semantic domains 359 5.2.1.1 Major semantic domains of single-word verbs 5.2.1.2 Distribution of semantic domains 363 5.2.1.3 Semantic domains of verbs 364 Most common lexical verbs 371 5.2.2.1 Overall use of the most common lexical verbs 371 5.2.2.2 Most common verbs in each register 373 Verbs with animate and inanimate subjects 378 Valency patterns for single-word lexical verbs 380 5.2.4л Valencies of common verbs across semantic domains 382 5.2.4.2 Variation in verb valency patterns 384 5.2.4.3 Intransitive and monotransitive patterns 384 5.2.4.4 Intransitive, monotransitive, and complex transitive patterns 5.2.4·5 Intransitive, monotransitive, and ditransitive patterns 387 5.2.4·6 Monotransitive and ditransitive but not intransitive patterns 5.2.4.7
Verbstaking almost all patterns 389 Տ.շ.4.8 General patterns 391 Regular lexical verb inflections 392 5.2.5.1 Consonant doubling of regularly inflected verbs 393 Doubling of base-final/followed by-ed across dialects Irregular lexical verb inflections 393 5.2.6.1 Classes of irregular verbs 394 5.2.6.2 Regular and irregular forms 395 5.2.6.3 Got and gotten 398 S.2.5.2 5.2.6 360 393 386 388
Table of contents 5.2.7 5-3 Verb derivation 399 5.2.7.1 Most frequent verb derivational affixes 5.2.7.2 Productivity of verb derivational affixes Multi-word lexical verbs 403 5.3л Features distinguishing multi-word verb combinations 403 5.3.1.1 Multi-word combinations functioning as different structural categories 405 5.3.2 Phrasal verbs 407 5.3.2л Semantic domains of phrasal verbs 407 5.3.2.2 Register distribution of phrasal verbs 408 5.3.2.3 5.3.2.4 53·3 412 414 Register distribution of prepositional verbs 414 The most common prepositional verbs 415 Productivity of particular verbs and prepositions 421 5.3.4 Phrasal-prepositional verbs 422 5.3.4.1 Register distribution of phrasal-prepositional verbs 422 5.3.4.2 The most common phrasal-prepositional verbs 423 5.3.5 Other multi-word verb constructions 425 Main and auxiliary functions of primary verbs 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4- 5.5 408 Productivity of particular verbs and adverbial particles The most common phrasal verbs Prepositional verbs 413 5.3.3.1 Semantic domains of prepositional verbs 5.3.3.2 5.3.3.3 5.3.3.4 5·4 399 400 426 Be 426 Have 427 3 Do 428 5.4.3.1 5.4.3.2 5.4.3.3 5.4.3.4 5.4.3.5 5.4.3.6 Main verb do in idiomatic expressions 428 Do as pro-verb 428 Register distribution of main verb and pro-verb do 429 Auxiliary do in emphatic function 430 Lexical associations of emphatic do 431 Auxiliary do-support in negatives and interrogatives 432 Copular verbs 433 5.5.1 Verbs functioning as copulas 434 5.5.2 Complements of copular verbs 434 5.5.3 Register distribution of copular verbs and common predicative adjectives 5.5.3.1
Current (non-sensory) copular verbs 437 5.5.3.2 Sensory copular verbs 439 5.5.3.3 Resulting copular verbs 441 5.5.4 Valency patterns of the copulas be, seem, and appear 443 5.5.4.1 Complement types with be, seem, and appear 444 5·5·4.2 Subject and complement types with be 446 435 xv
xvi Grammar of Spoken and Written English Chapter 6. Variation in the verb phrase: Tense, aspect, voice, and modality 449 6.1 Structure and meaning distinctions in the verb phrase 6.2 Tense 6.2.1 450 451 Basic tense and time distinctions 451 6.2.1.1 Simple present tense marking past or future time 452 Past tense in reported speech 453 The marking of future time 454 Register distribution of tense and modality 454 Lexical associations of present and past tense 457 6.2.1.2 6.2.1.3 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.3 Aspect 6.3.1 6.3.2 458 Perfect and progressive aspect across registers and dialects 459 6.3.1.1 Register distribution of perfect and progressive aspect 459 6.3.1.2 Perfect and progressive aspect across dialects 460 Perfect aspect 461 6.3.2.1 Lexical associations of present perfect aspect 462 6.3.2.2 6.3.2.3 6.3.2.4 6.3.3 6.4 464 6.3.2.5 Past perfect aspect v. simple past tense 467 Progressive aspect 469 6.3.3.1 Lexical associations of progressive aspect 469 Active and passive voice 6.4.1 6.4.2 473 Register distribution of active and passive voice Verbs uncommon in the passive Complex combinations of aspect and voice Modals and semi-modals 482 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3 6.6.4 474 Lexical associations of the passive 476 6.4.2.1 Verbs that commonly occur in the passive 6.4.2.2 Verbs common with the get passive 479 6.4.2.3 6.5 6.6 Present perfect forms of get and have across dialects Present perfect aspect v. simple past tense 465 Lexical associations of past perfect aspect 466 476 480 481 Distribution of modalsand semi-modals 484 Individual modals/semi-modals across registers and dialects 485
Lexical associations of modality 489 Extrinsic v. intrinsic uses of individual modals 489 6.6.4.1 The permission/possibility/ability modals 489 6.6.4.2 The obligation/necessity modals and semi-modals 492 6.6.4.3 The volition/prediction modals and semi-modals 493 6.7 Combinations of modal verbs with marked aspect or voice 6.8 Sequences of modals and semi-modals 499 495
