Nivaclé grammar:
"This book offers an extensive description of Nivaclé, an indigenous language spoken in the Gran Chaco region of Argentina and Paraguay. Nivaclé's phonology, morphology, and syntax are complex; the language has no tenses marked on verbs, essentially no prepositions, and a sizable number of...
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
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Salt Lake City
University of Utah Press
[2020]
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| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Klappentext |
| Zusammenfassung: | "This book offers an extensive description of Nivaclé, an indigenous language spoken in the Gran Chaco region of Argentina and Paraguay. Nivaclé's phonology, morphology, and syntax are complex; the language has no tenses marked on verbs, essentially no prepositions, and a sizable number of lexical suffixes whose content is so concrete they would be expected to be independent words in most other languages. Nivaclé has a unique speech sound, /k͡l/, known nowhere else. In some locations where it is spoken, multilingual conversations are the norm. These and other rare traits make Nivaclé an especially fascinating language for linguists, with many implications for language typology and linguistic theory. The book is based on dozens of audio and video recordings of narratives and on hundreds of hours of elicitation and analysis with native speakers. Four lengthy texts are included here to demonstrate the language in action. Scholars--whether in anthropology, folklore, geography, history, or language--will find value in the narratives included here and in the insights into Nivaclé life and culture found throughout the book"-- |
| Beschreibung: | xxvii, 610 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten 29 cm |
| ISBN: | 9781607817758 1607817756 |
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| 100 | 1 | |a Campbell, Lyle |d 1942- |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)105713497X |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Nivaclé grammar |c Lyle Campbell, Luis Díaz, and Fernando Ángel |
| 264 | 1 | |a Salt Lake City |b University of Utah Press |c [2020] | |
| 300 | |a xxvii, 610 Seiten |b Illustrationen, Karten |c 29 cm | ||
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| 505 | 8 | |a Phonology -- Nouns -- Pronouns, demonstratives, and quantifiers -- Adjectives and adjectival morphology -- Verbs -- Adverbs, adverbial expressions, and adpositions -- Phrasal syntax -- Clausal syntax and complex constructions -- Nivaclé language in its social and cultural setting -- Texts | |
| 520 | 3 | |a "This book offers an extensive description of Nivaclé, an indigenous language spoken in the Gran Chaco region of Argentina and Paraguay. Nivaclé's phonology, morphology, and syntax are complex; the language has no tenses marked on verbs, essentially no prepositions, and a sizable number of lexical suffixes whose content is so concrete they would be expected to be independent words in most other languages. Nivaclé has a unique speech sound, /k͡l/, known nowhere else. In some locations where it is spoken, multilingual conversations are the norm. These and other rare traits make Nivaclé an especially fascinating language for linguists, with many implications for language typology and linguistic theory. The book is based on dozens of audio and video recordings of narratives and on hundreds of hours of elicitation and analysis with native speakers. Four lengthy texts are included here to demonstrate the language in action. Scholars--whether in anthropology, folklore, geography, history, or language--will find value in the narratives included here and in the insights into Nivaclé life and culture found throughout the book"-- | |
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| 700 | 1 | |a Ángel, Fernando |e Sonstige |4 oth | |
| 776 | 0 | 8 | |i Online version |z 9781607817765 |a Campbell, Lyle, 1942- |t Nivaclé grammar |d Salt Lake City : University of Utah Press, 2021 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804182305830338560 |
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| adam_text | CONTENTS Figures, Maps, and Tables xxi Acknowledgments xxiii Abbreviations Used in This Volume Chapter 1 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 1.7. 1.8. 1.9. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5. 2.6. Introduction..................................................................................................................................1 Introduction 1 The language and its speakers 1 The classification of Nivádé 4 Varieties (dialects) of Nivádé 5 1.4.1. Some distinguishing features of the dialects 1.4.2. Differences within the Arribeño dialect 8 The socio-cultural setting 10 Procedures, methodology, and fieldwork 11 Typological overview 12 Previous linguistic documentation of Nivádé 15 Guidelines for user 21 Chapter 2 2.1. 2.2. xxv 8 Phonology................................................................................................................................27 Introduction 27 Phoneme inventory and orthography used in this grammar 27 2.2.1. Stress 33 2.2.2. Unusual and unresolved matters involving stress and seemingly long vowels 34 2.2.3. Orthographic 7 for glottal stop 35 2.2.4. The interpretation of /V7C/ sequences 35 Other Orthographies 37 Minimal pairs and near minimal pairs 37 Principal allophones 44 2.5.1. w -* ß /_ і, e, a 44 2.5.2. Velar backing: velar - uvular (post-velar) / _ ô, e, і and /i, e, ô _ # 2.5.3. Allophones of velar fricative /j/ 48 2.5.4. Allophones of /e/ 48 Phonological processes 49 2.6.1. Glide loss 49 2.6.1.1. y-loss 49 2.6.1.2. w-loss 50 2.6.2. Deaffrication of final ts 50 2.6.3. Vowel deletion: V — 0 / VCi_C2 +V (Ci * C2) 51 2.6.4. Loss of glottal stop: 7 ֊» 0
/ V _CV 52 45
vi Contents 2.6.5. 2.6.6. Delateralization of /kl/: kl - к / _ C, / _# (C ^ 7) 53 Velar palatalization: velar -* alveopalatal / V[non-back]C _, /V[non-back] C_V[non-back] (where C ^ y, s) 54 2.6.7. Velar spirantization: k- j / C_ + V 55 2.6.8. Secondary glottalization: C7 ֊» C’ (or, C -* CV _ 7, then 7 -» (0) / C’ _) (where C = stop or affricate) 57 2.6.9. Loss of j and 7 before consonant-initial affixes: j, 7 -* 0 /_ + C 58 2.6.10. Consonant-loss in homorganic clusters 58 2.6.11. Vowel cluster reduction: a-֊ 0/#_ + V 60 2.6.12. Vowel assimilation 60 2.6.12.1. Vowel assimilation in plural morphemes: V-Vj /ViC + _k, s, y] PLURAL 60 2.6.12.2. Vowel assimilation in the emphatic morpheme (emph): і Vi /Vi=7 n] empii 60 2.6.12.3. Vowel assimilation in the unspecified object suffix (иом): a -* u / uC+j_n] UOM 61 2.6.12.4. Assimilation of vowels before + -e 61 2.6.13. Nasal assimilation 62 2.6.14. Deglottalization of syllable-final globalized consonants: C’ -* C /_ #, /_ C 64 2.6.15. Glottal stop insertion: 0 - 7 / #_ V, /V + _V 64 2.6.16. Echo-vowel insertion: 0-»Vi /Vi7_C#, /7_CC 65 2.6.17. Alternating glottal stop behavior 65 2.6.17.1. Some general properties of Nivádé glottal stops 66 2.6.17.2. Observations about the alternation of 7 with 0 67 2.7. Other phonetic processes 70 2.7.1. Phonetic lengthening of consonants: C - C: /V_V 70 2.7.2. /ch/ weakening: ch - tyh /_#, /_C 71 2.7.3. Phonetic aspiration 72 2.7.3.1. Aspiration of final к: к -*· kh, qh /_# 72 2.7.3.2. Aspiration of p and к before к 72 2.7.3.3. Aspiration of t before w: t -»· th /_w 72 2.7.4. iy - [1:] /_ #, /C_ 73
2.7.5. Change of /а/ to /о/ before labials: a ô /_m, p, p’, w 73 2.7.6. Optional reduction of unstressed vowels and in non-careful speech 73 2.8. Syllable structure, phonotactics, and the distribution of sounds 74 2.9. Unusual and extraordinary sounds and sound sequences 75 2.9.1. /ki/ 75 2.9.2. /Us/, /tsh/, /teh/, and /tch’/ 76 2.9.3. /s + sh/ 79 2.9.4. /7/ in clusters 79 2.10. Fast speech differences and variation 80 2.11. Further investigation 80 Chapter 3 3.1. Nouns.................................................................................................................................. 85 Introduction and preliminaries 3.1.1. Nivádé clitics 85 85
Contents 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.1.2. Alternations that recur in numerous affixes and clitics 86 Noun morphology pattern 86 Noun classes: possessed and unpossessed 86 3.3.1. Nouns of the unpossessed noun class 87 3.3.2. Nouns of the possessed noun class 88 Gender 89 3.4.1. Masculine affixes 90 3.4.2. Feminine affixes 91 Noun Plurals 91 3.5.1. -k, -ik ‘masculine plural’ 91 3.5.2. -s Լ-Vs, -is, -es) ‘masculine plural’ 93 3.5.3. -y Լ-Vy, -iy) ‘feminine plural’ 97 3.5.4. 0 plural 99 3.5.5. -wot Լ-owoť) ‘kinship plural’ 100 3.5.6. Exceptional plural forms 101 3.5.7. =sha7ne ‘plural’ 101 3.5.8. Form and placement of plural affixes within words 101 3.5.9. Optional plural marking 102 Nominal derivation 102 3.6.1. Derivational prefixes 102 3.6.1.1. ka- ‘abstract’/‘alienable’[abstr] (with allomorphs ka-, k-, к’-) 102 3.6.1.2. tin- Լ-ս7ո-, tn-, ո֊) ‘indefinite or non-specific possession’ [NPOS] 104 3.6.1.3. chi- ‘nominalizing prefix’ (uncertain) 104 3.6.1.4. wanka- ‘intransitiver’ (intrsv) in nominal forms 104 3.6.1.5. -w- “possessible” prefix [posb] 105 3.6.2. Derivational suffixes 106 Յ.6.2.1. -a Լ-ô, -e) ‘feminine’ 106 3.6.2.2. -ach Լ-ech) ‘resultative nominalization’ [nmlz] 107 3.6.2.3. -aj, -ej ‘abstract nominalization’ [nmlz] (cf. also -janaj, -taj, -tsej, and -matsej) 108 3.6.2.4. -chat / -kat Լ-ichat, -ikat) ‘a stand, grove, group of trees or plants of the same species, or an abundance of trees or plants of the same species in a particular place’ 108 3.6.2.5. -che/-ke (-che7/-ke7) ‘female’ [fem] 110 3.6.2.6. -che/-ke ‘small’, ‘diminutive’ [dim] 111 3.6.2.7. =ch’e/=k’e
‘extended, intensive’ [xtend], [intens] 112 3.6.2.8. -ej, ‘kind of fruit, edible plant’ 112 3.6.2.9. -et/-e7et‘nominalization’[nmlz] 113 3.6.2.10. -ftia (֊ja֊jha) ‘companion’ 113 3.6.2.11. -i, -a, -ô, -u ‘nominalization’ [nmlz] 114 3.6.2.12. -ycha ‘augmentative’ [AUG] 114 3.6.2.13. -ja- ‘ligature’ (empty morph) [lig] 115 3.6.2.14. -janaj ( -ja-naj), -naj, -aj ‘agent, doer of the action’; -janja ( -ja-naj-a) ‘female agent, doer of the action’ 116 118 3.6.2.15a. -jat ‘(instrumental) nominalization’ [nmlz] vii
viii Contents -jate, -njate ‘nominalization’ 118 =jô ‘certainty intensifier’ 120 -kla7ay, -Шау ‘big’ (augmentative) [AUG] 120 -klôt, -klô7ôt ‘pejorative, useless’ (rare suffix) 121 -lhay, -ilhay ‘ethnic, occupational, or other social group marker’ 121 -mat, -ma7at -7mat, -i7mat ‘defective in, suffering from, damaged 3.6.2.20. in, bad because of, have something undesirable’ 122 -matsej Լ-ematsej) ‘good in, good because of, well-functioning 3.6.2.21. in’ 122 -mech, -me7ech ‘expert, person who has power over something, 3.6.2.22. has special knowledge of something, belongs to a profession con cerned with something, a ritural specialist in something’ (perhaps from -m-ech; see -ech 3.6.2.2.) 123 3.6.2.23. =ne=7e ‘here, present, toward here’ 124 -nilh, -inilh ‘composed of, made of’ 124 3.6.2.24. -nőj (and -nôj֊ô) ‘eater of, hunter of, one fond of’ 125 3.6.2.25. -nők ‘kind of fermented drink, kind of consumable liquid’ 126 3.6.2.26. -пик, -inuk, -nu7uk ‘ethnonym suffix (ethnic group suffix)’ 3.6.2.27. (gentilicio) 126 -пик, -inuk ‘about the neck or mouth’? (or ‘tying’?) (uncertain 3.6.2.28. meaning) 127 -op, -up, (-o7op, -u7up, -ô7ôp) ‘season’ suffix 127 3.6.2.29. =shi, =ji ‘fluid or abstract mass’(?) 128 3.6.2.30. -shiy/-jiy ‘concave, container’ 129 3.6.2.31. -ta=7a, -ita=7a ‘of no value, worthless’ [depr] 130 3.6.2.32. -tach, -itach ‘tree, plant suffix’(?) 130 3.6.2.33. -taj, -itaj ‘similar to, analogous to’ (simulative) [sim] 131 3.6.2.34. -tsej i-ts-ej) ‘animal suffix’(?) 131 3.6.2.35. 3.6.2.36. -uk, -yuk, -u7uk ‘plant suffix’ [plant] (specifying individual trees or plants,
individual stocks of the plant identified in the word’s root) 132 3.6.2.37. -wash, -Vwash, -wa7ash ‘kind of wound, injury’, ‘print, track, impression’, caused by or associated with the thing mentioned in the root 133 3.6.2.38. -wat i֊7wat) ‘place of’ 134 3.6.2.39. -way ‘kind of, something like’ 135 3.6.2.40. -wo Լ-ja-wo) ‘instrument (for or that belongs to something)’ [instr] 135 -yash, -ash, -ya7ash, -iyash ‘resultative nominalization’ 3.6.2.41. [NMLZ] 136 3.6.2.42. -yinjat (-iyinjat) [masc] , -yinjate [fem] ‘mourning kinship mor phemes’ (probably composed of -yi-njat(-e) (see 3.6.2.15a., 3.6.2.15b.) 138 3.6.2.43. -yish, -տտհ ‘extended place of, ‘area of’ [xtend] 138 Distributional restrictions among nominal affixes 138 Reduplication 139 3.6.2.15b. 3.6.2.16. 3.6.2.17. 3.6.2.18. 3.6.2.19. 3.6.3. 3.6.4.
