Verfügbarkeit: Bjelobrdski kulturni krug

Bjelobrdski kulturni krug: groblja 9. do 13. stoljeća u međurječju Mure, Drave, Dunava i Save

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Bibliographische Detailangaben
1. Verfasser:	Tomičić, Željko 1942- (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	Croatian
Veröffentlicht:	Zagreb ; Požega Hrvatska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti, Zavod za znanstveni i umjetnički rad u Požegi 2019.
Schlagworte:	Geschichte 800-1300 Cemeteries Excavations (Archaeology) Antiquities Material culture Archaeology Mittelalterliche Archäologie Gräberfeld Siedlungsarchäologie Europe / Mur River Europe / Drava River Valley Danube River Valley Europe / Sava River Valley Save-Gebiet Mur-Gebiet Bijelo brdo > Osijek Drau-Gebiet
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltsverzeichnis Literaturverzeichnis Abstract
Beschreibung:	Naklada 500. - Literaturverzeichnis Seite 603-621
Beschreibung:	642 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme, Karten 31 cm
ISBN:	9789533473024

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Datensatz im Suchindex

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adam_txt	SADRZAJ 1. UVOD 9 2. POVIJEST ISTRAZIVANJA 15 3. SPEKTAR OBLIKA GROBNOG INVENTARA I NJIHOVA RASPROSTRANJENOST 45 4. GROBLJA BJELOBRDSKOGA KULTURNOG KRUGA 217 GROBLJE BIJELO BRDO II 219 GROBLJE VUKOVAR - LIJEVA BARA 251 GROBLJE VELIKI BUKOVEC 293 GROBLJE PTUJ - GRAD 303 GROBLJE POPOVEC - BREGI 325 GROBLJE JUNUZOVCI 335 GROBLJE MAHOVLJANI - KUZNO GROBLJE 347 GROBLJE BAGRUSA - PETOSEVCI 371 GROBLJE GOMJENICA - BALTINE BARE 397 GROBLJE SV. JURAJ U TRNJU, U MEDIMURJU 423 RANOSREDNJOVJEKOVNO GROBLJE U SENKOVCU POKRAJ CAKOVCA 437 GROBLJE JOSIPOVO (CIGANKA) 453 GROBLJE ZVONIMIROVO - VELIKO POLJE 465 GROBLJE SUHOPOLJE - KLISKOVAC 481 GROBLJE MAJS - LIVADE UDVAR 489 5. APSOLUTNA KRONOLOGIJA BJELOBRDSKOGA KULTURNOG KRUGA 507 6. SPOZNAJE BIOARHEOLOGIJE 531 7. ZAKLJUCNA RAZMATRANJA 537 8. KATALOSKI PREGLED NALAZISTA 561 9. BIBLIOGRAFIJA, POPIS LITERATURE I PRILOGA 599 10. SUMMARY 623 11. ZAHVALE 637 12. O AUTORU 641 В) POPIS LITERATURE Acsadi G., Nemeskeri J. (1970.) History of human life span and mortality. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ADAM, 2002. Archäologische Denkmäler der Awarenzeit in Mitteleuropa I, (ur.) J. Szentpéteri, VAH XIII/x, Budapest, 2002. Adamček J., 1977, Požega i požeška županija u srednjem vi jeku, Požega 1277-1977, Požega, 1977:111-170. Ajbabin, A. J. 1973 - K boprocy o proicxoždenii serěžek pasthbipckogo tipa. CobetskajaArxeologija3, МоскЬаі97з: 62-72. Aleksova, B.1966. Prosek - Demir Kapija, slovenska nekro pola i slovenske nekropole u Makedoniji, Skopje- Beograd 1966. Alföldi, Andras 1926 - Der Untergang der Römerherrschaft in Pannonien. Sv. 2. Berlin 1926. Ament 1970 - H. Ament, Chronologische Untersuchungen an fränkischen Gräberfeldern der jüngern Merowingerzeit im Rheinland, BRGK, 57, Berlin 1970. Anamalı, В. 1964 - La nécropole de Kruje et la civilisation du haut Moyenage en Albanie du Nord. Studia Albanica 1. Tirana 1964. Andric S. (2009.) Srednjovjekovlje. U: Čepin. Arnold D., Ivić V, Živaković-Kerže Z. (ur.). 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THE BIJELO BRDO CULTURAL CIRCLE 9th-13th century grave sites in the region between the Mura, Drava, Danube, and Sava rivers SUMMARY While this book makes use of information from the relative wealth of sources on the subject, it is mainly the result of the author’s own systematic research work on row cemeteries with Christian burials conducted from 1972 to 2017, especially in the north of Croatia. The book presents the results of the author’s years of scientific research, at the encouragement of his men tor Dr. Zdenko Vinski, directed at identifying the physiognomy of the Bijelo Brdo culture and its position within the archaeo logical map of 9th-i3th century Mediaeval Europe. The goal of this work is thus to identify archaeological sources for that part of the Bijelo Brdo culture’s heritage located in Danubian Croa tia, bordered by the Mura, Drava, Danube, and Sava rivers. In addition to published research, these sources are founded in the analysis of archaeological materials discovered during field re search and held in museum collections. The book also evaluates discoveries from some sites in neighbouring Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Hungary, and Serbia, as well as archaeologi cal material displaying characteristics of the Bijelo Brdo culture found in the Dalmatian part of the former Duchy of Croatia and Croatian Kingdom. The author considers the incidence of the material and spiritual culture named after the Bijelo Brdo ar chaeological site, which mainly encompasses the period from the 9th century to the mid-U century, comprising an inevitable, integral part of the Early and High Middle Ages in Europe. The goal was to create an original foundation upon which to inter pret the historical picture of the part of Central Europe in which the Bijelo Brdo culture developed through the application of recent scientific discoveries in archaeology, anthropology, cul tural history, historical ethnography, and other ancillary fields. History does not take a central place in this book, although the opinions of historians are occasionally mentioned. We believe it is possible to create a reliable historical framework exclusively on the basis of reliable foundations discovered through archae ology and its complementary scientific disciplines. As archaeology studies the remains of the human past, it follows that the final goal of archaeologists is to discover hu man remains, or that of peoples who created a particular mate rial/spiritual culture. On this level, the fields of archaeological study overlap quite clearly with many of the social and natural sciences. This overlap connects archaeologists with as many as forty scientific regions, fields, sub-fields, and branches. Modern archaeology is advancing rapidly, and its exactness is becoming increasingly recognised within the humanities. A great deal of the field of archaeology is focused on the archaeology of burial sites. The archaeologist thus consciously enters the fields of interest of ethnology, art history, sociology, theology, philology, physical anthropology, geology, zoology, palaeometeorology, and history. However, it is usually the ar chaeologist who provides scientists in all of these fields with samples to study. This then reciprocally supplies the field of archaeology with the vital findings of other scientists, which then aid in creating a clearer, more refined picture of the past. In modern archaeology, human remains (biofacts) and their corresponding grave inventory (artifacts) have become the cen tral level upon which moments are studied and reconstructed; these remains represent people who were the true bearers of a material and spiritual culture, actual participants in parts of the lifespan that is outlined and recognised within the profile of the Bijelo Brdo cultural circle. On the basis of material findings, the book discusses inte resting parts of the spirituality of the everyday population in the early and high Middle Ages, connected within a complex picture in which science and religion clearly overlap in what is known as the Bijelo Brdo culture. This idea is reflected vividly in a quote by great scientist and theoretician Albert Einstein from the Science, Philosophy and Religion symposium held in 1941 in New York, which discussed the relationship of these three topics to the democratic way of life: 623 Bjelobrdski kulturni krug “Science without religion is lame; religion without science is blind” (Einstein 1999:45). A special emphasis has always been placed on the study of grave sites in the humanities and archaeology. This category of monuments of the past enable more direct insight into the design of graves, the chronological order of burials, and burial rituals, as well as the sociological analysis of the deceased, and thus of the population that filled the burial site. In conjuncti on with the complementary social sciences and other scientific fields (palaeontology, cultural anthropology, art history, etc.), archaeology examines burial sites and interprets burial traditi ons in complete