Table of contents 7.1 Chapter 7. Adjectives and adverbs Overview 502 7.1.1 7.2 7.4 519 Gradable adjectives with -er and -est 519 Inflectional v. phrasal comparison 520 Inflectional comparison across registers 521 Phrasal comparison with more and most 522 Doubly marked comparatives and superlatives 523 Adjectives with superlative or absolute meanings 523 Comparative constructions across registers 7.9.2 7.9.3 527 Participial adjectives 527 7.9.1.1 Common participial adjectives 527 Derived adjectives 527 7.9.2.1 Common adjectives with derivational suffixes Adjectival compounds 530 7.9.3.1 Distribution of adjectival compounds 532 Adjectives in combination 533 7.10.1 Repeated comparative adjectives 533 7.10.2 The intensifiers good and and nice and 534 7.11 7.12 524 525 Formation of adjectives 7.9.1 7.10 516 Postposed adjectives 516 Adjectives as noun phrase heads 517 Adjectives with a clause linking function 518 Adjectives as exclamations 518 Adjectives as detached predicatives 518 Comparative clauses and other degree complements 7.8.1 7.9 508 513 Most common predicative adjectives 514 Comparative and superlative degree 7.7.1 7.7.2 7.7-3 7.7.4 7.7.5 7.7.6 7.8 Semantic domains of attributive adjectives Most common attributive adjectives 509 Adjectives in other syntactic roles 7.6.1 7.6.2 7.6.3 7.6.4 7.6.5 7.7 506 Predicative adjectives 7.5.1 7.6 503 Attributive and predicative adjectives across registers 504 Central and peripheral adjectives 505 Adjectives strongly associated with attributive or predicative position Semantic grouping of adjectives Attributive adjectives 508 7.4.1
7.4.2 7.5 502 Defining characteristics of adjectives 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.3 Use of adjectives and adverbs 501 Overview of adverbs 535 The form of adverbs 536 7.12.1 Formation of adverbs 536 7.12.1.1 Adverb forms 537 528 506 xvii
xviii Grammar of Spoken and Written English 7.12.2 7.12.3 7.13 Adverbs and adjectives with the same form 7.12.2.1 Good and real as adverbs 540 Comparative and superlative forms 541 539 Syntactic roles of adverbs 542 7.13.1 Adverbs modifying adjectives 542 7.13.1.1 Adverbs modifying adjectives in conversation and academic prose 542 7.13.2 Adverbs modifying other adverbs 543 7.13.2.1 Adverbs modifying adverbs in conversation and academic prose 543 7.13.3 Adverbs modifying other elements 545 7.13.4 Adverbs as complements of prepositions 545 7.13.5 Adverbs as clause elements: Adverbials 546 7.13.6 Adverbs with degree complements 7.13.7 7.14 Adverbs standing alone 546 547 Semantic categories of adverbs 548 7.14.1 Importance of context in the semantics of adverbs 7.14.2 Description of semantic categories 549 7.14.2.1 Place 549 548 7.14.2.2 Time 549 7.14.2.3 Manner 550 7.14.2.4 Degree 551 7.14.2.5 Additive/restrictive 553 7.14.2.6 Stance 553 7.14.2.7 Linking 555 7.14.2.8 Other meanings 556 7.14.3 Semantic domains of adverbs in conversation and academic prose 7.15 556 Discourse choices for degree adverbs as modifiers 560 7.15.1 Amplifiers in conversation and academic prose 560 7.15.2 Degree modifiers other than amplifiers in conversation and academic prose 562 Section D. More complex structures 656 Chapter 8. Complex noun phrases 567 8.1 Overview 568 8.1.1 Register distribution of noun phrases with pre- and postmodifiers 572 8.1.2 Co-occurrence of modifiers with head noun types 574 8.1.3 Discourse distribution of noun phrase types in academic prose 579 8.2 Structural types of
premodification 8.2.1 582 Structural types of premodification across registers 583 8.3 Meaning relations expressed by noun + noun sequences 8.3.1 Noun + noun sequences across registers 586 8.3.2 Plural nouns as premodifiers 588 8.4 Noun phrases with multiple premodifiers 591 8.4.1 Length of sequences of premodifiers 591 8.4.2 8.4.3 Order of multiple premodifiers 592 Coordinated premodifiers 595 584
Table of contents 8.5 8.6 8.7 Restrictive v. non-restrictive postmodifiers 596 8.5.1 Distribution of restrictive v. non-restrictive relative clauses Major structural types of postmodification 598 8.6.1 Postmodifier types across registers боо Postmodification by finite relative clause 8.7.1 8.7.2 8.7.3 8.7.4 Subject v. non-subject head nouns 618 Relative clauses with adverbial gaps 619 8.7.4 л Relative adverbs across registers Common prepositions in postmodifying prepositional phrases Choice of prepositional phrase v. relative clause 631 632 Appositive noun phrases in news and academic prose Noun phrases with multiple postmodifiers 8.11.1 Structural types of noun complement clause 636 639 639 Noun complement clause types across registers Head nouns taking noun complement clauses 8.14.1 633 634 Order of constituents in postmodifier complexes Noun complement clauses v. nominal postmodifiers 8.13.1 627 628 Postmodification by appositive noun phrase 8.10.1 8.14 627 Structural types of postmodifying to-clause Postmodification by prepositional phrase 8.9.1 8.9.2 8.12 8.13 619 Head nouns taking relative clauses with adverbial gaps 7b-clauses as postmodifiers 8.8.2.1 8.11 .2 612 Postmodification by non-finite clause 624 8.8.1 Participle clauses as postmodifiers 625 8.8.1.1 Passive and -ing forms of verbs in postmodifying participle clauses v. relative clauses 625 8.8.2 8.10 603 Variant relativizers in non-standard dialects 604 Distribution of relativizers across registers 604 8.7.1.3 Who v. which, that, and zero 607 8.7.1.4 Who v. whom, that, and zero 608 8.7.1.5 Which v. that біо