Contents ix 3.7. 3.8. Lexical suffixes 139 Nominal compounds (compound nouns) 140 3.8.1. Noun-Noun compounds 140 3.8.2. Noun 4- possessed-Noun compounds 142 3.8.3. Adjective-Noun and Noun-Adjective nominal compounds 143 3.8.4. Phrasal compounds 144 3.9. Non-productive noun morphology, irregularities, and exceptions 145 3.10. Pronominal subjects of predicate complements [SPC] 145 Chapter 4 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. Pronouns, Demonstratives, and Quantifiers................................................................ 149 Introduction 149 Pronouns 149 4.2.1. Independent Personal Pronouns 149 4.2.2. Possessive pronominal affixes 150 4.2.2.1. First person singular possessive pronominal affix 150 4.2.2.2. Second person singular possessive pronominal affix 150 4.2.2.3. Third person singular possessive pronominal affix 150 4.2.2.4. First person plural inclusive possessive pronominal affix 153 4.2.2.5. Other plural possessive pronominal affixes 154 4.2.2.6. wat- (wať-, wa-, wata֊, waťa-, wata7a-) ‘unspecified pronominal possession’ 156 4.2.2.7. tin-, ti7n-, tn-, n- ‘unpossessed’ 159 4.2.3. Pronominal subjects of predicate complements [SPC] 160 4.2.4. Negative predicate nominals (and adjectives) 161 4.2.5. Pronominal subject agreement markers and core arguments of verbs 162 4.2.6. Valency-changing morphemes and pronominal direct objects 162 4.2.7. Dative, benefactive pronominal markers 162 4.2.8. Oblique object ‘to’ [away] (direction away from speaker) 167 4.2.9. ts’iwe7e ‘they’ 170 4.2.10. Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns 172 4.2.10.1. wat- (wa7at-, wa-) ‘reflexive’ [refl] 172 4.2.10.2.
-wach ‘reflexive’ 172 Demonstratives and demonstrative pronouns 173 4.3.1. na7 ‘the/this/that/a’ [vis] (el, un, este/esto) (presently visible, masculine gender) 175 4.3.2. ja7 ‘the/this/that/a’ [nvis] (el/la, un(a), este/esta, ese/esa, aquel/ aquella) 175 4.3.3. pa7 ‘the/that/a’ [rep] (el/la, un(a), este/esta, ese/esa, aquel/aquella) 176 4.3.4. ka7 ‘the/that/a’ [rem] (el/la, un(a), ese/esa, aquel/aquella) 177 4.3.5. Feminine demonstratives 179 4.3.5.1. Iha7 ‘the/this/that/a’ [fem] (la/esta/esa/una) 179 4.3.5.2. Ih-ja7 ‘the/this/that/a’ [fem-nvis] (la/una/esa/aquella) 179 4.3.5.3. lh-pa7 ‘the/that/a’ [fem-rep] (la/una/aquella) 180 4.3.5.4. lh-ka7 ‘the/that/a’ [rem] (la/esta/esa/aquellal/una) 180 4.3.6. Human plural demonstratives 181 4.3.6.1. na-pi7 ‘the/these/those’ [vis-pl.hum] (los/estos/esos) 181 4.3.6.2. ja-pi7 ‘the/those’ [nvis-pl.hum] (los/esos/aquellos) 181
x Contents 4.4. 4.5. 4.3.6.3. pa-pi7 ‘the/those’ [rep-pl.hum] (los/esos/aquellos) 182 4.3.6.4. ka-pi7 ‘the/those’ [rem-pl.hum] (los/aquellos) 182 4.3.6.5. pa-pu7 (variant of pa-pi7) 183 4.3.7. Non-human plural demonstratives i-wa7) 184 4.3.8. Differences in gender and animacy in demonstratives 186 4.3.9. Contrasting demonstratives depending on context 186 4.3.10. Other demonstratives and pronouns 189 4.3.10.1. Demonstratives with =ke, -ke [dem] 189 4.3.10.2. Demonstratives with =7ana ‘demonstrative predicate’ [dem.pred] 189 4.3.10.3. Demonstratives with =kô7yi, =kôyi ‘demonstrative clitic’ 190 4.3.10.4. Demonstratives with =7em ‘heard’ 190 4.3.10.5. Demonstratives with =7um ‘in the distance’ [distance] 190 4.3.10.6. Demonstratives with -n=7e ‘here, present, there’ 191 4.3.10.7. Demonstratives with =7ô ‘there’C?) 192 4.3.10.8. ihech ‘this one, that one, the self-same, exactly this, exactly that’ 192 4.3.10.9. Demonstratives with -elh ‘other’ [pl.excl] 193 4.3.10.10. Demonstratives with -cha ‘separative’ [sep] 194 4.3.10.11. na7up (demonstratives with-up(?)) 195 4.3.11. Interrogative pronouns 195 4.3.11.1. she= + demonstrative: ‘what?, ‘which?’, ‘who?’ 195 4.3.11.2. ta7 ‘which?’, ‘what?’, ‘where?’, ‘when?’, ‘how?’ 196 4.3.11.3. ta7 ťa.jô7ôj ‘how many, how much?’ (‘until when?, how long?’) 198 199 4.3.11.4. ta7 Iha7ya7ash ‘why?’ (phonetically [ta Ihay7ya7ash]) 4.3.12. Negative demonstratives 199 4.3.13. Indefinite pronouns 200 Quantifiers 202 4.4.1. ‘all’ (todos, todo) 202 4.4.2. ‘each, every’ (cada) 203 4.4.3. ‘much, many’ 203 4.4.4. ‘few, some, a little’ 204 Numerals 205
4.5.1. Cardinal numbers 205 4.5.2. Ordinal numbers 206 4.5.3. Fractions, parts 207 4.5.4. Numbers for sets and groups (pairs, twins, triplets, etc.) 207 Chapter 5 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. Adjectives and Adjectival Morphology.............................................. ................... .......... 211 Introduction 211 Adjectival complements 211 5.2.1. Positive adjectival complements 211 5.2.2. Negative predicate complement adjectives Adjectival inflection 213 5.3.1. Plural marking on adjectives 213 212
Contents 5.4. 5.5. 5.6. Adjectival derivational morphology and clitics 215 5.4.1. =ch’e, =k’e ‘extended (along an expanse), intensive’ [xtend, 5.4.2. =7e, =7e7‘in’[LOC] 216 5.4.3. =7m ‘emphatic’ [EMPH] 216 5.4.4. =jô ‘indeed, really, truly’ (emphatic) (de veras) 216 5.4.5. =shi/=ji (=shi7/=ji7) ‘intensive’ [INTENS] 217 5.4.6. -tsej ‘with increased intensity/strength, much’ 219 Reduplication in adjectives 219 Negative Adjectives 220 Chapter 6 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. intens] xi 215 Verbs......................................................................................................................................222 Introduction 222 Alignment and argument marking 223 Active verb classes 226 6.3.1. Class 1: Basic active verbs (both transitive and intransitive) 226 6.3.1.1. ja-/lh-/yi-/shta- before CV (/_CV) 229 6.3.1.2. ja-/lha-/yi֊/shta- before CC (/_CC) 231 6.Յ.1.Յ. j-/lh-/y-/sht-before V (/_V) 232 • 6.3.1.4. ja-/lh-/0-/shta- before t (/_tV) 232 6.3.1.5. ja֊/lha-/0-/shta- before w (/_wV) 233 6.3.1.6. Stem-initial n active verbs 234 6.Յ.1.6.1. ja֊nCV, lha-nCV, niCV, shta-nCV {n(i)C) 235 6.Յ.1.6.2. ja-nV, Ih-nV, 0-nV, shta-nV ԼnV) 235 6.3.1.6.3. Third person wa- before n: ja-, Ih-, wa-, shta(nV) 236 6.3.1.7. ja-, İh-, w(a)-, shta-/shn-: third person w(a)~ 237 6.3.2. The -y֊/t- active verbs [vblz] 238 6.Յ.2.1. ja-у-, Ստ-է-, է-, shta-before verb roots that begin in CV (/_CV) 239 6.3.2.2. ja-у-, Iht-, t-, sht- before vowel-initial verb roots (/_VCV) 239 6.3.2.3. ja-у-, lha-t-/ľhť-, ťa-, shťa- (glottalized “t” set) before a consonant (/_CV) 240 6.3.2.4. ja-у-, Ihť-, ť-, shť-
(glottalized “t” set) before a vowel (/_VC) 240 6.3.2.5. ja-(7)yi-, Ihťa-, ťa-, shťa- before a consonant cluster (/_CC) 241 6.3.3. The k’- class of active verb 242 6.3.3.1. k’-, ť-, y-, shť- before a vowel-initial verb root (/_VCV, /_VC#, /_VCC) 242 6.3.3.2. k’a-, ťa-, yi-, shťa- before a consonant cluster (/_CC) 244 6.3.3.3. к’-class polysyllabic verbs that begin with i (k’a-, t’i-, yi-, shťi-) 245 Stative verbs 246 6.4.1. Stative pronominal agreement markers that signal the object of an active verb 248 6.4.2. Possible exceptions 249 6.4.2.1. Semantically non-stative verbs in the “stative” class? 249
xii Contents 6.4.2.2. 6.5. 6.6. 6.7. 6.8. Real but explicable exceptions? 251 6.4.2.2.1. -esh ‘valency-increasing’ exception 251 6.4.2.2.2. ka- ‘abstract derivation’ exception 252 6.4.2.2.3. ‘Desiderative’ exception 252 6.4.3. Stative verb pronominal agreement markers, their allomorphs, and conjugations 253 6.4.3.1. tsi-, na-, yi-, shtan- (shin-) before stative verb stems that begin in CiVCV or CiVC# (Ci * ri) 254 6.4.3.2. t’si-, na-, yi-, shtan- (shin-) before stative stems that begin CVCC (Ci * ri) 256 6.4.3.3. էտ-, n-, y-, shi7n- before stative verb stems beginning in a vowel (VCC, VCV) where there is no 7 in the root 256 6.4.3.4. էտ’-, ո-, y-, shi7n- before stative verb stems beginning in a vowel where there is a 7 in the root 256 6.4.3.5. tsi-, na-, yi-, shi7na- before a consonant cluster ( /_CC) 257 6.4.3.6. tsi-, İha-, 0-, shta- before stative verb stems beginning in n(V) 257 6.4.3.7 Possible stative subclass tsi-, na-, 0֊, shtan259 Pronominal agreement markers in irrealis subordinate constructions 260 Plural marking in verbs 260 6.6.1. -sha7ne/=ja7ne ‘plural object of active transitive verbs, plural subject of stative verbs and some intransitive active verbs, and the plural of some adjectives’ 260 6.6.1.1. -sha7ne/=ja7ne signaling plural objects of transitive verbs 260 6.6.1.2. =sha7ne/=ja7ne signaling plural subjects of active intransitive verbs 261 6.6.1.Յ. =sha7ne/=ja7ne signaling iterativity of the verbal action 261 6.6.2. -elh (-e7elh) [pl.excl] ‘plural exclusive’ 262 6.6.2.1. -elh (-e7elh) as plural subject marker 262 6.6.2.2. -elh (֊7elh/֊e7elh) as plural