sites with buried males, females, and children. It occasionally also recognises their ethnic and anthropologi cal characteristics. Proof of the existence of trade connections and monetary exchange is also important. Furthermore, ar chaeology sometimes recognises atavisms from paganism or proof of new spiritual contact (Christianity). It offers special insight into arts and crafts (types of jewellery, weapons, clot hing, pottery, etc.). It also provides important information on the level of health and dietary habits of the population on the basis of osteological analysis (time and cause of death, age, sex, illness, injuries, blood type, etc.). If an estimated burial dating is available for a particular site, fully examined series of skeletons from particular cemeteries enable conclusions to be drawn regarding the number of individuals and the sequence of generations of the population that buried their dead there. Thanks to the abilities of numerous scientific fields, mo dern burial site research makes use of highly efficient met hods that include a large selection of procedures. Non-invasive methods are highly common, e.g. remote interpretation of geophysical measurements in discovering the position of cemeteries and the layout of grave units. According to its cha racteristics and its broad field of interest, archaeology makes use of various interdisciplinary approaches and discoveries. The use of radioisotopic dating methods to determine relia ble time frames in the dating of organic findings, especially osteological anthropological and ceramic findings, is of great importance in analysing and evaluating burial sites. The picture of the complexities of grave research enables insight into diversity within discovered and studied popula tions, which is often conditioned by genetic characteristics as well as secondary influences, such as dietary conditions or illness. Thus, each set of human remains has its own individu ality, which arises from anthropological peculiarities; in the case of grave inventory, this characteristic is sometimes poten tiated by the nature of the findings. The entirety of collected data on the selection of positi on for a burial site, and occasionally its toponym, the layout and organisation of grave units, and the corresponding grave 624 inventory and their anthropological characteristics form only a minor part of the cultural and historical picture of a given microtopographic whole. This detail, however, is an excepti onally important component of the ‘mirror image’ of the po pulation of the settlement that gradually filled the burial site through changes in generations. These introductory notes have served to familiarise the reader with all the complexities of the scientific approach to burial sites. In archaeological practice, which is especially successfully implemented by the Institute of Archaeology, a Croatian state-run scientific institution, similar modern inter disciplinary grave research is carried out within the context of multi-year scientific projects. The successfiil realisation of the “Croatia’s Mediaeval archaeological heritage (5th-i7th century)” project - (code: 197-1970677-0676; the author of this work is the project manager), with the support of the Croatian Minis try of Science and Education, has resulted in highly successfiil archaeological field research in a few especially notable row cemeteries, especially in Slavonia’s Drava basin (Zvonimiro vo - Veliko polje, Josipovo (Ciganka), Suhopolje - Kliškovac, Crkvari - Sv. Lovro, Pitomaca - Črlena Klisa), as well as in Kalničko Prigorje (Popovec - Bregi, Obrež) etc. Field research is regularly accompained by parallel scientific analyses of older research into Mediaeval graves in neighbouring Slovenia (Ptuj - Grad), then in Međimurje (Sv. Juraj u Trnju and Šenkovec), Bosnia and Herzegovina (Junuzovci, Bagruša near Petoševci, Mahovljani -Kužno groblje, Gomjenica ֊ Baltine Bare), the Croatian Danube river basin (Bijelo Brdo II, Vukovar - Lijeva Bara), and the hungarian part of Baranya at the Majs - Udvar cemetery. The aforementioned grave research is only a small part of overall efforts on behalf of the Institute of Archaeology to collect basic archaeological documentary materials on the material and spiritual heritage of the Bijelo Brdo culture, which marked Croatia’s Early and High Middle Ages between the Mura, Drava, Danube, Sava, and Sutla rivers within an ob served period from the 9th to the mid- or late 13th century. The material culture of the population referred to as the Bijelo Brdo Culture between the Drava, Danube, and Sava ri vers (as well as in the Bosnian Sava basin) in the Early and High Middle Ages is syncretic in nature, as a few cultural circles overlapped continuously through multiple centuries. Thorough typological analysis allows these cultural circles and their interaction to be occasionally only partially detected, but occasionally clearly recognised as well. The Bijelo Brdo mate rial and spiritual culture reflect the demographics of a popu lation between the Mura, Drava, Danube, and Sava rivers with a Slavonic-Croatian core built on an old local foundation, as well as preceding, simultaneous, or newly-arrived ethnic gro- Summary, 623-635 ups. It is of great importance to note that the Bijelo Brdo cul ture has also been recognised in various modes of expression at the edges of the central Pannonian Basin. This relates to e.g. the region north of the Danube in modern-day Slovakia, east of the Danube in Romania, and south of the Danube in parts of Vojvodina in Bačka and Syrmia in Serbia, as well as in the Bosnian part of the Pannonian Basin and part of neighbouring Slovenia. In any case, this relates to the Bijelo Brdo cultural circle, which - especially when viewed on the basis of its ma terial and spiritual heritage between the Mura, Drava, Danu be, and Sava rivers - can be differentiated typologically on the basis of synchronous archaeological material. This was an old Croatian cultural circle in the region of the Duchy and King dom of Croatia. These were also the first, continuous contacts with cultural influences from Byzantium, as well as the Old Hungarian and Ottoman cultural circle. There are also traces of cultural and trade connections with the Kievan Rus, as well as with Arabian caliphates, and even as far as the islands of the Indian Ocean (Maldives). A concentration of several very rich excavation sites showing exceptional characteristics of the Bijelo Brdo culture in the lower Vrbas river valley in the Bosnian Pannonian Ba sin were of exceptional importance to this manuscript. As the lowlands of the Bosnian Pannonian Basin up to the northern edge of the Dinaric Alps belong geographically to southern Pannónia, a large European region in which manifestations of the Bijelo Brdo cultural circle have been discovered, even the smallest, seemingly unimportant detail is vital to knowledge of the Croatian Early Middle Ages in the material and spiritual sense, such as material remains from a destroyed grave site. The book does not portray in detail the results of years of successful research on large burial sites at the Majka Božja Gorska holy site in Lobor, next to the parish church in Đakovo, surrounding the Church of St. Lawrence in Crkvari, or in the town of Ivanec. We are certain that firture generations of ar chaeologists will focus on the problems represented by these exceptionally important sites, especially after the comprehen sive overview of the results of research into multi-layer burial sites. An important component in our portrayals of burial sites was valuable knowledge obtained through bioanthropological analysis of osteological material from Bijelo Brdo populations collected between the rivers on the basis of years of highly successful interdisciplinary cooperation with bioarchaeologi sts from the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts’ Centre for Anthropology. As archaeologists are constantly discovering new sites and findings, we are certain that new knowledge will come to light that will certainly complement, correct, and locate new tes serae in the complex mosaic of the Bijelo Brdo cultural circle between the Mura, Drava, Danube, and Sava rivers from the 9th to the 13th century. * We may also