8.7.1.6 Discourse choice between whose and of which 8.7.1.7 Whose v. of which across registers 613 8.7.1.8 Discourse choice of the zero relativizer 614 Grammatical role of the relative clause gap біб 8.7.2.1 Relative clause gaps in conversation 617 8.7.4 8.9 602 The discourse choice among relativizers 8.7.1.1 8.7.1.2 8.8 597 641 642 Head nouns taking tfiat-clauses 642 8.14.1.1 Head nouns that take both that-complement clauses and relative clauses 644 8.14.2 Head nouns taking to-clauses 646 8.14.3 Head nouns taking of+ /ng-clauses 647 8.14.4 Head nouns taking wh-interrogative clauses 650 629 621 xix
xx Grammar of Spoken and Written English Chapter 9. The form and function of complement clauses 9.1 Overview 652 9.1.1 Complementation by clauses 652 9.1.2 Structural types of complement clause 652 9.1.3 Grammatical positions of complement clauses 9.2 That-dauses 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.2.5 9.2.6 9.2.7 9.4 653 654 Discourse functions of tbat-clauses 654 Post-predicate that-clauses - controlled by verbs 655 9.2.2.1 Structural patterns 655 9.2.2.2 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain 656 9.2.2.3 Common controlling verbs across registers 66i Verbs taking extraposed foat-clauses 664 Subject noun phrases with subject predicative that-clauses 664 rhat-clauses controlled by adjectival predicates 665 9.2.5.1 Adjectival predicates taking post-predicate that-clauses 665 9.2.S.2 Adjectival predicatestaking extraposed that-clauses 666 Register distribution of font-clause types 668 Pre-predicate v. extraposed that-clauses 669 Register factors 670 9.2.7.1 g.2.7.2 Information structure 9.2.7֊3 9.2.7.4 Grammatical factors 672 Topic and style 673 671 Retention v. omission of the that complementizer 9.2.8л Register factors 674 9.2.8.2 Discourse factors favoring that omission 674 Discourse factors favoring that retention 675 9.2.8.3 93 651 673 И/h-clauses 676 9.31 Structural types of wfi-clauses 676 9.3.2 Post-predicate wh-clauses controlled by verbs 678 9.3-2.1 Grammatical patterns 678 9.3.2.2 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain 679 9.3.2.3 Common controlling verbs across registers 68i 9.3.2.4 Post-predicate wh-clauses introduced by whether and if 682 9.3-2-5 Common verbs controlling
whether- and //-clauses 684 Infinitive clauses 686 Overview 686 9.4.2 Post-predicate infinitive clauses controlled by verbs 9.4.2.1 Grammatical patterns 686 9.4.1 686 Pattern i: Verb + to-clause 687 Pattern 2: Verb + NP + fo-clause 688 Pattern 2: NP2 + passive verb + to-clause 9.4.շ.շ 9.4.2.3 9.4.2.4 9.4.2.5 9.4.2.6 9·4·2.7 690 690 Register distribution of verb patterns 691 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain 692 9.4.2.8 9.4.2.9 Interaction between the characteristics of controlling verbs Common controlling verbs across registers 701 Pattern 3: Verb + for NP + to-clause 700
Table of contents 9.43 9-4-4 9.4.5 9.4.6 9.4.7 Verbstaking extraposed fo-clauses 706 Subject noun phrases and subject predicative to-clauses 707 То-clauses controlled by adjectives 708 9-4-5-1 Grammatical patterns 708 9-4-5.2 Adjectives taking post-predicate to-clauses 709 9·4·53 Adjectival predicates taking extraposed to-clauses 712 Grammatical distribution of to-clauses 713 Pre-predicate v. extraposed to-clauses 715 9.4.7.1 Register factors 715 9·4·7·2 Information structure 717 9.4.7.3 Grammatical complexity 719 9-4-8 9·4·7·4 Stylistic preference 720 Object-to-subject raising v. extraposed to-clauses with adjectives 9.4.8.1 Register factors 721 9.4.9 9.4.8.2 Grammatical complexity and information packaging 9.4.8.3 Stylistic preference 723 Subject-to-subject raising v. extraposed that-clauses 723 9.4.9.1 Information packaging 723 9·4·9.2 Register factors 724 9-4-93 Clauses with seem and appear 725 9-4.9-4 Clauses with likely and unlikely 726 9.4.10 То-clause v. bare infinitive clause with dore and help 720 721 727 9.4.10.1 Dialect factors 727 9.4.10.2 Register factors 728 9.4.10.3 The pattern to help + infinitive 9.4.11 Try + to + verb v. try + and + verb 9.4.11.1 9.5 /ng-clauses 9.59-5-2 9-6 732 Grammatical patterns 732 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain 733 Common controlling verbs across registers 738 Adjectival predicates controlling/ng-clauses 741 Post-predicate /ng-clauses across registers 742 Objective v. possessive NP with rng-clauses 742 9.5.5.1 Register distribution 743 Ellipsis and pro-form substitution in post-predicate complement clauses 9.6.1 9-7 732 1