object marker 263 6.6.2.3. -elh (-7elh/-e7elh) plural predicate adjectives 263 6.6.3. =ch’e (=ch’e7) ‘plural’ [pl] 264 6.6.3.1. =ch’e plural object of transitive verb 264 6.6.3.2. =ch’e plural subject of intransitive verbs 265 6.6.3.3. =ch’e iterative actions 265 6.6.3.4. =ch’e plural of predicate adjectives 266 6.6.3.5. Verbs with plural subjects but no plural pronominal agreement markers 266 Negative verbs 268 Directional and locative affixes and clitics 271 6.8.1. Directional and locative verbal prefixes 271 6.8.1.1. n- ‘direction towards’ [hither] 271 6.8.1.2. ta- ‘direction toward’ [hither] 272 6.8.2. The directional and locative clitics 272 6.8.2.1. =7ape7e ‘on, on top of, over’ [on] 277
Contents 6.8.2.2. 6.9. 6.10. xiii =ch’e/=k’e ‘extended, extended along an expanse’, ‘intensive’ [xtend], [intens] 277 6.8.2.3. =ch’e, =k’e (=ch’e7, =k’e7) ‘inside, in (in small, confined space)’ [inside] 278 6.8.2.4. =chisham/=kisham (=chisha7am) ‘up, upward’ [up] 279 6.8.2.5. =7e/=7e7 ‘in’, place where the action of the verb takes place [LOC] 280 6.8.2.6. ~ey, =7ey Լ-ey, -7ey) ‘to, toward the direction away from speaker, distal’ [away] 281 6.8.2.7. =jop ‘with, beside’ (and ‘goal, purpose’) [beside] 282 6.Ց.2.8. =julh, =ju7ulh ‘together, equal to, the same as, corresponding to’ [together], [equal] 283 6.8.2.9. =k’oya ‘for, before’ [for], [before] (phonetically [=k’óya]) 284 6.8.2.10. =ne=7e ‘here, present, towards here’ [here=loc] 285 =7ôkji, -wôkji ‘below, beneath (in, inside)’ [under] 285 6.8.2.11. =sham/=sha7anu =jam/=ja7am ‘through, in, inside, by’ 6.8.2.12. [through], [inside] 286 6.8.2.13. =sha7ne, =ja7ne ‘down, downward, below’ [down] 288 =shi, =ji ‘non-specific location, ‘in’ [nspec.loc], [loc] 289 6.8.2.14. 6.8.2.15. =shicham, =shicha7am, =jicham, =jicha7am ‘downward, down’ [down] 290 =shi7na, =ji7na ‘towards (direction here toward speaker)’ 6.8.2.16. [LOC.HERE] 291 =wat=julh, =wat=ju7ulh ‘equal to, the same as, together, one 6.8.2.17. another’ 291 Valency changing 292 6.9.1. Valency-decreasing affixes and clitics, and related forms 292 6.9.1.1. Unspecified subject (impersonal) chi- (chi7) [npers] 292 6.9.1.1.1. Positive unspecified subject (impersonal) Լշհւ-, chi7-) [npers] 293 6.9.1.1.2. Negative unspecified subject (impersonal) 296 Reflexives and reciprocals 296
6.9.1.2. 6.9.1.2.1. Reflexive n- [refl] (middle voice n-) 297 6.9.1.2.2. wat- Լwa7at-, wa-) ‘reflexive’ [refl] 297 6.9.1.2.3. ta-reflexive 298 6.9.1.2.4. Reciprocals =wach ‘reciprocal pronoun’ [recip] (see also -wach ‘reflexive’ relational noun root) 299 wanka-, wank-, wank’a-, wank’- ‘intransitivizer’ [intrsv] 300 6.9.1.3. -jan (-jun) ‘unspecified object marker’ (intransitivizer) 6.9.1.4. [uom] 302 6.9.2. Valency-increasing morphology 303 6.9.2.1. Causatives -jat, Լ-at, -chat, -it, -chit), -inat, -nat [caus] 303 6.9.2.2. Valency increasing -esh 306 Tense, aspect, mood 306 6.10.1. Tense 306
xiv Contents 6.10.2. 6.10.3. Aspect 306 Grammatical Mood (modality) 307 6.10.3.1. Imperative 308 6.10.3.1.1. Imperatives with -y-/t- verbs 309 6.10.3.1.2. Negative imperative verbs 310 6.10.3.2. =a (=7a) Subjunctive (and Negative) [SBJV], [neg] 310 6.10.3.3. -taj ‘irrealis’ [irr] 311 6.10.3.4. -taj ‘irrealis’ [irr] as ‘frustrative’ 312 6.10.3.5. (_=)jayu, (=)jatsu ‘desiderative’ 313 6.10.3.6. Evidentiality 315 6.11. Other verbal affixes and clitics 315 6.11.1. ka-, к- (к’-?) ‘abstract derivation’ [abstr] 315 6.11.2. -chi, -ki ‘associative’ [assoc](?) 316 6.11.3. =7in ‘emphatic’ [emph] 317 6.11.4. =jô ‘certain, really, truly’ 319 6.11.5. =kla7a ‘a little’, ‘in the manner of a child’ 319 6.11.6. -lha, -elha ‘verbalization: removal, extraction, separation’ [extrac] 320 6.11.7. -pjalh ‘verbalization of action involving binding’ 320 6.11.8. -walh ‘verbalization [vblz]: ‘to have large X’ 320 6.11.9. =wa7ne ‘together’ (‘united, joined’) [joined] 321 6.11.10. =watsham ‘together, collective, in a group’ [col] 322 6.11.11. -y, -ay, ֊0.7ay, -iy ‘verbalizer’ [vblz] 323 6.11.12. -yan, -ja-yan, -iyan, -in, -n, -an ‘verbalization (causative)’ [vblz] 324 6.11.13. Other, possible suffixes 325 6.11.13.1. -chay ‘valency reduction’(?) 325 6.11.13.2. -jatsen ‘unclear suffx’ (possibly meaning ‘to pretend, play at’)(?) 326 6.11.13.3. -klôy ‘oppositional’ (‘suffer, abide’?) 326 6.11.13.4. -ts’e7 ‘diminutive, attenuative’(?) 327 6.12. Clitic stacking 327 6.13. Irregular and suppletive verbs 328 6.13.1. ‘to go’ (ir) 328 6.13.2. ‘to be’ (estar) 330 6.13.3. -Шип ‘to go’ defective verb 330 6.14.
Different transitive and intransitive roots for verbs with shared meaning 331 6.15. Verb compounds 331 Chapter 7 7.1. 7.2. 7.3. Adverbs, Adverbial Expressions, and Adpositions..........................................................337 Introduction 337 Adverbs 337 7.2.1. Locative adverbs 337 7.2.2. Manner and purpose adverbs 341 7.2.3. Temporal adverbs 342 7.2.4. Intensifier adverbs 346 Relational nouns (adpositionals) 348 7.3.1. -ayshiwô ‘behind, back, backwards’ Լ-ayshiwô also means ‘track’) 350
Contents XV 7.3.2. 7.4. 7.5. -ch’amiyish ‘to the left, on the left’ (a la izquierda) (literally possessed left hand’ with directional markings on the accompanying verb) ( ch’ami-yish left.hand-extended.place.of) 350 7.3.3. -fliayûh ‘to the right’ (a la derecha) (literally possessed ‘right hand’, with directional indications marked on the accompanying verb) 351 7.3.4. -juyish, -juyi7ish ‘before, in front of ( juy-(y)ish [in.front.of-extended.place.of]; cf. ja-y-juy [laet-vblz-go.toward] ‘I go for, towards’ [me dirijo]) 351 7.3.5. -jop ‘beside, with’ [beside] 352 7.3.6. -k’oya, =k’oya ‘for’ [for] 352 7.3.7. =7ôkji, -wdkji ‘inside, in, below, beneath’ [under] 355 7.3.8. -ôyï7ish, -ôyish ‘behind, in back of’ (detrás de, atrás de) 356 7.3.9. -tom ‘self’ (‘self, same, self same, for oneself’) 356 7.3.10. -tay ‘toward’ 357 7.3.11. -w7ne ‘over, above, on’ 357 7.3.12. =wa7ne ‘together, united, joining/joined’ [joined] 358 7.3.13a. -WÔ7ÔJ, -wôj=7e ‘beside’ {֊wô7ôj ‘side’) 359 7.3.13b. -wôj=k’e ‘around, along, on the edge of’ 360 Interjections (and exclamations and ideophones) 360 Other adverbial elements 361 Chapter 8 8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8.4. 8.5. Phrasal Syntax........................................................................................................................ 363 Introduction 363 Noun phrases 363 8.2.1. Noun-Adjective order (NA) 363 8.2.2. Genitive-Noun or Noun-Genitive order (GN or NG) 365 8.2.3. Demonstrative—Noun order (DemN) 368 8.2.4. Numeral—Noun order (NumN) 368 8.2.5. Noun—Quantifier order (NQuant) 369 8.2.6. Genitive noun classifiers 369 8.2.6.1. -klô7
‘possessed domestic animal classifier’ (genitive classifier) [gen.clf] 369 8.2.6.2. -aje7 (-je7) ‘possessed hunted animal classifier’ [prey.CLF] 372 Adpositional phrases 373 Verb phrases and related verbal constructions 373 Tense, aspect, mood, and evidentiality 373 8.5.1. Demonstratives and nominal tense 373 8.5.2. Grammatical aspect 375 8.5.2.1. jayu ‘prospective’ [pros] 376 Ց.5.2.2. The difference between jayu ‘prospective’ and =jayu 380 ‘desiderative’ Grammatical mood 381 Evidentiality 381 8.5.3.1. Imperatives 384 8.5.3.2. 8.5.3.2.1. Negative imperative construction 384 8.5.3.2.2. tan=ka7 Negative injunction, negation of expectation [NEG.XPECT=IRR.CONJ] 385
xvi Contents 8.5.4. 8.6. 8.7. Voice and valency 386 8.5.4.1. Valency increasing 386 8.5.4.1.1. Stative verbs with -esh 390 8.5.4.1.2. Non-third person valency-increasing forms Ց.5.4.2. Applicative functions of -esh [val] 394 8.5.4.2.1. -esh as instrument 394 8.5.4.2.2. -esh as recipient (dative applicative) 395 8.5.4.2.3. ‘Become’ sense of -esh 396 Negation 396 Reflexives in phrases 396 Chapter 9 9.1. 9.2. 9.3. 9.4. 9.5. 9.6. 9.7. 9.8. 391 Clausal Syntax and Complex Constructions............................................................... 399 Introduction: clausal syntax 399 Basic word order 399 9.2.1. SVO (VSO, VOS) order 399 9.2.2. VS / SV orders for clauses with intransitive verbs 402 9.2.3. Adverb order 403 Copulas and Copular constructions (‘to be’) 406 9.3.1. Predicate nouns in copular clauses (nominal predicate complements) 406 9.3.2. Predicate adjectives in copular clauses 406 9.3.3. Locative copula clauses 407 9.3.4. Presentational copula, ka7aj, ka7t’aj ‘there is/are’, ‘there exists/exist’ 409 9.3.5. Negative presentational copula, am=pa (ôm=pa) ‘there is/are no/none’, ‘there exists/exist no/none’ 410 Types of subordinate clause conjunctions 410 9.4.1. Subordinate clauses with the realis subordinate conjunction Ճ7 411 9.4.2. Subordinate clauses with the irrealis subordinate conjunction ka7 413 9.4.3. Word order in subordinate clauses 415 Questions 416 9.5.1. Polarity (yes-no) questions 416 9.5.2. Indirect question (embedded questions) 418 9.5.3. Content questions (so-called wh-questions) 418 Negation 419 9.6.1. Negation in morphology reviewed 419 9.6.1.1.