agree - albeit with a dose of caution - with the assumption that the Duchy of Pannonian Croatia, after Ljude vit and Ratimir, was ruled by a representative of the Duchy of Croatia in Dalmatia, which had been a faithful ally to the Franks for a long time. This hypothesis is partially substantiated by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus’ De Administrando Imperio. According to the emperor, some Croats separated from the ma jority that had settled in Dalmatia and took control of Illyricum and Pannónia, where they established an independent duke (άρχων αυτεξούσιος) who sent emissaries everywhere, inclu ding to the Croatian duke out of friendship (κατά φΛίαν). Historical sources are unclear on which Pannonian Croatian dukes ruled over the region between the Drava, Danube, and Sava rivers between Ljudevit and Braslav. According to sources, Braslav (Brazlowo, Brazlavo) is mentioned as of 884 as duke (dux) of a duchy between the Drava and Sava (regnum inter Dravo et Savo Iluminé) as a subject to Charles the Fat, and then to East Frankish King Arnulf of Carinthia as of 892. During the entire 9th century, the authority of the Dalmatian-Croatian du kes never passed the southern border of the Duchy of Panno nian Croatia, which was defined by the Kupa and Sava rivers. Braslav’s contemporary was Duke Branimir (879 - ca. 892), who was publicly blessed along with the Croatian people in Rome in 879 by Pope John VIII. In 894, the Hungarians invaded Pannónia. The focus of the ir warfare initially moved to the north of Pannónia (Transdanubia), then to large parts of the Carpathian Basin, including Baranya, the far east of Slavonia, and Syrmia. Thus, we learn of the presence of Hungarians in Syrmia from Emperor Constan tine VII Porphyrogenitus. The emperor notes that the Hungari ans (Τούρκοι) live between the Danube and the Sava (μέσον τοϋ Δανούβεως και τού Σάβα ποταμού). The influence of Croatian leaders stretched across the Sava by roughly the year 930; at the second Council of Split in 928, Gregory of Nin was offered the Diocese of Siscia, which was noted to have many priests and residents. Thus, the regi on between the Drava, Danube, and Sava was already heavily settled, which is also attested to by graves and the settlements they belong to; Sisak was certainly the bishop’s centre of this region, for which findings of church furniture exist. It was likely also the seat of the Duchy of Pannonian Croatia. From the early 10th century, Tomislav suppressed small Hungarian incursions directed southwards towards the Duchy of Pannonian Croatia, with whom Croatia maintained close relations. 625 Bjelobrdski kulturni krug According to some historians, the Požega valley was where the Croatian and Hungarian spheres of influence met, in the border region of the Slavonian mountains of Dilja, Krndija, and Papuk. Nascent Slavic tribal dioceses existed in the western part of the inter-river region; these may have begun to form in the 11th century, as there were more and more of them in Slavonia in the 12th and 13th centuries. The Hungarian risk to the Duchy of Pannonian Croatia certainly resulted in an appeal to the King dom of Croatia for protection; this made Sisak after Tomislav the starting point for strengthened expansion towards the Dra va basin and the central mountains of Slavonia in the eastern part of the inter-river region. The Požega valley was quite likely a defined border region between the Croats and the Hungari ans. In the 11th century, the western part of the inter-river region belonged to the Kingdom of Croatia; at this time, it began to play an important role in relations between Western European powers. In this respect, it is important to note that the second half of the 11th century saw a period of good Croatian-Hungarian relations. During the reign of King Peter Krešimir IV (са. 1058 - 1074), the northwestern part of the Kingdom of Croatia was managed by Demetrius Zvonimir, who was from the Svetoslavić line and was connected by marriage to the Hungarian Árpád dynasty. * In addition to an overview of the history of research on the Bijelo Brdo culture and an extensive analysis of various forms of grave inventory, results are provided of an analysis of the relati ve chronologies of 15 Bijelo Brdo cemeteries, followed by chro nological research, findings of bioarheological research of Bije lo Brdo anthropological materials, and a catalogue of registered archaeological materials. The paper is complemented with final conclusions, extensive documentary materials, a bibliography, acknowledgements, and a summary in English. This book portrays memorial processes for the deceased in the Early Middle Ages and the beginning of the High Middle Ages in the north of Croatia, at the southern edge of the Car pathian Basin; it also describes how the past and death were perceived, as well as the resulting social status of the deceased The author provides an overview of the most recent archaeolo gical discoveries, indicating new interpretations of the genesis and significance of mobile artifacts with Bijelo Brdo characteri stics. The focus is placed on artifacts, biofacts, and the role of their choice of placement in burial practices during the Early and High Middle Ages. Materials and space were used in the ritual process to preserve social memory, which managed the past, present, and future. Early Mediaeval societies selectively remembered and forgot their predecessors and their history through the distribution of material culture. The book sheds 626 new light on important aspects of Early and High Mediaeval society on the basis of archaeological discoveries. It also provi des information on demographic changes conditioned by cli matic changes, periods of peace or war, and the development of banking and trade in general, occasionally across large dis tances, through the continuous exchange of material goods and spiritual influence. The book confirms centuries of connection between the Mediterranean and the interior of the Carpathian Basin on the basis of material evidence in the field of arts and crafts, especially goldsmithing, that developed in urban centres on the eastern Adriatic coast. This allows us to track early evi dence of connections between the Duchy and Kingdom of Cro atia with the duchy in the region between the Drava, Danube, and Sava from the mid-8th century on, which were built on an older, indigenous foundation. This provides the contours of a broader picture of the continuity of heritage from pre-history to the Early and High Middle Ages, including the ancient Roman period, the Migration Period, the early Byzantine period, and the immigration of Slavs, Croats, Avars, and Hungarians. This will allow us to discern the combination that resulted in the for mation of the Bijelo Brdo cultural circle. * The book’s basic message consists of the author’s new visi on of the significantly expanded picture of the genesis, analysis, and duration of the Bijelo Brdo cultural circle, which is appa rent in its absolute chronology. A novelty in this picture is the proto-Bijelo Brdo transitional phase (late 8th century - ca. 900) This phase includes autochthonous elements from pre-history, proto-history, and ancient Roman regions, as well as from the Migration Period, early Byzantine era, and the immigration of Slavs, Croats, and Avars who were found in the region betwe en the Mura, Drava, Danube, and Sava rivers and the surroun ding area significantly prior to 900 CE, before the transitional phase and the arrival of the Hungarians. It is quite difficult to reliably determine the lower temporal border of the proto-Bije lo Brdo transitional phase, as its origins can be seen deep into proto-history, with a cultural and historical range reaching into the Early Middle Ages. Thus, indications of this earliest phase can be identified throughout Croatia on the basis of particu lar typical findings. This relates to findings from the early Iron Age (tores), ancient era (coins, bracelets, and rings from Roman provinces, as well as half-moon pendants from Sisak), and later to an early Byzantine half-moon gold pendant from Sisak, da ted to the 7th century, as well as to an earring with a star-shaped pendant dated to the 7th century from Čađavica and particular versions of