Overview 732 Post-predicate fng-clauses controlled by verbs 9.5.2.1 9-S-2.2 9.5.2.3 9-53 9-5-4 9.5.5 Distributional factors 729 730 730 Verbs occurring commonly with ellipsis and pro-form substitution Choice of complement clause type 9.7.1 9.7.2 9.73 9.7.4 746 Register distribution, structural factors, and semantic factors Lexico-grammatical factors 748 Thaf-clauses v. non-finite clauses 748 Infinitive v./ng-clause 750 746 744 743 xxi
xxii Grammar of Spoken and Written English Chapter io. Adverbials 10.1 10.2 Overview 754 10.1.1 The three classes of adverbial 755 10.1.1.1 Frequency of the three classes of adverbial 757 10.1.2 Syntactic realizations of adverbials 759 10.1.2.1 Syntactic realizations of the three adverbial classes 10.1.3 Positions of adverbials in the clause 762 10.1.3.1 Frequencies of positions of adverbials 764 10.1.4 Adverbial variation in relation to other elements 767 753 760 Circumstance adverbials 768 10.2.1 Semantic categories of circumstance adverbials 768 10.2.1.1 Place 768 10.2.1.2 Time 769 10.2.1.3 Process 769 10.2.1.4 Contingency 771 10.2.1.5 Extent/degree 772 10.2.1.6 Addition/restriction 772 10.2.1.7 Recipient 773 10.2.1.8 Other semantic relationships 773 10.2.1.9 Overlap and ambiguity 774 10.2.2 Distribution of semantic categories 775 10.2.3 Overview of syntactic realizations of semantic categories 779 10.2.4 Syntactic realizations of circumstance adverbials (excluding clauses) 781 10.2.4.1 Semantic categories within syntactic forms 781 10.2.4.2 Length of prepositional phrases 783 10.2.4.3 Diversity in adverb and prepositional phrase circumstance adverbials 785 10.2.5 Most common circumstance adverbials 788 10.2.6 Position of circumstance adverbials 793 10.2.6.1 Associations between positions and semantic categories 794 10.2.6.2 Relationships between position, grammatical structure, and length 798 Ю.2.7 Circumstance adverbials in series 802 10.2.7.1 Heterosemantic place, time, and manner series 803 10.2.7.2 Homosemantic place, time, and manner series 807 10.2.7.3 Series of
three and more adverbials 809 10.2.8 Clauses as circumstance adverbials 810 10.2.8л Semantic categories of circumstance adverbial clauses 811 10.2.8.2 Distribution of clausal semantic categories 813 10.2.8.3 Syntactic forms of circumstance adverbial clauses 818 10.2.8.4 Distribution of clausal syntactic forms 818 10.2.8.5 Dangling participles 822 10.2.8.6 Positions of adverbial clauses 823 10.2.8.7 Subordinators and adverbial clauses 830 10.2.8.8 Subordinators with non-finite adverbial clauses 831
Table of contents xxiii 10.2.8.9 Most common subordinators across registers 833 10.2.8.10 Common subordinators with multiple semantic roles 838 10.2.8.11 Though as subordinatorv. linking adverbial 842 10.2.8.12 Conditional clauses with if v. subject-operator inversion 844 10.3 Stance adverbials 845 10.3.1 Semantic categories of stance adverbials 846 10.3.1.1 Epistemic stance adverbials 846 10.3.1.2 Attitude adverbials 848 10.3.1.3 Style adverbials 849 10.3.1.4 Ambiguity with other adverbial classes 849 10.3.1.5 Distribution of semantic categories 851 10.3.2 Syntactic realizations of stance adverbials 853 10.3.2.1 Distribution of syntactic forms 854 10.3.2.2 Sentence relatives as stance adverbials 859 10.3.3 Most common stance adverbials across registers 860 10.3.4 Positions of stance adverbials 864 10.3.5 Other discourse functions of stance adverbials 866 10.4 Linking adverbials 867 10.4.1 Semantic categories of linking adverbials 867 10.4.1.1 Enumeration and addition 867 10.4.1.2 Summation 868 10.4.1.3 Apposition 868 10.4.1.4 Result/inference 869 10.4.1.5 Contrast/concession 870 10.4.1.6 Transition 871 10.4.1.7 Overlap of linking adverbials and other adverbial classes 10.4.1.8 Distribution of semantic categories 872 10.4.2 Syntactic realizations of linking adverbials 876 10.4.2.1 Distribution of syntactic forms 876 10.4.3 Most common linking adverbials 878 10.4.3.1 Most common linking adverbials in conversation and academic prose 878 10.4.3.2 Stylistic preferences for linking adverbials 881 10.4.4 Positions of linking adverbials 882 Section E. Grammar in a wider
perspective 885 Chapter 11. Word order and related syntactic choices 11.1 11.2 Overview 888 11.1.1 Information flow 888 11.1.2 Focus, emphasis, contrast, and intensification 11.1.3 Weight 890 Word order 890 11.2.1 Grammatical principles of word order 891 871 889 887