Negative morphemes on nouns 419 9.6.1.2. Negative morphemes on adjectives 420 9.6.2. Negative morphemes on verbs 420 9.6.3. tan=ka7 ‘Negation of expectation’ 421 Necessives (verbs and constructions of obligation) 424 9.7.1. Imperatives as necessives 424 9.7.2. Prospective in necessive senses 425 9.7.3. is=jop necessive sense 426 9.7.4. Negative necessive senses with chi7- ‘impersonal’ 426 9.7.5. Other verbs with necessive senses 426 Possessive constructions 426 9.8.1. Predicate possession 427 9.8.1.1. Positive predicate possession 427
Contents 9.9. 9.10. 9.11. xvii 9.8.1.2. Negative predicate possession 429 Inchoative/inceptive 430 9.9.1. ‘Become’ sense of -esh [VAL] ‘valency-increasing’ 430 9.9.2. Other constructions with ‘inchoative’, ‘inceptive’, or ‘translative’ senses 431 Ditransitive constructions 431 Multiclause constructions and utterances 433 9.11.1. Coordinate conjunction 433 9.11.1.1. Noun phrase coordination (NP + NP) 433 9.11.1.1.1. Noun phrase coordination with shi7 ‘and’ 433 9.11.1.1.2. Noun phrase coordination 0‘and’ 434 9.11.1.2. Clause coordination 435 9.11.1.2.1. shi7 ‘and’, verb phrase and clause coordination 435 9.11.1.2.2. pa7 ‘and’, ‘then’, ‘and then’ verb phrase and clause coordination 435 9.11.1.2.3. Clause coordination with 0 (juxtaposition) 437՜ 9.11.2. Or’coordination ja7tajesh 438 9.11.3. Disjunction 439 9.11.3.1. Disjunction taj ti7 ‘but’ 439 9.11.3.2. Conjunctions with wo7oy 440 9.11.3.2.1. Disjunction wo7oy ‘rather, but, but rather’ (counter to expectations) 440 9.11.3.2.2. wo7oy ... -taj ‘until’ 441 9.11.4. Other kinds of subordinate clauses 442 9.11.4.1. Conditional clauses (ka7) ... -taj 442 9.11.4.2. Concessive clauses 443 9.11.4.3. Other adverbial clauses 445 9.11.4.3.1. Temporal clauses 445 9.11.4.3.2. Purpose clauses with ka7 ‘in order to’, ‘so that’ 447 9.11.4.3.3. Consequential clauses: jospa, kaspa ‘in order to, ‘so that’, ‘therefore’, ‘consequently’ 448 9.11.4.3.4. Reason clauses: Iha7ya7ash ti7 ‘because’ 450 9.11.4.3.5. Manner clauses: ta.7 ‘what’/’how’ 451 9.11.4.4. Relative Clauses 452 9.11.4.4.1. Relative clauses with relative clause markers 452 9.11.4.4.2.
Subject relativization 454 9.11.4.4.3. Direct Object relativization (where the head noun plays the role of object in the relative clause which modifies that head noun) 457 9.11.4.4.4. Oblique relativization 459 9.11.4.4.5. Possessive Relativization 460 9.11.4.4.6. Relative clauses introduced by 0 461 9.11.4.4.7. Headless relative clauses 463 9.11.4.4.8. Nivade relative clause accessibility 463 9.11.4.4.9. Extraposition of relative clause 464 9.11.4.5. Direct and indirect reported speech 464 9.11.4.5.1. Embedded direct speech 465 9.11.4.5.2. Indirect speech 465
xviii Contents 9.11.4.6. Verb complement clauses 466 9.11.4.6.1. Verb complement clauses with ka7 466 9.11.4.6.2. Verb complement clauses with na7 467 9.11.5. Other subordinators 468 9.11.5.1. am=a ‘but rather’ 468 9.11.5.2. Ücm7e‘but’(‘but rather’,‘but to the contrary’) 468 9.12. Comparison 469 9.12.1. Comparison of inequality (or degree) 469 9.12.2. Comparison with =k’oya ‘before, for’ 469 9.12.3. Comparison with -a7ash ‘to pass, surpass’ + =k’oya ‘before, for’ 470 9.12.4. Comparison of equality (‘like’, ‘as’, ‘as much as’) 471 9.12.5. The superlative 471 9.13. Common syntactic patterns only weakly present in Nivádé 472 9.13.1. ‘Can’/ ‘be able to’ 472 9.13.2. ‘Need’ 473 Chapter 10 Nivádé Language in Its Social and Cultural Setting................................................. 10.1. 10.2. 10.3. 10.4. 10.5. 10.6. 10.7. 10.8. 10.9. Introduction 477 The socio-cultural, multilingual setting 477 10.2.1. Geographical extent of linguistic exogamy and dual lingualism 480 10.2.2. Historical antecedents 480 Sociocultural aspects of Nivádé language usage 484 Language contact involving Nivádé 485 10.4.1. Spanish loanwords in Nivádé 485 10.4.2. Terms of acculturation which utilize native resources 487 10.4.3. Structural impact of Spanish 488 10.4.4. Loans and caiques from other indigenous languages 489 10.4.5. Convergence due to contact with other indigenous languages? 490 Lexical semantic categories that reflect salient cultural attributes 493 10.5.1. Terms in children’s language 493 10.5.2. Color terms 493 10.5.3. Geometrical shapes 494 10.5.4. Kinship terms 494 10.5.5. Age
terminology 498 10.5.6. Days of the week 498 Lexical suffixes 498 Names and naming 499 10.7.1. Personal names 499 10.7.2. Names of ethnic groups (ethnonyms), designations of groups of people (see also 3.6.2.27. and 3.6.2.19.) 500 10.7.3. Toponyms, geographical terms 501 Common greetings 501 Symbolic, onomatopoeic, and affective vocabulary 502 10.9.1. Reduplicated forms 502 10.9.2. Other onomatopoeic, symbolic, and reduplicated forms, and interjections 503 10.9.3. Onomatopoeic bird names 505 477
Contents xix 10.10. Unusual cases of semantic extensions, polysemie relations 507 10.11. Some significant language and culture domains 507 10.11.1. Avoidance of stinginess 507 10.11.2. Hunting-gathering and fishing terminology 508 509 10.11.2.1a. Hunting terms 10.11.2.1b. Gathering terms 510 10.11.2.2. Fishing terms 510 10.11.3. Weaving terms 511 10.11.4. Terms of the supernatural, ritual, and curing 512 10.12. Swadesh wordlists 514 10.12.1. Swadesh 100-word list 514 10.12.2. Swadesh 200-word list 516 Chapter 11 Texts...................................................................................................................................524 11.1. 11.2. 11.3. Introduction 524 The Batará (Historia de la Batará), by Bernardo Flores 526 My ancestors (The stories of my ancestors) [la historia de mis antepasados]), by Teresa Garcia 554 11.4. War with the Bolivians (La guerra con los bolivianos), by Teresa Garcia 574 11.5. The race of the rhea and the tick (La Carrera del Suri/Ñandú y la Garrapata, by Luis Díaz, 15 de junio 2004) 584 Appendix: List of Nivádé Grammatical Affixes and Clitics Glossary of Foreign and Unfamiliar Terms 599 Bibliography 601 593
This book offers an extensive description of Nivádé, an indigenous language spoken in the Gran Chaco region of Argentina and Paraguay. Nivadé s phonology, morphology, and syntax are complex; the language has no tenses marked on verbs, essentially no prepositions, and a sizable number of lexical suffixes whose content is so concrete they would be expected to be independent words in most other languages. Nivádé also has a unique speech sound, /кГ/, known nowhere else. In some locations where it is spoken, multilingual conversations are the norm. These and other rare traits make Nivádé especially fascinating for linguists, with many implications for language typology and linguistic theory. The book is based on dozens of audio and video recordings of narratives and on hundreds of hours of elicitation and analysis with native speakers. Four lengthy texts are included here to demonstrate the language in action. Scholars—whether in anthropology, folklore, geography, history, or language—will find value in the narratives included here and in the insights into Nivádé life and culture found throughout the book. This book contains the most detailed and informative descriptive study of the Nivádé language so far and the only one to be found in English. It stands out by its richness of data, its high standards of analysis and presentation, and its exhaustive character. Logically constructed and well organized, it contains all the language data and analysis one could hope for. —Willem Adelaar, professor emeritus of Native American Languages, Leiden University This is a great
contribution to the literature on Matacoan languages. It completes other work on the language and offers new insights and analyses. It is clearly written and the choice of the orthography of Nivádé makes it easy to read. —Jimena Terraza, professor of linguistics, Kiuna College The most detailed description of any language of the Gran Chaco. A reference grammar such as this one will be useful to anthropologists, ethnographers, ethnohistorians, typological linguists, and indigenous people who want to write teaching materials or teach classes on their languages. It is a groundbreaking contribution. —Willem J. de Reuse, linguist for The Language Conservancy
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CONTENTS Figures, Maps, and Tables xxi Acknowledgments xxiii Abbreviations Used in This Volume Chapter 1 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 1.7. 1.8. 1.9. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5. 2.6. Introduction.1 Introduction 1 The language and its speakers 1 The classification of Nivádé 4 Varieties (dialects) of Nivádé 5 1.4.1. Some distinguishing features of the dialects 1.4.2. Differences within the Arribeño dialect 8 The socio-cultural setting 10 Procedures, methodology, and fieldwork 11 Typological overview 12 Previous linguistic documentation of Nivádé 15 Guidelines for user 21 Chapter 2 2.1. 2.2. xxv 8 Phonology.27 Introduction 27 Phoneme inventory and orthography used in this grammar 27 2.2.1. Stress 33 2.2.2. Unusual and unresolved matters involving stress and seemingly long vowels 34 2.2.3. Orthographic 7 for glottal stop 35 2.2.4. The interpretation of /V7C/ sequences 35 Other Orthographies 37 Minimal pairs and near minimal pairs 37 Principal allophones 44 2.5.1. w -* ß /_ і, e, a 44 2.5.2. Velar backing: velar - uvular (post-velar) / _ ô, e, і and /i, e, ô _ # 2.5.3. Allophones of velar fricative /j/ 48 2.5.4. Allophones of /e/ 48 Phonological processes 49 2.6.1. Glide loss 49 2.6.1.1. y-loss 49 2.6.1.2. w-loss 50 2.6.2. Deaffrication of final ts 50 2.6.3. Vowel deletion: V — 0 / VCi_C2 +V (Ci * C2) 51 2.6.4. Loss of glottal stop: 7 ֊» 0