earrings of Byzantine provenance discovered in Avar and Slavic contexts. Among these findings of jewellery, we may include a pair of pressed, granulated, and filigreed silver cres- Summary, 623-635 cent earrings, one with a star-shaped pendant, from Gradina cemetery (Mandekov vinograd) in the village of Otok near Vin kovci, dated to the early 9th century. This site has also provided a pair of bronze earrings with a long strawberry-shaped pendant attached vertically to a hoop, dated to the early 9th century. At this point, we must single out a golden tore and golden cluster earring from Donji Petrovci in Syrmia, dated to the late 8th cen tury, as well as gold dirhems from the Abassid Caliphate dated to between 786 and 809. This series must also certainly include a filigreed and granulated golden cluster earring from a group burial site dated to the turn of the 9th century in Brestovac near Požega, which is related to earrings from Zalavár (Mosapurc). Grave 536, belonging to a young woman buried in the apse of the wooden Majka Božja Gorska church in Lobor in the mid֊9th century, contained a pair of silver cluster earrings with two fixed beads and a pair of earrings with oval hoops, fixed beads on the side, and a cast pendant made from a hollow tin bead. The Bagruša - Petoševci cemetery in the Vrbas river basin resulted in important findings of cast cluster earrings with four fixed beads and clustered cast earrings with two fixed beads discovered in grave unit 11. The aforementioned examples of earring can be classified as G.17 and G.14 prototypes, which are common Bijelo Brdo cultural circle grave inventory. According to thorough research by M. Petrinec on the ar chaeological heritage of the eastern Adriatic coastal region, Byzantine influence has been proven from the 6љ-пљ century; however, significantly, this influence was stronger from the late 8th to the early 9th century, and then again from the mid֊9th cen tury to the late 11th century. Grave inventory located from the late 8th to the early 9th century manifest in rich ensembles of findings of jewellery made from precious metals, undoubted ly of synchronous Byzantine provenance, in female graves in: Golubić near Knin, Nin - Sveti Asel, Nin - Ždrijac, Lepuri near Benkovac, Grborezi - Marmorje near Livno, Ivoševci - Supljaja, Biskupija near Knin, Trilj - Sveti Mihovil near Sinj, Koljani Gornji, Glavice - Gluvine kuće near Sinj, Kašić near Zadar, Zduš near Vrlika, Solin, Skradin, Biljane Donje - Trljuge (Pržine), Strance Gorica in Vinodol, Ličko Lešće near Otočac. Among the jewellery discovered in the grave inventory of fe male individuals from the late 8th century to the mid֊9th centu ry, the following have been registered: tores, gold bead neckla ces with half-moon pendants (prototype G.12) from Golubić near Knin, gold chains with S loops, various versions of golden earrings - half-moon star-shaped earrings (Lepuri), half-moon with pendants from Nin - Sveti Asel (prototype G.15), star shaped earrings on a chain with an S loop (Golubić), four-bead earrings (prototype G.16), grape-cluster earrings (with two fixed beads - prototype G.15), rings with crosses, a ring with a hoop and inserted stone, rings with calottes (prototype G.38), a 4th-century Roman coin, round buttons - pendants, whorls, 8th-century Byzantine soliduses of Emperors Constantine V Copronymus and Leo IV (751 - 775) as an offering, and a mid֊9thcentury Frankish denier of Emperor Lothair I (840 - 855), also as an offering, from the Nin - Ždrijac grave site. Refined women’s jewellery discovered in the hinterland du ring archaeological research can be reliably considered to have been produced either in Byzantine workshops in the coastal ci ties or in workshops on Byzantine territory in the eastern Medi terranean, as the Croats in the hinterland, with their tribal and familial system, were certainly not skilled in goldsmithing, nor were they able to produce valuable objects on their own. It is important to note that the coastal cities remained un der Byzantine control until the mid-nth century. In the early 10th century, the bishop of Split became metropolitan not only of the Byzantine theme of Dalmatia, but of all of Croatia. This cle arly contributed to the creation of stronger connections betwe en the south and north, which have been reliably identified es pecially from the late-8th to the mid֊9th century ֊ certainly prior to the settlment of Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin in the late 9th century. This contact between the inter-river region and the region south of the river Sava were strongly expressed thro ugh material attestations, not only in trade connections but in political connections, which certainly existed between the two duchies. The Proto-Bijelo Brdo transitional stage (mid-8th century - ca. goo). Leaders: old Croatian dukes up to the mid֊9th centu ry in Dalmatia and Liburnia (Višeslav, Borna /818-821/, Vla dislav/821); Branimir (879-892); the dukes of Lower Pannónia: Vojnomir ? (795), Ljudevit (818-823); Braslav (880-897/898); Byzantine emperors from the Isaurian dynasty: Constantine V Copronymus and Leo IV, Constantine VI, (780-797), Irena (797-802); Frankish emperors: Charlemagne (742-814), Louis the Pious (814-840), Louis the German (806 - 876), Carloman of Bavaria (829-880), Arnulf of Carinthia (850-899). Sites: Golubić near Knin, Nin - Sveti Asel, Nin ֊ Ždrijac, Lepuri near Benkovac, Grborezi near Livno, Ivoševci, Biskupija near Knin, Trilj near Sinj, Koljani Gornji, Glavice near Sinj, Kašić near Zadar, Zduš near Vrlika, Solin, Strance Gorica in Vinodol, Ličko Lešće near Otočac, Čađavica, Požeški Brestovac, Lobor - Majka Božja Gorska (grave 536), Otok near Vinkovci, and Bagruša near Petoševac (grave 11). Inventory: jewellery of prehistoric local provenance, many versions of Byzantine earrings, necklaces, hoops with S loops, regular hoops, rings, Byzantine soliduses, Frankish deniers, Abbasid dirhems. 627 Bjelobrdski kulturni krug Influences: built on an autochthonous basis, artistic, craft (goldsmiths), and trade contacts with Roman cities on the ea stern Adriatic coast under Byzantine rule. In the late 9th centu ry, the inter-river region and Mosapurc were under the control of Duke Braslav, and the Christianisation process of Lower Panonnia and the inter-river region was ending with Aquileia as the mission centre. Transitional stage (900-965) Leaders: Old Croatian duchy and kingdom: Duke Mutimir (892-910), Duke-King Tomislav (910-930), Trpimir II, Miroslav (930-945), Michael Krešimir II (945-969). Old Hungarian dukes: Prince Taksony (947-972), grandson of Prince Árpád. Byzantine emperors: Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (913-956), Romanos II and Nikifor. Ottonian emperors: Henry I (919-936), Otto I (936-973). Sites: Bagruša - Petoševd I-II, Bijelo Brdo I, Vukovar - Li jeva Bara I, Mahovljani I, Gomjenica I, Ptuj - Grad I, Kloštar Podravski, Junuzovci, Zagreb - Kaptol, Svete Gore, Lobor. Inventory: Transitional forms of jewellery: type G.13, type G.i4a, b, type G.^b, type G.12, type G.19; rings type G.21, type G.22; bracelets type G.2, G.3; type G.10; clay pottery type T.50; weapons type A1-A6, riding equipment type B1-B6, money type T.44C, egg shells from Majs - Udvar cemetery; half-moon earrin gs type Köttlach II, half-moon earrings with bead-like reinfor cements and a half-moon profile from Bagruša I, belt tongues from Vukovar - Lijeva Bara I. Influences: From the Ottonian, Old Hungarian, and especi ally Byzantine cultural circle. The cultural unification process between the autochthonous, Slavicised, as-of-yet unidentified population and Pannonian Slavs from the Drava and Sava in ter-river region. Hungarian incursions in the west by 951 and 955 (Augsburg), and after 934 in the east to Byzantium. King Tomislav’s battle with the Hungarians and continuation of the unification process of the Duchy and Kingdom of Croatia in the eastern Adriatic hinterland with the duchy in the inter-river re gion. There is no break between the transitional stage and the Bijelo Brdo culture in the Drava, Danube, and Sava inter-river region. 