xxiv Grammar of Spoken and Written English 11.2.2 Fronting 892 11.2.2.1 Fronted objects and other nominals 11.2.2.2 Fronted predicatives 894 892 11.2.2.3 Fronted infinitive predicates 897 11.2.2.4 Fronted ed- and /rig-predicates 898 11.2.2.5 Fronting in dependent clauses 900 11.2.2.6 Fronting in exclamations 901 11.2.2.7 Fronting: Distribution 901 11.2.3 Inversion of subject and verb or operator 903 11.2.3.1 Subject-verb inversion 903 11.2.3.2 Subject-operator inversion 907 11.2.3.3 Inversion after the linking forms so, nor, and neither 11.2.3.4 Special cases of inversion in independent clauses 11.2.3.5 Inversion in dependent clauses 910 11.2.3.6 11.2.3.7 11.2.3.8 11.2.4 Inversion in reporting clauses 913 Reporting clauses in fiction and news 914 Inversion in general: Distribution 917 Word-order options at the end of the clause 918 11.2.4.1 The placement of direct and indirect objects 919 11.2.4.2 Pronoun sequences as direct and indirect object 11.2.4.3 Clauses with direct objects and object predicatives 11.2.4.4 The placement of objects of phrasal verbs 923 11.3 The passive 927 11.3.1 Types of passive construction 11.3.2 11.3.3 11.3.4 11.4 909 909 920 922 927 Passives across syntactic positions and registers 928 The long passive 931 11.3. 3.1 Length of subject v. agent phrase in long passives 931 11.3.3 -2 Givenness of subject v. agent phrase 932 Comparison of discourse functions of the long and short passive 934 Existential there 934 11.4.1 The grammatical status of existential there 935 11.4.2 Variation in the verb phrase 936 11.4.2.1 Verb constructions other than simple
be 11.43 The notional subject 937 11.4.4 Adverbial expansions 938 11.4.5 Existential and locative there 939 11.4.6 Simple v. complex existential clauses 940 11.4.7 Discourse functions of existential clauses 942 936 11.4.8 Existential clause v. locative inversion 945 11.4.8.1 Existential clause v. locative inversion: Distribution 11.4.9 Existential constructions with there v. have 946 11.5 Dislocation 947 11.5.1 Prefaces 948 11.5.2 Noun phrase tags 11.5.3 948 Prefaces and noun phrase tags: Distribution 948 945
Table of contents 11.6 Clefting 11.6.1 11.6.2 950 /r-clefts fVfi-clefts 950 951 11.6.3 Reversed wfi-clefts 951 11.6.4 Cleft constructions: Distribution 11.7 952 Syntactic choices in conversation v. academic prose 955 Chapter 12. The grammatical marking of stance 12.1 Overview 12.1.1 12.1.2 12.2 12.4 958 Paralinguistic and non-linguistic devices Lexical marking of stance 959 960 Major grammatical devices used to express stance 12.2.1 12.3 957 961 Variability in the structural characteristics of stance devices Major semantic distinctions conveyed by stance markers 12.3.1 12.3.2 Epistemic stance 964 Attitudinal stance 966 123.3 Style of speaking stance 967 Attribution of stance to the speaker or writer 12.4.1 Explicit attribution of stance 968 968 12.4.2 Implicit attribution of stance to the speaker/writer 12.4.3 Ambiguous attribution of stance 969 12.5 963 964 Register differences in the marking of stance 969 970 12.5.1 12.5.2 Major stance devices across registers 970 Stance adverbials across registers 973 12.5.3 Stance complement constructions across registers 976 Chapter 13. Lexical expressions in speech and writing 13.1 13.2 Overview 980 Lexical bundles 13.2.1 13.2.2 13.2.3 982 Operational definition of lexical bundles 984 13.2.1.1 Lexical bundles in conversation and academic prose Key to lists of lexical bundles 993 Lexical bundles in conversation 994 13.2.3.1 Personal pronoun + lexical verb phrase (+complement-clause fragment) 995 13.2.3.2 Pronoun/noun phrase + be + 998 13.2.3.3 Verb phrase with active verb 999 13.2.3.4 Ves-no question fragments 13.23.5 13.2.3.6 13.2.3.7
13.2.3.8 13.23.9 13.2.3.10 979 1000 Hffi-question fragments 1001 Lexical bundles with wh-clause fragments 1002 Lexical bundles with to-clause fragments 1003 Verb + řfiař-clause fragments 1003 Adverbial clause fragments 1004 Noun phrase expressions 1005 985 xxv
xxvi Grammar of Spoken and Written English 13.2.3.11 Prepositional phrase expressions 13.2.3.12 Quantifier expressions 1006 1005 13.2.3.13 Other expressions 1007 13.2.3.14 Meaningless sound bundles 1007 13.2.4 Lexical bundles in academic prose 1007 13.2.4.1 13.2.4.2 13.2.4.3 13.2.4.4 13.2.4.5 13.2.4.6 Noun phrase with or-phrase fragment 1008 Noun phrase with other post-modifier fragments 1009 Prepositional phrase with embedded of-phrase fragment Other prepositional phrase (fragment) 1011 Anticipatory it + verb phrase/adjective phrase 1012 Passive verb + prepositional phrase fragment 1013 13.2.4.7 13.2.4.8 13.2.4.9 13.2.4.10 13.2.4.11 Copula be + noun phrase/adjective phrase 1014 (Verb phrase +) that-clause fragment 1014 (Verb/adjective+) to-clause fragment Adverbial clause fragment 1016 Pronoun/noun phrase + be (+ .) 13.2.4.12 Other expressions 13.3 13.4 13-5 1016 1018 Verb + noun phrase combinations with have, make, and take Free combinations of verb + particle Coordinated binomial phrases 13.5.1 13.5.2 1015 1017 Idiomatic phrases 1017 13.3.1 Idiomatic phrases across registers 13.3.2 1010 1019 1022 1023 Key to lists of binomial phrases Verb and/or verb 1024 1024 13·5·3 Noun and/or noun 1026 13.5.4 Adjective and/or adjective 1027 13.5.5 Adverb and/or adverb 1029 Chapter 14. The grammar of conversation 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 14.1.2 1031 1032 An example of conversation 1034 Afunctional survey of conversation 1035 14.1.2.1 Conversation takes place in the spoken medium 1035 14.1.2.2 Conversation takes place in shared context 1036 14.1.2.3 Conversation avoids elaboration or