/ V _CV 52 45
vi Contents 2.6.5. 2.6.6. Delateralization of /kl/: kl - к / _ C, / _# (C ^ 7) 53 Velar palatalization: velar -* alveopalatal / V[non-back]C _, /V[non-back] C_V[non-back] (where C ^ y, s) 54 2.6.7. Velar spirantization: k- j / C_ + V 55 2.6.8. Secondary glottalization: C7 ֊» C’ (or, C -* CV _ 7, then 7 -» (0) / C’ _) (where C = stop or affricate) 57 2.6.9. Loss of j and 7 before consonant-initial affixes: j, 7 -* 0 /_ + C 58 2.6.10. Consonant-loss in homorganic clusters 58 2.6.11. Vowel cluster reduction: a-֊ 0/#_ + V 60 2.6.12. Vowel assimilation 60 2.6.12.1. Vowel assimilation in plural morphemes: V-Vj /ViC + _k, s, y] PLURAL 60 2.6.12.2. Vowel assimilation in the emphatic morpheme (emph): і Vi /Vi=7 n] empii 60 2.6.12.3. Vowel assimilation in the unspecified object suffix (иом): a -* u / uC+j_n] UOM 61 2.6.12.4. Assimilation of vowels before + -e 61 2.6.13. Nasal assimilation 62 2.6.14. Deglottalization of syllable-final globalized consonants: C’ -* C /_ #, /_ C 64 2.6.15. Glottal stop insertion: 0 - 7 / #_ V, /V + _V 64 2.6.16. Echo-vowel insertion: 0-»Vi /Vi7_C#, /7_CC 65 2.6.17. Alternating glottal stop behavior 65 2.6.17.1. Some general properties of Nivádé glottal stops 66 2.6.17.2. Observations about the alternation of 7 with 0 67 2.7. Other phonetic processes 70 2.7.1. Phonetic lengthening of consonants: C - C: /V_V 70 2.7.2. /ch/ weakening: ch - tyh /_#, /_C 71 2.7.3. Phonetic aspiration 72 2.7.3.1. Aspiration of final к: к -*· kh, qh /_# 72 2.7.3.2. Aspiration of p and к before к 72 2.7.3.3. Aspiration of t before w: t -»· th /_w 72 2.7.4. iy - [1:] /_ #, /C_ 73
2.7.5. Change of /а/ to /о/ before labials: a ô /_m, p, p’, w 73 2.7.6. Optional reduction of unstressed vowels and in non-careful speech 73 2.8. Syllable structure, phonotactics, and the distribution of sounds 74 2.9. Unusual and extraordinary sounds and sound sequences 75 2.9.1. /ki/ 75 2.9.2. /Us/, /tsh/, /teh/, and /tch’/ 76 2.9.3. /s + sh/ 79 2.9.4. /7/ in clusters 79 2.10. Fast speech differences and variation 80 2.11. Further investigation 80 Chapter 3 3.1. Nouns. 85 Introduction and preliminaries 3.1.1. Nivádé clitics 85 85
Contents 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.1.2. Alternations that recur in numerous affixes and clitics 86 Noun morphology pattern 86 Noun classes: possessed and unpossessed 86 3.3.1. Nouns of the unpossessed noun class 87 3.3.2. Nouns of the possessed noun class 88 Gender 89 3.4.1. Masculine affixes 90 3.4.2. Feminine affixes 91 Noun Plurals 91 3.5.1. -k, -ik ‘masculine plural’ 91 3.5.2. -s Լ-Vs, -is, -es) ‘masculine plural’ 93 3.5.3. -y Լ-Vy, -iy) ‘feminine plural’ 97 3.5.4. 0 plural 99 3.5.5. -wot Լ-owoť) ‘kinship plural’ 100 3.5.6. Exceptional plural forms 101 3.5.7. =sha7ne ‘plural’ 101 3.5.8. Form and placement of plural affixes within words 101 3.5.9. Optional plural marking 102 Nominal derivation 102 3.6.1. Derivational prefixes 102 3.6.1.1. ka- ‘abstract’/‘alienable’[abstr] (with allomorphs ka-, k-, к’-) 102 3.6.1.2. tin- Լ-ս7ո-, tn-, ո֊) ‘indefinite or non-specific possession’ [NPOS] 104 3.6.1.3. chi- ‘nominalizing prefix’ (uncertain) 104 3.6.1.4. wanka- ‘intransitiver’ (intrsv) in nominal forms 104 3.6.1.5. -w- “possessible” prefix [posb] 105 3.6.2. Derivational suffixes 106 Յ.6.2.1. -a Լ-ô, -e) ‘feminine’ 106 3.6.2.2. -ach Լ-ech) ‘resultative nominalization’ [nmlz] 107 3.6.2.3. -aj, -ej ‘abstract nominalization’ [nmlz] (cf. also -janaj, -taj, -tsej, and -matsej) 108 3.6.2.4. -chat / -kat Լ-ichat, -ikat) ‘a stand, grove, group of trees or plants of the same species, or an abundance of trees or plants of the same species in a particular place’ 108 3.6.2.5. -che/-ke (-che7/-ke7) ‘female’ [fem] 110 3.6.2.6. -che/-ke ‘small’, ‘diminutive’ [dim] 111 3.6.2.7. =ch’e/=k’e
‘extended, intensive’ [xtend], [intens] 112 3.6.2.8. -ej, ‘kind of fruit, edible plant’ 112 3.6.2.9. -et/-e7et‘nominalization’[nmlz] 113 3.6.2.10. -ftia (֊ja֊jha) ‘companion’ 113 3.6.2.11. -i, -a, -ô, -u ‘nominalization’ [nmlz] 114 3.6.2.12. -ycha ‘augmentative’ [AUG] 114 3.6.2.13. -ja- ‘ligature’ (empty morph) [lig] 115 3.6.2.14. -janaj ( -ja-naj), -naj, -aj ‘agent, doer of the action’; -janja ( -ja-naj-a) ‘female agent, doer of the action’ 116 118 3.6.2.15a. -jat ‘(instrumental) nominalization’ [nmlz] vii
viii Contents -jate, -njate ‘nominalization’ 118 =jô ‘certainty intensifier’ 120 -kla7ay, -Шау ‘big’ (augmentative) [AUG] 120 -klôt, -klô7ôt ‘pejorative, useless’ (rare suffix) 121 -lhay, -ilhay ‘ethnic, occupational, or other social group marker’ 121 -mat, -ma7at -7mat, -i7mat ‘defective in, suffering from, damaged 3.6.2.20. in, bad because of, have something undesirable’ 122 -matsej Լ-ematsej) ‘good in, good because of, well-functioning 3.6.2.21. in’ 122 -mech, -me7ech ‘expert, person who has power over something, 3.6.2.22. has special knowledge of something, belongs to a profession con cerned with something, a ritural specialist in something’ (perhaps from -m-ech; see -ech 3.6.2.2.) 123 3.6.2.23. =ne=7e ‘here, present, toward here’ 124 -nilh, -inilh ‘composed of, made of’ 124 3.6.2.24. -nőj (and -nôj֊ô) ‘eater of, hunter of, one fond of’ 125 3.6.2.25. -nők ‘kind of fermented drink, kind of consumable liquid’ 126 3.6.2.26. -пик, -inuk, -nu7uk ‘ethnonym suffix (ethnic group suffix)’ 3.6.2.27. (gentilicio) 126 -пик, -inuk ‘about the neck or mouth’? (or ‘tying’?) (uncertain 3.6.2.28. meaning) 127 -op, -up, (-o7op, -u7up, -ô7ôp) ‘season’ suffix 127 3.6.2.29. =shi, =ji ‘fluid or abstract mass’(?) 128 3.6.2.30. -shiy/-jiy ‘concave, container’ 129 3.6.2.31. -ta=7a, -ita=7a ‘of no value, worthless’ [depr] 130 3.6.2.32. -tach, -itach ‘tree, plant suffix’(?) 130 3.6.2.33. -taj, -itaj ‘similar to, analogous to’ (simulative) [sim] 131 3.6.2.34. -tsej i-ts-ej) ‘animal suffix’(?) 131 3.6.2.35. 3.6.2.36. -uk, -yuk, -u7uk ‘plant suffix’ [plant] (specifying individual trees or plants,
individual stocks of the plant identified in the word’s root) 132 3.6.2.37. -wash, -Vwash, -wa7ash ‘kind of wound, injury’, ‘print, track, impression’, caused by or associated with the thing mentioned in the root 133 3.6.2.38. -wat i֊7wat) ‘place of’ 134 3.6.2.39. -way ‘kind of, something like’ 135 3.6.2.40. -wo Լ-ja-wo) ‘instrument (for or that belongs to something)’ [instr] 135 -yash, -ash, -ya7ash, -iyash ‘resultative nominalization’ 3.6.2.41. [NMLZ] 136 3.6.2.42. -yinjat (-iyinjat) [masc] , -yinjate [fem] ‘mourning kinship mor phemes’ (probably composed of -yi-njat(-e) (see 3.6.2.15a., 3.6.2.15b.) 138 3.6.2.43. -yish, -տտհ ‘extended place of, ‘area of’ [xtend] 138 Distributional restrictions among nominal affixes 138 Reduplication 139 3.6.2.15b. 3.6.2.16. 3.6.2.17. 3.6.2.18. 3.6.2.19. 3.6.3. 3.6.4.
Contents ix 3.7. 3.8. Lexical suffixes 139 Nominal compounds (compound nouns) 140 3.8.1. Noun-Noun compounds 140 3.8.2. Noun 4- possessed-Noun compounds 142 3.8.3. Adjective-Noun and Noun-Adjective nominal compounds 143 3.8.4. Phrasal compounds 144 3.9. Non-productive noun morphology, irregularities, and exceptions 145 3.10. Pronominal subjects of predicate complements [SPC] 145 Chapter 4 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. Pronouns, Demonstratives, and Quantifiers. 149 Introduction 149 Pronouns 149 4.2.1. Independent Personal Pronouns 149 4.2.2. Possessive pronominal affixes 150 4.2.2.1. First person singular possessive pronominal affix 150 4.2.2.2. Second person singular possessive pronominal affix 150 4.2.2.3. Third person singular possessive pronominal affix 150 4.2.2.4. First person plural inclusive possessive pronominal affix 153 4.2.2.5. Other plural possessive pronominal affixes 154 4.2.2.6. wat- (wať-, wa-, wata֊, waťa-, wata7a-) ‘unspecified pronominal possession’ 156 4.2.2.7. tin-, ti7n-, tn-, n- ‘unpossessed’ 159 4.2.3. Pronominal subjects of predicate complements [SPC] 160 4.2.4. Negative predicate nominals (and adjectives) 161 4.2.5. Pronominal subject agreement markers and core arguments of verbs 162 4.2.6. Valency-changing morphemes and pronominal direct objects 162 4.2.7. Dative, benefactive pronominal markers 162 4.2.8. Oblique object ‘to’ [away] (direction away from speaker) 167 4.2.9. ts’iwe7e ‘they’ 170 4.2.10. Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns 172 4.2.10.1. wat- (wa7at-, wa-) ‘reflexive’ [refl] 172 4.2.10.2.