628 FIRST STAGE OF THE BIJELO BRDO CULTURE (CA. 965 - CA. 1030) Within the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture, which en compasses the period from roughly 965-1030, Giesler differen tiates between a stage lasting until roughly 995, which we have designated as the early phase of the first stage. Early phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture (ca. 965 - ca. 995) This phase is characterised by its exceptional richness of decorative forms; the phase is apparent in the larger number of analysed graves (sites) in the inter-river region. The initial phases during which all studied graves were filled displayed jewellery typical of the early phase of the first stage. These inclu de bracelets type G.4, type G.5, type G.6, type G.7 and type G.8, rings type G.24, type G.25, type G.31, type G-38b, occasionally type G.21, type G.22, earrings type G.14, type G.15, type G.16, type G.i7a, type G.i7b, necklaces-torcs type G.i, necklaces-gerdans type G.39-40, perforated Roman coins type T-44a, hoops type G.13, type G.19, and type G.I-II, two-part pendants and neckla ces with two-part pendants (type T.42a), then bell necklaces (tip T.42b) and necklaces with cast half-moon pendants (type T.42C). The first phase of the Vukovar - Lijeva Bara cemetery displays a golden coin of Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (913-959), which, along with a ring type G-38b from grave unit 2, marks an important chronological foothold by which to mark the beginnings of the early phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture at this cemetery (phase Lijeva Bara II). The length of the early phase of the first stage at the Majs - Udvar cemetery has been attested through dated findin gs of coins in graves. Coins of Stephen I of Hungary (1000-1038) have also been found, which specifically define the length of the early Bijelo Brdo stage until ca. 1030. The end of the early phase of grave filling at Bijelo Brdo II (phase I) is marked with the finding of a coin of King Peter (1044-1046) in grave number 141. It is interesting to note that the early phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture in the observed inter-river region at Ma hovljani phase I cemetery, in addition to Bijelo Brdo decorative crafts, also displays jewellery appropriate to the Old Croatian cultural circle (the Dalmatian-Croatian culture). These are ho ops and earrings with one biconic bead (type T.III) and earrings with three hollow biconic tin bead (type T.IV). Similar decora tive crafts from the Old Croatian cultural circle have also been found at Gomjenica. Infiltration with decorative crafts from the Dalmatian-Croatian cultural circle are also found in the pha se Bagruša II, as well as partially in the previous phase of this cemetery. This relates to the discovery of an earring with one biconic bead, as well as the discovery of iron stirrups in grave Summary, 623-635 67, which, like similar findings from Gomjenica and neighbou ring Mrsunjski lug, should be attributed to workshops on the territory of the Old Croatian state. Phase Ptuj I at Ptuj - Grad cemetery also displays findings of half-moon earrings of type Köttlach II. The early phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture, which lasted until the rule of King Peter (1044-1046) in the in ter-river region on the basis of reliably dated grave findings, also features the largest number of graves in which the development of the culture and the appearance of new decorative crafts can be continuously monitored. This phase displays granulated and rustic cast grape-cluster earrings with four fixed beads (type G.iya, b). While we assume that variant G.rya only partially came from the Kievan Rus via apparent Byzantine mediation, the cast rustic version experienced its fiili affirmation, especi ally in the western part of the inter-river region. It is also intere sting to note the discovery of Byzantine rings of type С.з8а, b, especially in the Vukovar Lijeva Bara cemetery, which produced a relatively high number of them. This favourite ornamental form, alongside rings of type G.37 (Bijelo Brdo II) is a reflecti on of the influence of the Byzantine cultural circle. Findings of both Byzantine (Vukovar ֊ Lijeva Bara - grave 2) and frequently Hungarian Árpád dynasty silver coins used as offerings are typi cal of this phase, at least in the eastern part of the inter-river region. This tradition quite likely has roots in Byzantium, from whence it could have spread to the Kingdom of Hungary throu gh local mints from the time of King Stephen I (1000-1038). As opposed to the eastern inter-river region (eastern Slavonia and Syrmia), where findings of coin offerings are relatively frequent, no such coins had been discovered at sites in the western part until recently. The westernmost findings have been two coins of King Stephen I in the layer above the ruins of the wooden Carolingian Church of Majka Božja Gorska in Lobor. Furthermore, a child’s grave at the Josipovo (Ciganka) cemetery in Podravina contained four silver coins of King Andrew I of Hungary (10461061) attached to a necklace, of which three were trimmed and perforated, in a late stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture. Finally, the most recent finding of a denarius of King Ladislaus I is from grave 31 at Zvonimirovo - Veliko polje cemetery (Tomičić, 1999). Early phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture (965 - 995) Leaders: Old Croatian kings Michael Krešimir II (949-969), Stephen Držislav (969-996), Old Hungarian Prince Géza (972997), King Stephen I (997-1038), Byzantine emperors Nikepho ros, John I Tzimiskes, Basil II, German emperors Otto I, Otto II, and Otto III. Sites: Bijelo Brdo II, Vukovar - Lijeva Bara II, Mahovljani II, Bagruša II, Ptuj - Grad II, Gomjenica II, Kloštar Podravski, Svi- njarevci, Mrsunjski lug, Veliki Bukovec, Mačvanska Mitrovica I. Inventory: Bracelets type G.4, G.3, G.6, G.7, G.8, rings type G.24, G.25, G.31, G.37, G.38b, antiquated forms of earring type G.14C, G.i5a,c,e, G.i6a,b, hoops G.I-II, necklaces type G.i, G.3940, T.42a-c,T.43, ceramics type T.50, Roman perforated coins type T.44a and Byzantine type T.44C. Influences: Appearance of Old Croatian findings (single bead earrings) at Bagruša II, Gomjenica, Mahovljani, and Mr sunjski lug cemeteries. Findings of half-moon earrings of type Köttlach II from the Ottoman cultural circle. Appearance of rings of type G.37 and G.38, and coins of type T.44C from the Byzantine cultural circle. An increasing number of graves are found, followed by a corresponding increase in forms of decorative items. Conti nuation of cultural unification. Christianisation under both Western and Eastern influences. The peak of the early phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture, which begins in the mid-io* century. Part of the inter-river region may have come under stronger influence from Tomislav’s Kingdom of Croatia. The Council of Split in 928 mentions that there are many priests and a large population in the region of the Siscia Diocese. More and more row graves prove demographic growth in the gene ral populace in an independent duchy that had become more strongly connected or tied to Croatia (Filipec, 2015: 338). Late phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture (995 -1030) The gradual disappearance of decorative items typical of the early phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture and the discovery of particular new forms of jewellery in the graves stu died in the inter-river region indicate proximity to the end of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture. These findings include rings of type G.32, G.33, G-34a, G-34b, G.27, and G.28, partially cast rustic earrings with four fixed beads of type G.i7b, with a hoop of type G.18, and occasionally archaic forms from the early phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture. An analysis of the Bijelo Brdo II cemetery displayed findings of decorative items throughout the second phase of the cemetery’s use; in the case of grave 113, thanks to the finding of a coin of King Andrew I (1046-1061) used as an offering, the period in which these graves appeared can be determined. Phase III of Lijeva Bara graveyard in Vukovar shows the aforementioned forms of jewellery as a compact horizon preceding the appearance of forms typical of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture. It is interesting to note that the end of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture at Bagruša cemetery is also apparent in the material of phase Bagruša IIL Three cemeteries (Ptuj - Grad, Gomjenica, and Mahovljani) displayed rings of type G.27, G.32, G.33, G.34a, and G.34b, combined with cast earrings of type G.14, G.15, and G.16. 