specification of meaning 14.1.2.4 Conversation is interactive 1039 14.1.2.5 Conversation is expressive of politeness, emotion, and attitude 14.1.2.6 Conversation takes place in real time 1042 14.1.2.7 Conversation has a restricted and repetitive repertoire 1043 14.1.2.8 Conversation employs a vernacular range of expression 1044 14.1.2.9 Lack of functional explanation 1045 14.2 Performance phenomena: Dysfluency and error 14.2.1 Hesitations: Silent and filled pauses 14.2.1.1 1046 1047 Frequency of filled and unfilled pauses 1048 1038 1041
Table of contents xxvii 14-2.2 14.2.3 Repeats 1049 14.2.2.1 Multiple consecutive repeats 14.2.2.2 Frequency of repeats 1051 1049 14.2.2.3 Repeats of forms with verb contractions 1055 Retrace-and-repair sequences: Reformulations 1056 1057 14.2.4 Utterances left grammatically incomplete 14.2.5 Syntactic blends 1059 14.2.5.1 14.3 14.3.1 14.3.2 1060 Syntactic blends v. semantic gap-filling clauses The constructional principles of spoken grammar 1060 Principles of online production 1061 14.3.1.1 Parenthetical structures 1062 14.3.1.2 The'add-on'strategy 1062 14.3.1.3 Clausal and non-clausal units (C-units) 1063 14.3.1.4 Distribution of clausal and non-clausal units 1065 Prefaces, bodies, and tags 1066 14.3.2.1 Prefaces and other utterance launchers 1068 14.3.2.2 The ambivalent grammatical status of utterance launchers 14.3.2.3 Extending the body 1073 14.3.2.4 Tags 1074 14·3·3 More on non-clausal units: Inserts 1076 14.3.3.1 Interjections 1078 14.3.3.2 Greetings and farewells 1080 14·3·3·3 Discourse markers 1081 14.3.3.4 Attention signals 1083 14·3.3·5 Response elicitors 1083 14.3.3.6 Response forms 1084 14.3·3·7 Hesitators 1087 14.3.3.8 Various polite speech-act formulae 1087 14·3·3·9 Expletives 1088 14.3.3.10 Distribution of inserts 1090 14.3.4 Syntactic non-clausal units 1093 14.3.4.1 Elliptic replies 1094 14.3.4.2 Other types of syntactic non-clausal unit 14.3.5 14·3·5·5 14.4 Distribution of initial, medial, and end ellipsis Selected topics in conversational grammar 14.4.1 1095 14.3.4.3 Elliptic phrasal non-clausal units in their context Ellipsis in clausal units 1099
14.3.5.1 Initial (situational) ellipsis 1099 14.3.5.2 Initial ellipsis 1100 14·3.5·3 Final (post-operator) ellipsis 1101 14.3.5.4 Medial (operator) ellipsis 1102 A closer look at vocatives 1103 14.4.1.1 The distribution of vocatives 1103 1105 1098 1102 1070
xxviii Grammar of Spoken and Written English 14-4-2 Conducive yes-no interrogatives 1108 14.4.2.1 Negative yes-no interrogatives 1108 14.4.2.2 Negative v. positive yes-no interrogatives 1109 14.4.2.3 Assertive yes-no questions 1110 14.4.2.4 Assertive v. non-assertive yes-no questions wo 14.4.3 First person imperatives with let's 1111 14.4.3.1 Common accompaniments of let's 1112 14.4.4 Direct speech reporting (quoted speech) 1113 14.4.4.1 Using utterance-launchers to open quoted speech 14.4.4.2 Repetition of reporting clauses 1114 14.4.4.3 Reporting clauses with go 1114 14.4.4.4 Opening quoted speech with be + like, all 14.4.4.5 The past progressive with reporting verbs 14.4.5 Vernacular or non-standard grammar 1116 1113 1114 1115 14.4.5.1 Morphophonemic variants 1117 14.4.5.2 Morphological variants 1117 14.4.5.3 Morphosyntactic variants 14.4.5.4 Syntactic variants 1119 14.4.5.5 Conclusion 1120 1118 Appendix: Contractions 1121 Notes 1133 Bibliography 1143 Lexical index 1159 Conceptual index 1189 |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Biber, Douglas 1952- Johansson, Stig 1939-2010 Leech, Geoffrey N. 1936-2014 Conrad, Susan 1960- Finegan, Edward 1940- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)137511272 (DE-588)12135377X (DE-588)119411350 (DE-588)137511507 (DE-588)124545420X |
| author_facet | Biber, Douglas 1952- Johansson, Stig 1939-2010 Leech, Geoffrey N. 1936-2014 Conrad, Susan 1960- Finegan, Edward 1940- |
| author_role | aut aut aut aut aut |
| author_sort | Biber, Douglas 1952- |
| author_variant | d b db s j sj g n l gn gnl s c sc e f ef |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV047219872 |
| classification_rvk | HF 181 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1291614486 (DE-599)BVBBV047219872 |
| discipline | Anglistik / Amerikanistik |
| discipline_str_mv | Anglistik / Amerikanistik |
| format | Book |