-wach ‘reflexive’ 172 Demonstratives and demonstrative pronouns 173 4.3.1. na7 ‘the/this/that/a’ [vis] (el, un, este/esto) (presently visible, masculine gender) 175 4.3.2. ja7 ‘the/this/that/a’ [nvis] (el/la, un(a), este/esta, ese/esa, aquel/ aquella) 175 4.3.3. pa7 ‘the/that/a’ [rep] (el/la, un(a), este/esta, ese/esa, aquel/aquella) 176 4.3.4. ka7 ‘the/that/a’ [rem] (el/la, un(a), ese/esa, aquel/aquella) 177 4.3.5. Feminine demonstratives 179 4.3.5.1. Iha7 ‘the/this/that/a’ [fem] (la/esta/esa/una) 179 4.3.5.2. Ih-ja7 ‘the/this/that/a’ [fem-nvis] (la/una/esa/aquella) 179 4.3.5.3. lh-pa7 ‘the/that/a’ [fem-rep] (la/una/aquella) 180 4.3.5.4. lh-ka7 ‘the/that/a’ [rem] (la/esta/esa/aquellal/una) 180 4.3.6. Human plural demonstratives 181 4.3.6.1. na-pi7 ‘the/these/those’ [vis-pl.hum] (los/estos/esos) 181 4.3.6.2. ja-pi7 ‘the/those’ [nvis-pl.hum] (los/esos/aquellos) 181
x Contents 4.4. 4.5. 4.3.6.3. pa-pi7 ‘the/those’ [rep-pl.hum] (los/esos/aquellos) 182 4.3.6.4. ka-pi7 ‘the/those’ [rem-pl.hum] (los/aquellos) 182 4.3.6.5. pa-pu7 (variant of pa-pi7) 183 4.3.7. Non-human plural demonstratives i-wa7) 184 4.3.8. Differences in gender and animacy in demonstratives 186 4.3.9. Contrasting demonstratives depending on context 186 4.3.10. Other demonstratives and pronouns 189 4.3.10.1. Demonstratives with =ke, -ke [dem] 189 4.3.10.2. Demonstratives with =7ana ‘demonstrative predicate’ [dem.pred] 189 4.3.10.3. Demonstratives with =kô7yi, =kôyi ‘demonstrative clitic’ 190 4.3.10.4. Demonstratives with =7em ‘heard’ 190 4.3.10.5. Demonstratives with =7um ‘in the distance’ [distance] 190 4.3.10.6. Demonstratives with -n=7e ‘here, present, there’ 191 4.3.10.7. Demonstratives with =7ô ‘there’C?) 192 4.3.10.8. ihech ‘this one, that one, the self-same, exactly this, exactly that’ 192 4.3.10.9. Demonstratives with -elh ‘other’ [pl.excl] 193 4.3.10.10. Demonstratives with -cha ‘separative’ [sep] 194 4.3.10.11. na7up (demonstratives with-up(?)) 195 4.3.11. Interrogative pronouns 195 4.3.11.1. she= + demonstrative: ‘what?, ‘which?’, ‘who?’ 195 4.3.11.2. ta7 ‘which?’, ‘what?’, ‘where?’, ‘when?’, ‘how?’ 196 4.3.11.3. ta7 ťa.jô7ôj ‘how many, how much?’ (‘until when?, how long?’) 198 199 4.3.11.4. ta7 Iha7ya7ash ‘why?’ (phonetically [ta Ihay7ya7ash]) 4.3.12. Negative demonstratives 199 4.3.13. Indefinite pronouns 200 Quantifiers 202 4.4.1. ‘all’ (todos, todo) 202 4.4.2. ‘each, every’ (cada) 203 4.4.3. ‘much, many’ 203 4.4.4. ‘few, some, a little’ 204 Numerals 205
4.5.1. Cardinal numbers 205 4.5.2. Ordinal numbers 206 4.5.3. Fractions, parts 207 4.5.4. Numbers for sets and groups (pairs, twins, triplets, etc.) 207 Chapter 5 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. Adjectives and Adjectival Morphology. . . 211 Introduction 211 Adjectival complements 211 5.2.1. Positive adjectival complements 211 5.2.2. Negative predicate complement adjectives Adjectival inflection 213 5.3.1. Plural marking on adjectives 213 212
Contents 5.4. 5.5. 5.6. Adjectival derivational morphology and clitics 215 5.4.1. =ch’e, =k’e ‘extended (along an expanse), intensive’ [xtend, 5.4.2. =7e, =7e7‘in’[LOC] 216 5.4.3. =7m ‘emphatic’ [EMPH] 216 5.4.4. =jô ‘indeed, really, truly’ (emphatic) (de veras) 216 5.4.5. =shi/=ji (=shi7/=ji7) ‘intensive’ [INTENS] 217 5.4.6. -tsej ‘with increased intensity/strength, much’ 219 Reduplication in adjectives 219 Negative Adjectives 220 Chapter 6 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. intens] xi 215 Verbs.222 Introduction 222 Alignment and argument marking 223 Active verb classes 226 6.3.1. Class 1: Basic active verbs (both transitive and intransitive) 226 6.3.1.1. ja-/lh-/yi-/shta- before CV (/_CV) 229 6.3.1.2. ja-/lha-/yi֊/shta- before CC (/_CC) 231 6.Յ.1.Յ. j-/lh-/y-/sht-before V (/_V) 232 • 6.3.1.4. ja-/lh-/0-/shta- before t (/_tV) 232 6.3.1.5. ja֊/lha-/0-/shta- before w (/_wV) 233 6.3.1.6. Stem-initial n active verbs 234 6.Յ.1.6.1. ja֊nCV, lha-nCV, niCV, shta-nCV {n(i)C) 235 6.Յ.1.6.2. ja-nV, Ih-nV, 0-nV, shta-nV ԼnV) 235 6.3.1.6.3. Third person wa- before n: ja-, Ih-, wa-, shta(nV) 236 6.3.1.7. ja-, İh-, w(a)-, shta-/shn-: third person w(a)~ 237 6.3.2. The -y֊/t- active verbs [vblz] 238 6.Յ.2.1. ja-у-, Ստ-է-, է-, shta-before verb roots that begin in CV (/_CV) 239 6.3.2.2. ja-у-, Iht-, t-, sht- before vowel-initial verb roots (/_VCV) 239 6.3.2.3. ja-у-, lha-t-/ľhť-, ťa-, shťa- (glottalized “t” set) before a consonant (/_CV) 240 6.3.2.4. ja-у-, Ihť-, ť-, shť-
(glottalized “t” set) before a vowel (/_VC) 240 6.3.2.5. ja-(7)yi-, Ihťa-, ťa-, shťa- before a consonant cluster (/_CC) 241 6.3.3. The k’- class of active verb 242 6.3.3.1. k’-, ť-, y-, shť- before a vowel-initial verb root (/_VCV, /_VC#, /_VCC) 242 6.3.3.2. k’a-, ťa-, yi-, shťa- before a consonant cluster (/_CC) 244 6.3.3.3. к’-class polysyllabic verbs that begin with i (k’a-, t’i-, yi-, shťi-) 245 Stative verbs 246 6.4.1. Stative pronominal agreement markers that signal the object of an active verb 248 6.4.2. Possible exceptions 249 6.4.2.1. Semantically non-stative verbs in the “stative” class? 249
xii Contents 6.4.2.2. 6.5. 6.6. 6.7. 6.8. Real but explicable exceptions? 251 6.4.2.2.1. -esh ‘valency-increasing’ exception 251 6.4.2.2.2. ka- ‘abstract derivation’ exception 252 6.4.2.2.3. ‘Desiderative’ exception 252 6.4.3. Stative verb pronominal agreement markers, their allomorphs, and conjugations 253 6.4.3.1. tsi-, na-, yi-, shtan- (shin-) before stative verb stems that begin in CiVCV or CiVC# (Ci * ri) 254 6.4.3.2. t’si-, na-, yi-, shtan- (shin-) before stative stems that begin CVCC (Ci * ri) 256 6.4.3.3. էտ-, n-, y-, shi7n- before stative verb stems beginning in a vowel (VCC, VCV) where there is no 7 in the root 256 6.4.3.4. էտ’-, ո-, y-, shi7n- before stative verb stems beginning in a vowel where there is a 7 in the root 256 6.4.3.5. tsi-, na-, yi-, shi7na- before a consonant cluster ( /_CC) 257 6.4.3.6. tsi-, İha-, 0-, shta- before stative verb stems beginning in n(V) 257 6.4.3.7 Possible stative subclass tsi-, na-, 0֊, shtan259 Pronominal agreement markers in irrealis subordinate constructions 260 Plural marking in verbs 260 6.6.1. -sha7ne/=ja7ne ‘plural object of active transitive verbs, plural subject of stative verbs and some intransitive active verbs, and the plural of some adjectives’ 260 6.6.1.1. -sha7ne/=ja7ne signaling plural objects of transitive verbs 260 6.6.1.2. =sha7ne/=ja7ne signaling plural subjects of active intransitive verbs 261 6.6.1.Յ. =sha7ne/=ja7ne signaling iterativity of the verbal action 261 6.6.2. -elh (-e7elh) [pl.excl] ‘plural exclusive’ 262 6.6.2.1. -elh (-e7elh) as plural subject marker 262 6.6.2.2. -elh (֊7elh/֊e7elh) as plural
object marker 263 6.6.2.3. -elh (-7elh/-e7elh) plural predicate adjectives 263 6.6.3. =ch’e (=ch’e7) ‘plural’ [pl] 264 6.6.3.1. =ch’e plural object of transitive verb 264 6.6.3.2. =ch’e plural subject of intransitive verbs 265 6.6.3.3. =ch’e iterative actions 265 6.6.3.4. =ch’e plural of predicate adjectives 266 6.6.3.5. Verbs with plural subjects but no plural pronominal agreement markers 266 Negative verbs 268 Directional and locative affixes and clitics 271 6.8.1. Directional and locative verbal prefixes 271 6.8.1.1. n- ‘direction towards’ [hither] 271 6.8.1.2. ta- ‘direction toward’ [hither] 272 6.8.2. The directional and locative clitics 272 6.8.2.1. =7ape7e ‘on, on top of, over’ [on] 277
Contents 6.8.2.2. 6.9. 6.10. xiii =ch’e/=k’e ‘extended, extended along an expanse’, ‘intensive’ [xtend], [intens] 277 6.8.2.3. =ch’e, =k’e (=ch’e7, =k’e7) ‘inside, in (in small, confined space)’ [inside] 278 6.8.2.4. =chisham/=kisham (=chisha7am) ‘up, upward’ [up] 279 6.8.2.5. =7e/=7e7 ‘in’, place where the action of the verb takes place [LOC] 280 6.8.2.6. ~ey, =7ey Լ-ey, -7ey) ‘to, toward the direction away from speaker, distal’ [away] 281 6.8.2.7. =jop ‘with, beside’ (and ‘goal, purpose’) [beside] 282 6.Ց.2.8. =julh, =ju7ulh ‘together, equal to, the same as, corresponding to’ [together], [equal] 283 6.8.2.9. =k’oya ‘for, before’ [for], [before] (phonetically [=k’óya]) 284 6.8.2.10. =ne=7e ‘here, present, towards here’ [here=loc] 285 =7ôkji, -wôkji ‘below, beneath (in, inside)’ [under] 285 6.8.2.11. =sham/=sha7anu =jam/=ja7am ‘through, in, inside, by’ 6.8.2.12. [through], [inside] 286 6.8.2.13. =sha7ne, =ja7ne ‘down, downward, below’ [down] 288 =shi, =ji ‘non-specific location, ‘in’ [nspec.loc], [loc] 289 6.8.2.14. 6.8.2.15. =shicham, =shicha7am, =jicham, =jicha7am ‘downward, down’ [down] 290 =shi7na, =ji7na ‘towards (direction here toward speaker)’ 6.8.2.16. [LOC.HERE] 291 =wat=julh, =wat=ju7ulh ‘equal to, the same as, together, one 6.8.2.17. another’ 291 Valency changing 292 6.9.1. Valency-decreasing affixes and clitics, and related forms 292 6.9.1.1. Unspecified subject (impersonal) chi- (chi7) [npers] 292 6.9.1.1.1. Positive unspecified subject (impersonal) Լշհւ-, chi7-) [npers] 293 6.9.1.1.2. Negative unspecified subject (impersonal) 296 Reflexives and reciprocals 296