629 Bjelobrdski kulturni krug A particularly interesting finding was discovered at Ptuj - Grad cemetery. In phase Ptuj II, multiple grave units displayed rings typical of this end phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo cul ture, cast earrings of type G.14, G.15, and G.16, alongside some forms typical of the early phase of the first stage (rings of type G.25, G.31, G.38b, hoops of type G.I-II, G.19, tores of type G.i, neckless-gerdans of type G.39-40, bells of type G.10, half-moon pendants of type G.12, perforated Roman coins of type T.44a, and half-moon earrings of type Köttlach II. It is exceptionally important to note that cast earrings with four fixed beads of type 17b first appear in these graves in phase Ptuj II. In the se cond phase of use of Mahovljani cemetery (phase Mahovljani II), jewellery is discovered typical of the end of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture, together with cast earrings type G.15, small-format hoops type G.II, and earrings with a single hollow biconic tin bead of type ТЛИ. At Gomjenica cemetery, also in the second stage (Gomjenica II), the appearance of archaic forms of cast earring type G.15 has been noted alongside new decorati ve forms of type G.17I), G.33, G.34a, and G.36. This same phase also displays necklaces with two-part pendants (type T.42a) and with half-moon pendants (type T.42C), as well as earrings with one (type ТЛИ) and three biconic hollow tin beads of type T.IV. A highly interesting situation is apparent in Majs - Udvar ce metery in phase Majs II, which is attributed to the end of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture according to grave findings. This phase clearly shows graves displaying, in addition to cast earrings with four fixed beads of type G.iyb and rings of type G.32, G.33, G.34a, and G-34b, archaic forms typical of the early phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture. It also features a finding dated with the aid of a coin of King Stephen I (10001038), which serves as a terminus ante quem for the beginning of the final part of the first stage. The upper border is defined by findings from phase Majs III, which are dated through a coin of Andrew I (1046-1061). On the basis of the aforementioned results of our relative chronological analysis, we are partial to the assumption that, beginning with the rule of King Stephen I (1000-1038), the in ter-river region and the Hungarian part of Baranya show the appearance of new decorative items, foremost cast rustic earrin gs with four fixed beads of type G.iyb, followed by rings of type G.27, G.28, G.32, G.33, G-34a, and G_34b, with occasional archaic forms typical of the prior, early phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture, as well as with the appearance of decorative forms typical of the Old Croatian cultural circle and the second stage of the Köttlach culture. In the western part of the inter river region, Ptuj - Grad, Gomjenica, Mahovljani, and Bagruša cemeteries still show frequent examples of cast earrings of type G.14, G.15, and G.16 typical of the early phase of the first stage, while these are found in the eastern group only in the case of 630 grave 174 (type G.i4b) and grave 225 (type G.iya) at Bijelo Brdo. The end of this phase can be placed during the rule of King An drew I (1046-1061), as indicated by a finding from grave 113 at Bijelo Brdo II. The late phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture (995 -1030), up to the rule of Hungarian King Andrew I (1046) Leaders: Old Croatian kingdoms (Svetislav Suronja, Michael Krešimir III (1000-1030), Hungarian King Stephen I (997-1038), Byzantine Emperor Basil II (976-1025), German emperors Otto II, Otto III, Henry II (1002-1024). Sites: Bijelo Brdo III, Vukovar - Lijeva Bara III, Junuzovci, Zagreb - Kaptol, Mahovljani III, Ptuj - Grad III, Svete Gore, Spodnja Hajdina, Gomjenica III, Kloštar Podravski, Majs - Ud var III, Veliki Bukovac, Svinjarevci, Mrsunjski lug, Mačvanska Mitrovica II, Josipovo I, Sveti Juraj u Trnju I. Inventory: Earrings type G.i7a,b, rings type G.27, G.28, G.32, G.33, G-34a,b. Decorative forms from the previous phase of the Bijelo Brdo culture disappear completely, with the exception of earrings type G.14, G. Ս and G.16 in the western part of the inter-river region. Perforated ancient coins type T.44a cease to appear, while Hungarian coins type T.44b and Byzantine coins type T.44C begin to appear. Influences: Appearance of earrings type Köttlach II from the Ottoman cultural circle. Appearance of earrings with one or three beads. Hungarian coins of King Stephen I and Byzanti ne coins of Emperor Basil II are found as offerings to the dead. Christianity progresses and a diocese is founded in Pécs in 1009. Influences from the Kievan Rus. Summary, 623-635 SECOND STAGE OF THE BIJELO BRDO CULTURE (СА. 1030 - CA. noo) Early phase of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture (са. 1030 - са. 1070) Giesler’s analysis of Bijelo Brdo graves in Transdanubia shows that new forms of jewellery typical of the second stage of the Bi jelo Brdo culture appear alongside coins of King Andrew I (1046 -1061). Alongside these forms, Giesler first includes small hoops with an S loop (type G.II/4-Halimba), followed by rings of type G.23, G.26, G.29, and especially G.30, as well as necklaces made from faceted polyhedron amethyst and fluorite beads discovered in large row graves in Baranya (Eilend - Nagygödör and Pécs ֊ Va sas), then in Fiad ֊ Kérpuszta and Halimba - Cseres, exclusively in phases dated with coins no older than Hungarian King Andrew I (1046-1061). This phase includes findings of thick silver hoops type G.II with a ribbed, hammered S loop. Our horizontal stra tigraphic research as shown that six graves in the region betwe en the Drava, Danube, and Sava rivers show decorative elements typical for the early phase of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture according to Giesler’s absolute chronological schema. An analysis of the Bijelo Brdo II cemetery shows that its third phase displays grave units dated by coins, in which we find new forms of jewellery appropriate to the beginning of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture. We must note grave unit number 107, which displays a ring of type G.23 along with a rich ensemble of jewellery belonging to the deceased, including two silver denarii of kings Andrew I (1046-1061) and Béla I (1060-1063). Alongside these fin dings, we must also include grave unit number 165, which dis plays one ring of type G.30 and small-format hoops with S loops of type G.II alongside a silver denarius of Andrew I as an offering. An interesting situation is noted at Vukovar - Lijeva Bara ceme tery. The Lijeva Bara IV phase displays rings of type G.23, G.26, G.29, and G.30 alongside jewellery forms from prior phases of the cemetery’s use, forming a clearly recognisable horizon. Phase Ptuj III at the large Ptuj - Grad cemetery displays forms of jewellery from the beginning of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo cultu re (rings type G.27, G.30), in addition to archaic forms from the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture. Rings of type G.29 are found at Gomjenica cemetery during phase III, alongside small-format hoops of type G.II/4-5 and archaic forms from the previous phase of the cemetery’s use. It must be noted that the jewellery typical of the Old Croatian cultural circle that appeared in earlier phases disappears completely from use during phase Gomjenica III, as it does in corresponding phases in neighbouring cemeteries in Mahovljani and Bagruša I. It is also significant that cast half-moon earrings of type Köttlach II disappear from use in phase Ptuj III as well. Excavations of Bijelo Brdo row graves near the village of Jo sipovo (Ciganke) near Slatina point to the existence of a phase of cemetery use appropriate to the