| fullrecord | <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><collection xmlns="http://www.loc.gov/MARC21/slim"><record><leader>00000nam a2200000 c 4500</leader><controlfield tag="001">BV047219872</controlfield><controlfield tag="003">DE-604</controlfield><controlfield tag="005">20221031</controlfield><controlfield tag="007">t</controlfield><controlfield tag="008">210330s2021 |||| 00||| eng d</controlfield><datafield tag="020" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">9789027207968</subfield><subfield code="c">HB</subfield><subfield code="9">978-90-272-0796-8</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(OCoLC)1291614486</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(DE-599)BVBBV047219872</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="040" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-604</subfield><subfield code="b">ger</subfield><subfield code="e">rda</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="041" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">eng</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="049" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-19</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-384</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-739</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-11</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-29</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="084" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">HF 181</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-625)48785:</subfield><subfield code="2">rvk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="100" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Biber, Douglas</subfield><subfield code="d">1952-</subfield><subfield code="e">Verfasser</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)137511272</subfield><subfield code="4">aut</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="245" ind1="1" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Grammar of spoken and written English</subfield><subfield code="c">Douglas Biber, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey N. Leech, Susan Conrad, Edward Finegan</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="264" ind1=" " ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Amsterdam ; Philadelphia</subfield><subfield code="b">John Benjamins Publishing Company</subfield><subfield code="c">[2021]</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="264" ind1=" " ind2="4"><subfield code="c">© 2021</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="300" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">xxviii, 1220 Seiten</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="336" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">txt</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacontent</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="337" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">n</subfield><subfield code="2">rdamedia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="338" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">nc</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacarrier</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Gesprochene Sprache</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4020717-1</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Grammatik</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4021806-5</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Englisch</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4014777-0</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Englisch</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4014777-0</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Grammatik</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4021806-5</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="2"><subfield code="a">Gesprochene Sprache</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4020717-1</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="5">DE-604</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="700" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Johansson, Stig</subfield><subfield code="d">1939-2010</subfield><subfield code="e">Verfasser</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)12135377X</subfield><subfield code="4">aut</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="700" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Leech, Geoffrey N.