6.9.1.2. 6.9.1.2.1. Reflexive n- [refl] (middle voice n-) 297 6.9.1.2.2. wat- Լwa7at-, wa-) ‘reflexive’ [refl] 297 6.9.1.2.3. ta-reflexive 298 6.9.1.2.4. Reciprocals =wach ‘reciprocal pronoun’ [recip] (see also -wach ‘reflexive’ relational noun root) 299 wanka-, wank-, wank’a-, wank’- ‘intransitivizer’ [intrsv] 300 6.9.1.3. -jan (-jun) ‘unspecified object marker’ (intransitivizer) 6.9.1.4. [uom] 302 6.9.2. Valency-increasing morphology 303 6.9.2.1. Causatives -jat, Լ-at, -chat, -it, -chit), -inat, -nat [caus] 303 6.9.2.2. Valency increasing -esh 306 Tense, aspect, mood 306 6.10.1. Tense 306
xiv Contents 6.10.2. 6.10.3. Aspect 306 Grammatical Mood (modality) 307 6.10.3.1. Imperative 308 6.10.3.1.1. Imperatives with -y-/t- verbs 309 6.10.3.1.2. Negative imperative verbs 310 6.10.3.2. =a (=7a) Subjunctive (and Negative) [SBJV], [neg] 310 6.10.3.3. -taj ‘irrealis’ [irr] 311 6.10.3.4. -taj ‘irrealis’ [irr] as ‘frustrative’ 312 6.10.3.5. (_=)jayu, (=)jatsu ‘desiderative’ 313 6.10.3.6. Evidentiality 315 6.11. Other verbal affixes and clitics 315 6.11.1. ka-, к- (к’-?) ‘abstract derivation’ [abstr] 315 6.11.2. -chi, -ki ‘associative’ [assoc](?) 316 6.11.3. =7in ‘emphatic’ [emph] 317 6.11.4. =jô ‘certain, really, truly’ 319 6.11.5. =kla7a ‘a little’, ‘in the manner of a child’ 319 6.11.6. -lha, -elha ‘verbalization: removal, extraction, separation’ [extrac] 320 6.11.7. -pjalh ‘verbalization of action involving binding’ 320 6.11.8. -walh ‘verbalization [vblz]: ‘to have large X’ 320 6.11.9. =wa7ne ‘together’ (‘united, joined’) [joined] 321 6.11.10. =watsham ‘together, collective, in a group’ [col] 322 6.11.11. -y, -ay, ֊0.7ay, -iy ‘verbalizer’ [vblz] 323 6.11.12. -yan, -ja-yan, -iyan, -in, -n, -an ‘verbalization (causative)’ [vblz] 324 6.11.13. Other, possible suffixes 325 6.11.13.1. -chay ‘valency reduction’(?) 325 6.11.13.2. -jatsen ‘unclear suffx’ (possibly meaning ‘to pretend, play at’)(?) 326 6.11.13.3. -klôy ‘oppositional’ (‘suffer, abide’?) 326 6.11.13.4. -ts’e7 ‘diminutive, attenuative’(?) 327 6.12. Clitic stacking 327 6.13. Irregular and suppletive verbs 328 6.13.1. ‘to go’ (ir) 328 6.13.2. ‘to be’ (estar) 330 6.13.3. -Шип ‘to go’ defective verb 330 6.14.
Different transitive and intransitive roots for verbs with shared meaning 331 6.15. Verb compounds 331 Chapter 7 7.1. 7.2. 7.3. Adverbs, Adverbial Expressions, and Adpositions.337 Introduction 337 Adverbs 337 7.2.1. Locative adverbs 337 7.2.2. Manner and purpose adverbs 341 7.2.3. Temporal adverbs 342 7.2.4. Intensifier adverbs 346 Relational nouns (adpositionals) 348 7.3.1. -ayshiwô ‘behind, back, backwards’ Լ-ayshiwô also means ‘track’) 350
Contents XV 7.3.2. 7.4. 7.5. -ch’amiyish ‘to the left, on the left’ (a la izquierda) (literally possessed left hand’ with directional markings on the accompanying verb) ( ch’ami-yish left.hand-extended.place.of) 350 7.3.3. -fliayûh ‘to the right’ (a la derecha) (literally possessed ‘right hand’, with directional indications marked on the accompanying verb) 351 7.3.4. -juyish, -juyi7ish ‘before, in front of ( juy-(y)ish [in.front.of-extended.place.of]; cf. ja-y-juy [laet-vblz-go.toward] ‘I go for, towards’ [me dirijo]) 351 7.3.5. -jop ‘beside, with’ [beside] 352 7.3.6. -k’oya, =k’oya ‘for’ [for] 352 7.3.7. =7ôkji, -wdkji ‘inside, in, below, beneath’ [under] 355 7.3.8. -ôyï7ish, -ôyish ‘behind, in back of’ (detrás de, atrás de) 356 7.3.9. -tom ‘self’ (‘self, same, self same, for oneself’) 356 7.3.10. -tay ‘toward’ 357 7.3.11. -w7ne ‘over, above, on’ 357 7.3.12. =wa7ne ‘together, united, joining/joined’ [joined] 358 7.3.13a. -WÔ7ÔJ, -wôj=7e ‘beside’ {֊wô7ôj ‘side’) 359 7.3.13b. -wôj=k’e ‘around, along, on the edge of’ 360 Interjections (and exclamations and ideophones) 360 Other adverbial elements 361 Chapter 8 8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8.4. 8.5. Phrasal Syntax. 363 Introduction 363 Noun phrases 363 8.2.1. Noun-Adjective order (NA) 363 8.2.2. Genitive-Noun or Noun-Genitive order (GN or NG) 365 8.2.3. Demonstrative—Noun order (DemN) 368 8.2.4. Numeral—Noun order (NumN) 368 8.2.5. Noun—Quantifier order (NQuant) 369 8.2.6. Genitive noun classifiers 369 8.2.6.1. -klô7
‘possessed domestic animal classifier’ (genitive classifier) [gen.clf] 369 8.2.6.2. -aje7 (-je7) ‘possessed hunted animal classifier’ [prey.CLF] 372 Adpositional phrases 373 Verb phrases and related verbal constructions 373 Tense, aspect, mood, and evidentiality 373 8.5.1. Demonstratives and nominal tense 373 8.5.2. Grammatical aspect 375 8.5.2.1. jayu ‘prospective’ [pros] 376 Ց.5.2.2. The difference between jayu ‘prospective’ and =jayu 380 ‘desiderative’ Grammatical mood 381 Evidentiality 381 8.5.3.1. Imperatives 384 8.5.3.2. 8.5.3.2.1. Negative imperative construction 384 8.5.3.2.2. tan=ka7 Negative injunction, negation of expectation [NEG.XPECT=IRR.CONJ] 385
xvi Contents 8.5.4. 8.6. 8.7. Voice and valency 386 8.5.4.1. Valency increasing 386 8.5.4.1.1. Stative verbs with -esh 390 8.5.4.1.2. Non-third person valency-increasing forms Ց.5.4.2. Applicative functions of -esh [val] 394 8.5.4.2.1. -esh as instrument 394 8.5.4.2.2. -esh as recipient (dative applicative) 395 8.5.4.2.3. ‘Become’ sense of -esh 396 Negation 396 Reflexives in phrases 396 Chapter 9 9.1. 9.2. 9.3. 9.4. 9.5. 9.6. 9.7. 9.8. 391 Clausal Syntax and Complex Constructions. 399 Introduction: clausal syntax 399 Basic word order 399 9.2.1. SVO (VSO, VOS) order 399 9.2.2. VS / SV orders for clauses with intransitive verbs 402 9.2.3. Adverb order 403 Copulas and Copular constructions (‘to be’) 406 9.3.1. Predicate nouns in copular clauses (nominal predicate complements) 406 9.3.2. Predicate adjectives in copular clauses 406 9.3.3. Locative copula clauses 407 9.3.4. Presentational copula, ka7aj, ka7t’aj ‘there is/are’, ‘there exists/exist’ 409 9.3.5. Negative presentational copula, am=pa (ôm=pa) ‘there is/are no/none’, ‘there exists/exist no/none’ 410 Types of subordinate clause conjunctions 410 9.4.1. Subordinate clauses with the realis subordinate conjunction Ճ7 411 9.4.2. Subordinate clauses with the irrealis subordinate conjunction ka7 413 9.4.3. Word order in subordinate clauses 415 Questions 416 9.5.1. Polarity (yes-no) questions 416 9.5.2. Indirect question (embedded questions) 418 9.5.3. Content questions (so-called wh-questions) 418 Negation 419 9.6.1. Negation in morphology reviewed 419 9.6.1.1.
Negative morphemes on nouns 419 9.6.1.2. Negative morphemes on adjectives 420 9.6.2. Negative morphemes on verbs 420 9.6.3. tan=ka7 ‘Negation of expectation’ 421 Necessives (verbs and constructions of obligation) 424 9.7.1. Imperatives as necessives 424 9.7.2. Prospective in necessive senses 425 9.7.3. is=jop necessive sense 426 9.7.4. Negative necessive senses with chi7- ‘impersonal’ 426 9.7.5. Other verbs with necessive senses 426 Possessive constructions 426 9.8.1. Predicate possession 427 9.8.1.1. Positive predicate possession 427
Contents 9.9. 9.10. 9.11. xvii 9.8.1.2. Negative predicate possession 429 Inchoative/inceptive 430 9.9.1. ‘Become’ sense of -esh [VAL] ‘valency-increasing’ 430 9.9.2. Other constructions with ‘inchoative’, ‘inceptive’, or ‘translative’ senses 431 Ditransitive constructions 431 Multiclause constructions and utterances 433 9.11.1. Coordinate conjunction 433 9.11.1.1. Noun phrase coordination (NP + NP) 433 9.11.1.1.1. Noun phrase coordination with shi7 ‘and’ 433 9.11.1.1.2. Noun phrase coordination 0‘and’ 434 9.11.1.2. Clause coordination 435 9.11.1.2.1. shi7 ‘and’, verb phrase and clause coordination 435 9.11.1.2.2. pa7 ‘and’, ‘then’, ‘and then’ verb phrase and clause coordination 435 9.11.1.2.3. Clause coordination with 0 (juxtaposition) 437՜ 9.11.2. Or’coordination ja7tajesh 438 9.11.3. Disjunction 439 9.11.3.1. Disjunction taj ti7 ‘but’ 439 9.11.3.2. Conjunctions with wo7oy 440 9.11.3.2.1. Disjunction wo7oy ‘rather, but, but rather’ (counter to expectations) 440 9.11.3.2.2. wo7oy . -taj ‘until’ 441 9.11.4. Other kinds of subordinate clauses 442 9.11.4.1. Conditional clauses (ka7) . -taj 442 9.11.4.2. Concessive clauses 443 9.11.4.3. Other adverbial clauses 445 9.11.4.3.1. Temporal clauses 445 9.11.4.3.2. Purpose clauses with ka7 ‘in order to’, ‘so that’ 447 9.11.4.3.3. Consequential clauses: jospa, kaspa ‘in order to, ‘so that’, ‘therefore’, ‘consequently’ 448 9.11.4.3.4. Reason clauses: Iha7ya7ash ti7 ‘because’ 450 9.11.4.3.5. Manner clauses: ta.7 ‘what’/’how’ 451 9.11.4.4. Relative Clauses 452 9.11.4.4.1. Relative clauses with relative clause markers 452 9.11.4.4.2.