beginning of the second phase of a Bijelo Brdo cemetery. Part of this site marked with the finding of forms of jewellery typical of the second stage also displays rings of type G.29 and G.30 (grave number 5), alongside small-format hoops of type G.II, necklace-gerdans of type G.41, and perforated coins of King Andrew I (1046-1061) in grave number 9. At the large Majs - Udvar cemetery, rings of type G.23, G.26, G.29, and G.30 appear alongside findings of silver Árpád dynasty denarii as offerings during phase Majs III, which also marks the end of the usage of this important cemetery. Grave units num ber 593 and 1077 display rings of type G.26 dated with a coin of King Andrew I (1046-1061), while grave unit number 322 displays a ring of type G.30 alongside a finding of this same type of coin. Phase Majs III lasted until roughly 1039 according to analysis by I. Bòna, however we believe this cemetery was in use until the 1080s according to findings from grave 692. This grave displayed, in addition to other findings, a coin of King Ladislaus I (1077-1095). Giesler dated the end of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture to the late 11th century, expressing the belief that only re search on i2th֊century material would show how far the late stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture stretched, or whether or not the search for the end of this culture should even be considered. The early phase of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture (1030/1040 -1070) Leaders: Old Croatian kings Stephen I (1035-1058) and Peter Krešimir IV (1058-1074), Old Hungarian kings Samuel Aba, Pe ter, Andrew (1046-1064), Béla, Solomon (1063-1074), Byzantine emperors Michael IV - Michael VI, German emperors Conrad II, Henry III, and Henry IV. Sites: Bijelo Brdo IV, Vukovar - Lijeva Bara IV, Svinjarevci, Mačvanska Mitrovica, Josipovo (Ciganka), Mahovljani, Ptuj Grad, Spodnja Hajdina, Svete Gore, Kloštar Podravski, Veliki Bukovac, Mrsunjski lug, Sveti Juraj u Trnju II. Inventory: Thick small-format hoops with hammered, ribbed S loops type G.II, six-pointed star pendant (type T.F), rings type G.23, G.26, G.29, G.30, heavy inclusion of coins as offerings type T.44b. No Byzantine coins (type T.44C) or earrings of type Köttlach II appear. Influences: Lack of influence from the Old Croatian, Otto man, and Byzantine cultural circles. War with the Ottonian em perors. Continued demographic growth. Late phase of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture (ca. 1070 - ca. noo) According to Giesler, typical forms of jewellery for the late phase of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture include thick silver or lead hoops with hammered and ribbed S loops Bjelobrdski kulturni krug (type G.II/5-6-Halimba) and rings of type G.35. These decorati ve items appear, according to Giesler, in the second half of the 11th century, or more precisely in the final third of the 11th century according to findings from Halimba - Cseres cemetery. He even dated some hoops with S loops type G.II/6 in Halimba to the 12th century on the basis of coins of Béla I (1131-1141) and Coloman (1095-1116). Our analysis of materials from the late phase of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture, which we have been able to pro ve at five sites in the inter-river region on the basis of a horizon tal stratigraphic analysis, shows an interesting state. The final usage phase of Bijelo Brdo II, phase IV, displays rings of type G.35, which are typically appropriate to the late phase of the se cond stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture, alongside archaic forms of jewellery from previous phases of the cemetery. The finding of coins of King Béla I (1060-1063) provides convincing evidence that the cemetery at Bijelo Brdo was in use until the rule of this Hungarian king; we may thus also date the appearance of rings of type G.35 ։n accordance with these findings. The final phase of Vukovar - Lijeva Bara cemetary, phase V, is characterised by findings of rings of type G.35 and cast crosses in a small group of graves (graves 7, 164, 378, 388). According to other analogies, foremost those in neighbouring Baranya, we claim that the cemetery in Vukovar was in use until the last third of the 11th century. Phase Gomjenica IV also displays rings of type G.35, which marked the beginning of the late phase of the se cond stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture at this site, as well as the end of the use of this fascinating row grave site. Grave number 202 displays a ring of type G.35 with a hoop of type II/4-5. Gie sler warned of the late dating of grave number 45 at Svinjarevci cemetery on the basis of the finding of a ring of type G.35 and a hoop of type G.I-II, dated with a silver denarius of King La dislaus I (1077-1095) as an offering. We have placed this grave in the final phase of this cemetery (Svinjarevci III). At Josipovo (Ci ganka) cemetery, a campaign in 1989 uncovered grave number 12 with a ring of type G.35 among a series of graves that, on the basis of a silver small-format hoop with a ribbed S loop, points to the existence of the late phase of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture, which we have marked as phase Josipovo II. The fascinating inventory of grave number 6 in the row cemetery at Sveti Juraj u Trnju in Međimurje includes a cast silver earring of archaic type G.iyb alongside a necklace of type G.41 with polyhe dron amethyst and fluorite beads and a ring of type G.35. The researched part of the cemetery points to the existence of the late phase of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture. Research at the cemetery in Pusztaszentlászló in Zala Co unty has attested the presence of thick hoops with S loops of type G.II/5-6 and rings of type G.35 in grave units 20 and 43, dated with a coin of King Ladislaus I (1077-1095). 632 Late phase of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture (1070 -1100) Leaders: Croatian kings Demetrius or Zvonimir (1074-1093) and Peter (1093-1097), Hungarian kings Géza I and Ladislaus I (1077-1095), Byzantine emperors Michael VI, Alexios I Komnenos (1081-1118), German emperor Henry IV (1054-1106). Sites: Vukovar - Lijeva Bara V, Ptuj-Grad, Gomjenica, Klo štar Podravšia, Мајѕ-Udvar, Svinjarevci, Josipovo (Ciganka) III, Sveti Juraj и Trnju III, Vinkovci - Meraja, Mrsunjski lug, Маčvanska Mitrovica, Đakovo, Lobor. Inventory: thick silver or lead small-format hoops with ribbed S loops (type G.IL5-6 Halimba), rings type G.35, cross pendants type T.45, coins of King Ladislaus I (1077-1095). Influences: Lacking influences from the Old Croatian and Ottoman cultural circles. Founding of a diocese in Zagreb in 1093/1094. Appearance of a horizon in parish cemeteries around churches. Decrees by kings Ladislaus I and Coloman banned familial village cemeteries and proscribed burials in atriis ecclesiarum. Church centres and networks of churches appear as the beginnings of dioceses and diocese organisations. Third stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture (ca. noo - ca. 1250/1300) The pressing question is how far we can follow the inclu sion of jewellery in graves in the Bijelo Brdo culture. On the basis of grave artefacts, we may follow not only the inclusion of jewellery in the Bijelo Brdo culture, but also changes apparent in the appearance of new forms of jewellery. We can also iden tify periods of peace or unrest that involved not only the inter river region, but neighbouring European regions as well. More answers are provided by the aforementioned finding of a coin of King Colomon (1095-1116) in grave 494 at HalimbaCseres cemetery, which had previously displayed hoops of type G.II/6 typical of the late phase of the second stage, as well as a finding of a coin of King Béla II (1131-1141) in grave 254 at this same site alongside graves displaying hoops of type G.II/6. The inclusion of hoops with S loops of various form can be identified until the end of the 12th century, perhaps even the early 13th century, thanks to the results of research at Delekovec - Ščapovo cemetery. Research at this site uncovered a grave ho rizon with findings of silver hoops with S loops and the highly valuable finding of a silver Friesach