</subfield><subfield code="d">1936-2014</subfield><subfield code="e">Verfasser</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)119411350</subfield><subfield code="4">aut</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="700" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Conrad, Susan</subfield><subfield code="d">1960-</subfield><subfield code="e">Verfasser</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)137511507</subfield><subfield code="4">aut</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="700" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Finegan, Edward</subfield><subfield code="d">1940-</subfield><subfield code="e">Verfasser</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)124545420X</subfield><subfield code="4">aut</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="776" ind1="0" ind2="8"><subfield code="i">Erscheint auch als</subfield><subfield code="n">Online-Ausgabe, E-Book</subfield><subfield code="z">978-90-272-6047-5</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">Digitalisierung UB Augsburg - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment</subfield><subfield code="q">application/pdf</subfield><subfield code="u">http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032624508&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</subfield><subfield code="3">Klappentext</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">Digitalisierung UB Passau - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment</subfield><subfield code="q">application/pdf</subfield><subfield code="u">http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032624508&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</subfield><subfield code="3">Inhaltsverzeichnis</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="943" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-032624508</subfield></datafield></record></collection> |
| id | DE-604.BV047219872 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T16:57:07Z |
| indexdate | 2024-09-12T00:09:55Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9789027207968 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-032624508 |
| oclc_num | 1291614486 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-384 DE-739 DE-11 DE-29 |
| owner_facet | DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-384 DE-739 DE-11 DE-29 |
| physical | xxviii, 1220 Seiten |
| publishDate | 2021 |
| publishDateSearch | 2021 |
| publishDateSort | 2021 |
| publisher | John Benjamins Publishing Company |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Biber, Douglas 1952- Verfasser (DE-588)137511272 aut Grammar of spoken and written English Douglas Biber, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey N. Leech, Susan Conrad, Edward Finegan Amsterdam ; Philadelphia John Benjamins Publishing Company [2021] © 2021 xxviii, 1220 Seiten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Gesprochene Sprache (DE-588)4020717-1 gnd rswk-swf Grammatik (DE-588)4021806-5 gnd rswk-swf Englisch (DE-588)4014777-0 gnd rswk-swf Englisch (DE-588)4014777-0 s Grammatik (DE-588)4021806-5 s Gesprochene Sprache (DE-588)4020717-1 s DE-604 Johansson, Stig 1939-2010 Verfasser (DE-588)12135377X aut Leech, Geoffrey N. 1936-2014 Verfasser (DE-588)119411350 aut Conrad, Susan 1960- Verfasser (DE-588)137511507 aut Finegan, Edward 1940- Verfasser (DE-588)124545420X aut Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe, E-Book 978-90-272-6047-5 Digitalisierung UB Augsburg - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032624508&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Klappentext Digitalisierung UB Passau - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032624508&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Biber, Douglas 1952- Johansson, Stig 1939-2010 Leech, Geoffrey N. 1936-2014 Conrad, Susan 1960- Finegan, Edward 1940- Grammar of spoken and written English Gesprochene Sprache (DE-588)4020717-1 gnd Grammatik (DE-588)4021806-5 gnd Englisch (DE-588)4014777-0 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4020717-1 (DE-588)4021806-5 (DE-588)4014777-0 |
| title | Grammar of spoken and written English |
| title_auth | Grammar of spoken and written English |
| title_exact_search | Grammar of spoken and written English |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Grammar of spoken and written English |
| title_full | Grammar of spoken and written English Douglas Biber, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey N. Leech, Susan Conrad, Edward Finegan |
| title_fullStr | Grammar of spoken and written English Douglas Biber, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey N. Leech, Susan Conrad, Edward Finegan |
| title_full_unstemmed | Grammar of spoken and written English Douglas Biber, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey N. Leech, Susan Conrad, Edward Finegan |
| title_short | Grammar of spoken and written English |
| title_sort | grammar of spoken and written english |
| topic | Gesprochene Sprache (DE-588)4020717-1 gnd Grammatik (DE-588)4021806-5 gnd Englisch (DE-588)4014777-0 gnd |
| topic_facet | Gesprochene Sprache Grammatik Englisch |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032624508&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032624508&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT biberdouglas grammarofspokenandwrittenenglish AT johanssonstig grammarofspokenandwrittenenglish AT leechgeoffreyn grammarofspokenandwrittenenglish AT conradsusan grammarofspokenandwrittenenglish AT fineganedward grammarofspokenandwrittenenglish |