Subject relativization 454 9.11.4.4.3. Direct Object relativization (where the head noun plays the role of object in the relative clause which modifies that head noun) 457 9.11.4.4.4. Oblique relativization 459 9.11.4.4.5. Possessive Relativization 460 9.11.4.4.6. Relative clauses introduced by 0 461 9.11.4.4.7. Headless relative clauses 463 9.11.4.4.8. Nivade relative clause accessibility 463 9.11.4.4.9. Extraposition of relative clause 464 9.11.4.5. Direct and indirect reported speech 464 9.11.4.5.1. Embedded direct speech 465 9.11.4.5.2. Indirect speech 465
xviii Contents 9.11.4.6. Verb complement clauses 466 9.11.4.6.1. Verb complement clauses with ka7 466 9.11.4.6.2. Verb complement clauses with na7 467 9.11.5. Other subordinators 468 9.11.5.1. am=a ‘but rather’ 468 9.11.5.2. Ücm7e‘but’(‘but rather’,‘but to the contrary’) 468 9.12. Comparison 469 9.12.1. Comparison of inequality (or degree) 469 9.12.2. Comparison with =k’oya ‘before, for’ 469 9.12.3. Comparison with -a7ash ‘to pass, surpass’ + =k’oya ‘before, for’ 470 9.12.4. Comparison of equality (‘like’, ‘as’, ‘as much as’) 471 9.12.5. The superlative 471 9.13. Common syntactic patterns only weakly present in Nivádé 472 9.13.1. ‘Can’/ ‘be able to’ 472 9.13.2. ‘Need’ 473 Chapter 10 Nivádé Language in Its Social and Cultural Setting. 10.1. 10.2. 10.3. 10.4. 10.5. 10.6. 10.7. 10.8. 10.9. Introduction 477 The socio-cultural, multilingual setting 477 10.2.1. Geographical extent of linguistic exogamy and dual lingualism 480 10.2.2. Historical antecedents 480 Sociocultural aspects of Nivádé language usage 484 Language contact involving Nivádé 485 10.4.1. Spanish loanwords in Nivádé 485 10.4.2. Terms of acculturation which utilize native resources 487 10.4.3. Structural impact of Spanish 488 10.4.4. Loans and caiques from other indigenous languages 489 10.4.5. Convergence due to contact with other indigenous languages? 490 Lexical semantic categories that reflect salient cultural attributes 493 10.5.1. Terms in children’s language 493 10.5.2. Color terms 493 10.5.3. Geometrical shapes 494 10.5.4. Kinship terms 494 10.5.5. Age
terminology 498 10.5.6. Days of the week 498 Lexical suffixes 498 Names and naming 499 10.7.1. Personal names 499 10.7.2. Names of ethnic groups (ethnonyms), designations of groups of people (see also 3.6.2.27. and 3.6.2.19.) 500 10.7.3. Toponyms, geographical terms 501 Common greetings 501 Symbolic, onomatopoeic, and affective vocabulary 502 10.9.1. Reduplicated forms 502 10.9.2. Other onomatopoeic, symbolic, and reduplicated forms, and interjections 503 10.9.3. Onomatopoeic bird names 505 477
Contents xix 10.10. Unusual cases of semantic extensions, polysemie relations 507 10.11. Some significant language and culture domains 507 10.11.1. Avoidance of stinginess 507 10.11.2. Hunting-gathering and fishing terminology 508 509 10.11.2.1a. Hunting terms 10.11.2.1b. Gathering terms 510 10.11.2.2. Fishing terms 510 10.11.3. Weaving terms 511 10.11.4. Terms of the supernatural, ritual, and curing 512 10.12. Swadesh wordlists 514 10.12.1. Swadesh 100-word list 514 10.12.2. Swadesh 200-word list 516 Chapter 11 Texts.524 11.1. 11.2. 11.3. Introduction 524 The Batará (Historia de la Batará), by Bernardo Flores 526 My ancestors (The stories of my ancestors) [la historia de mis antepasados]), by Teresa Garcia 554 11.4. War with the Bolivians (La guerra con los bolivianos), by Teresa Garcia 574 11.5. The race of the rhea and the tick (La Carrera del Suri/Ñandú y la Garrapata, by Luis Díaz, 15 de junio 2004) 584 Appendix: List of Nivádé Grammatical Affixes and Clitics Glossary of Foreign and Unfamiliar Terms 599 Bibliography 601 593
This book offers an extensive description of Nivádé, an indigenous language spoken in the Gran Chaco region of Argentina and Paraguay. Nivadé's phonology, morphology, and syntax are complex; the language has no tenses marked on verbs, essentially no prepositions, and a sizable number of lexical suffixes whose content is so concrete they would be expected to be independent words in most other languages. Nivádé also has a unique speech sound, /кГ/, known nowhere else. In some locations where it is spoken, multilingual conversations are the norm. These and other rare traits make Nivádé especially fascinating for linguists, with many implications for language typology and linguistic theory. The book is based on dozens of audio and video recordings of narratives and on hundreds of hours of elicitation and analysis with native speakers. Four lengthy texts are included here to demonstrate the language in action. Scholars—whether in anthropology, folklore, geography, history, or language—will find value in the narratives included here and in the insights into Nivádé life and culture found throughout the book. "This book contains the most detailed and informative descriptive study of the Nivádé language so far and the only one to be found in English. It stands out by its richness of data, its high standards of analysis and presentation, and its exhaustive character. Logically constructed and well organized, it contains all the language data and analysis one could hope for." —Willem Adelaar, professor emeritus of Native American Languages, Leiden University "This is a great
contribution to the literature on Matacoan languages. It completes other work on the language and offers new insights and analyses. It is clearly written and the choice of the orthography of Nivádé makes it easy to read." —Jimena Terraza, professor of linguistics, Kiuna College "The most detailed description of any language of the Gran Chaco. A reference grammar such as this one will be useful to anthropologists, ethnographers, ethnohistorians, typological linguists, and indigenous people who want to write teaching materials or teach classes on their languages. It is a groundbreaking contribution." —Willem J. de Reuse, linguist for The Language Conservancy |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Campbell, Lyle 1942- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)105713497X |
| author_facet | Campbell, Lyle 1942- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Campbell, Lyle 1942- |
| author_variant | l c lc |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV047199737 |
| classification_rvk | EE 8466 EE 7519 |
| contents | Phonology -- Nouns -- Pronouns, demonstratives, and quantifiers -- Adjectives and adjectival morphology -- Verbs -- Adverbs, adverbial expressions, and adpositions -- Phrasal syntax -- Clausal syntax and complex constructions -- Nivaclé language in its social and cultural setting -- Texts |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1250473084 (DE-599)BVBBV047199737 |
| discipline | Außereuropäische Sprachen und Literaturen Literaturwissenschaft |
| discipline_str_mv | Außereuropäische Sprachen und Literaturen Literaturwissenschaft |
| format | Book |
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Nivaclé's phonology, morphology, and syntax are complex; the language has no tenses marked on verbs, essentially no prepositions, and a sizable number of lexical suffixes whose content is so concrete they would be expected to be independent words in most other languages. Nivaclé has a unique speech sound, /k͡l/, known nowhere else. In some locations where it is spoken, multilingual conversations are the norm. These and other rare traits make Nivaclé an especially fascinating language for linguists, with many implications for language typology and linguistic theory. The book is based on dozens of audio and video recordings of narratives and on hundreds of hours of elicitation and analysis with native speakers. Four lengthy texts are included here to demonstrate the language in action. 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| id | DE-604.BV047199737 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-03T16:50:40Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T09:05:27Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9781607817758 1607817756 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-032604806 |
| oclc_num | 1250473084 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-355 DE-BY-UBR |
| owner_facet | DE-355 DE-BY-UBR |
| physical | xxvii, 610 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten 29 cm |
| publishDate | 2020 |
| publishDateSearch | 2020 |
| publishDateSort | 2020 |
| publisher | University of Utah Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Campbell, Lyle 1942- Verfasser (DE-588)105713497X aut Nivaclé grammar Lyle Campbell, Luis Díaz, and Fernando Ángel Salt Lake City University of Utah Press [2020] xxvii, 610 Seiten Illustrationen, Karten 29 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Phonology -- Nouns -- Pronouns, demonstratives, and quantifiers -- Adjectives and adjectival morphology -- Verbs -- Adverbs, adverbial expressions, and adpositions -- Phrasal syntax -- Clausal syntax and complex constructions -- Nivaclé language in its social and cultural setting -- Texts "This book offers an extensive description of Nivaclé, an indigenous language spoken in the Gran Chaco region of Argentina and Paraguay. Nivaclé's phonology, morphology, and syntax are complex; the language has no tenses marked on verbs, essentially no prepositions, and a sizable number of lexical suffixes whose content is so concrete they would be expected to be independent words in most other languages. Nivaclé has a unique speech sound, /k͡l/, known nowhere else. In some locations where it is spoken, multilingual conversations are the norm. These and other rare traits make Nivaclé an especially fascinating language for linguists, with many implications for language typology and linguistic theory. The book is based on dozens of audio and video recordings of narratives and on hundreds of hours of elicitation and analysis with native speakers. Four lengthy texts are included here to demonstrate the language in action. Scholars--whether in anthropology, folklore, geography, history, or language--will find value in the narratives included here and in the insights into Nivaclé life and culture found throughout the book"-- Ashluslay Sprache (DE-588)1118510615 gnd rswk-swf Chulupí language / Grammar Chulupí language / Texts Chulupí language Texts Ashluslay Sprache (DE-588)1118510615 s DE-604 Díaz, Luis -2012 Sonstige oth Ángel, Fernando Sonstige oth Online version 9781607817765 Campbell, Lyle, 1942- Nivaclé grammar Salt Lake City : University of Utah Press, 2021 Digitalisierung UB Regensburg - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032604806&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung UB Regensburg - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032604806&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Klappentext |
| spellingShingle | Campbell, Lyle 1942- Nivaclé grammar Phonology -- Nouns -- Pronouns, demonstratives, and quantifiers -- Adjectives and adjectival morphology -- Verbs -- Adverbs, adverbial expressions, and adpositions -- Phrasal syntax -- Clausal syntax and complex constructions -- Nivaclé language in its social and cultural setting -- Texts Ashluslay Sprache (DE-588)1118510615 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)1118510615 |
| title | Nivaclé grammar |
| title_auth | Nivaclé grammar |
| title_exact_search | Nivaclé grammar |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Nivaclé grammar |
| title_full | Nivaclé grammar Lyle Campbell, Luis Díaz, and Fernando Ángel |
| title_fullStr | Nivaclé grammar Lyle Campbell, Luis Díaz, and Fernando Ángel |
| title_full_unstemmed | Nivaclé grammar Lyle Campbell, Luis Díaz, and Fernando Ángel |
| title_short | Nivaclé grammar |
| title_sort | nivacle grammar |
| topic | Ashluslay Sprache (DE-588)1118510615 gnd |
| topic_facet | Ashluslay Sprache |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032604806&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032604806&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT campbelllyle nivaclegrammar AT diazluis nivaclegrammar AT angelfernando nivaclegrammar |