pfennig of Archbishop of Salzburg Eberhard II (1200-1215), which allows us to date this older stratum of this cemetery. Researcher M. Šmalcelj places the end of burials in accordance with this grave horizon in the first half of the 13th century, potentially connecting it to a Mon gol invasion (1242). ЅиММАКУ, 623-635 This assumption on the tradition of placing both jewellery and Western coins in graves as offerings are affirmed by the fin ding of an eriacensis-group Friesach pfennig with the figure of Adalbert II, Archbishop of Salzburg (ca. 1170 - ca. 1200) at Stenjevac cemetery, as well as at Đakovo - župna crkva Svih svetih. The results of firture field research in the inter-river region will potentially supplement current findings, which have re liably proven the existence of a grave horizon showing archaic forms of jewellery typical of the Bijelo Brdo culture alongside new elements manifested in the inclusion of western coins (Fri esach pfennigs). The fact that i2th-century cemeteries (Delelcovec ֊ Ščapovo, Stenjevec, and Đakovo) in the inter-river region show both fossilised forms of jewellery (such as hoops with S loops) and the tradition of coin offerings prove how deeply-ro oted these traditions were, as well as the original nature of the jewellery, which should be sought in earlier stages of the Bijelo Brdo culture. In addition to occasional findings of Friesach pfennigs as offerings, the third stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture is signified by the appearance of group findings of silver Friesach pfennigs and other valuables registered in the inter-river region. This inclu des group findings of Friesach pfennigs, such as those in Čako vec - Buzovec, Gačište, Ostrovo near Nuštar, etc., which surely signify danger resulting from the Mongol invasion in 1242. Important inventory for this stage includes findings of three-bead basket earrings (Stenjevec, Lobor, Kloštar Podrav ski, Suhopolje ֊ Kliškovac), and simultaneous findings of Hun garian and Byzantine money, e.g. in Vinkovci - Meraja and Mačvanska Mitrovica. Third stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture (ca.1100 - ca.1250 -1300) Leaders: Hungarian kings Coloman (1095-1116), Andrew II (1205-1235), Béla IV (1235-1270); Byzantine emperors Alexios I Komnenos, Manuel I Komnenos, Alexios II Komnenos (11801183); German emperors Henry IV, Frederick I (1152-1190), Fre derick II (1215-1250); Archbishop of Salzburg Eberhard II (12001215). Sites: Đelekovec - Ščapovo, Stenjevec, Suhopolje - Kliško vac, Vinkovci - Meraja, Đakovo - Župna crkva, Lobor - Majka Božja Gorska (three-bead basket earrings); group findings of Western coins - Friesach pfennigs (Čakovec - Buzovec, Gačište, etc.). Inventory: archaic findings of small-format hoops with S loops of type G.I-II, Friesach pfennigs (type T.44d) as offerings in graves or as parts of group findings throughout the inter-river region, the appearance of filigreed, granulated three-bead tem ple rings (type Si.Stenjevec). Findings of ceramic pottery from a 12th- and i3th-century rural settlement in Stara Vodenica near Jurjevac Punitovački and in the Beketinci - Bentež area (ւօէհ-։շ\|հ century) in Osjek-Baranya County, and in the surroundings of Velika Gorica - Šepkovčica. Influences: Apparent influences from the Ottoman dynasty via the Salzburg Archdiocese. Appearance of Friesach pfennigs as grave offerings. Burial of group findings of valuables and Fri esach pfennigs (Čakovec - Buzovec, Gačište, etc.) as a consequ ence of general insecurity caused by the Mongol/Tatar invasion in 1242. Striking of ‘banovac’ coins. Appearance of Romanesque sacral architecture related to religious orders (Rudina - Sv. Mi hovil Arkanđel; Lobor - Majka Božja Gorska, Gora) and feudal estates (Ivandol). A period of very cold climate. Speedy changes in political relations in the area between the Danube basin and the eastern Alps alongside continued in filtration of various groups of nations in the 6th and 7th century manifested in a multi-layered cultural landscape. Likely under Frankish influence, the tradition of burying the dead on biers facing from east to west spread to Bavaria in the mid֊5th centu ry. The dead were buried in large row cemeteries according to Frankish law at the time in dress and with jewellery and wea pons, occasionally with earthenware. The depth of the bier va ries from 0.4m to ca. 1.5m. Row graves were marked at the foot with simple stakes to avoid overlaping. Row burials spread to the region between the Mura, Drava, Danube, and Sava rivers and surrounding areas during Fran kish expansions and war with the Avars. The process of re-christening the local population flowed gradually from the era of Charlemagne and the defeat of the Avars in 803 to the division into the Patriarchate of Aquileia and the Salzburg diocese with a border on the river Drava. The first missions to christen the population in Lower Pannónia were led by the Patriarchate of Aquileia in northern Italy and Bavaria. Row graves are found from the Duchy of Croatia in the eastern Adriatic hinterland gradually northward from centres in Aquileia towards the area of the Duchy between the Drava and Sava - Lower Pannónia. * Our analysis of relative chronological phenomena at 15 important Bijelo Brdo cemeteries has shown continuous deve lopment within the Bijelo Brdo culture in the region between the Mura, Drava, Sava, and Danube rivers. It has been noted that, according to information drawn from the Bagruša ceme tery, as well as on the basis of occasional chronologically older findings and the frequent appearance of archaic forms of deco rative items (cast earrings), especially in the inter-river region, the existence of a proto-Bijelo Brdo transitional phase can be assumed (from the mid-8th to 9th century), which precedes the transitional phase of the Bijelo Brdo culture (ca. 900 - ca. 965) in its classical sense. Talcing Giesler’s chronology into account, 633 Bjelobrdski kulturni krug we have attempted to follow the transitional phase to the socalled early phase of the first stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture in the late 10th century (965-995). The aforementioned transitio nal phase is dominated by findings of cast earrings of various types, which point to the continuity of co-existence and creati on of the autochthonous population and the Pannonian Slavs, and to a kind of cultural and ethnic synthesis in the observed area. Latent influences from cities under Byzantine rule on the Adriatic coast and in the interior of the Balkan peninsu la played an important role in this synthesis. The evolution of the Bijelo Brdo culture can be tracked without especially sudden transitions in the inter-river region, foremost on the basis of rich findings of grave goods in large row cemeteries, which have enabled a more comprehensive insight into hori zontal stratigraphic relations, and thus into the relative chro nological relations within them. In this sense, a special place is held by the large Vukovar - Lijeva Bara cemetery, which allows continuous insight into the Bijelo Brdo culture until the late 11th century, with occasional supplementation from other ce meteries. From the outset of the early phase of the first stage to the end of the late phase of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo cul ture (ca. 970 - late 11th century), clearly expressed developmen tal phases have been identified in accordance with Giesler’s suggested absolute chronology. We have retained Giesler’s suggested schema, supplementing it with the findings of our own analysis with the intent of making it more practical. Thus, after the early phase of the first stage (965-995), we are con vinced of the existence of a clearly documented late phase of this stage (995-1030) in the Bijelo Brdo culture. For a clearer overview, we have also placed a solidly documented early pha se (1030-1070) before the late phase (1070-1100) of the second stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture. Near the end of the late phase of the second stage, one must realistically rely on the appearance of a horizon of exclu sively church cemeteries (Vinkovci - Meraja, Klisa, Suhopolje - Kliškovac, Črljena Klisa, Đakovo - Župna crkva Svih svetih, Lobor - crkva Majke Božje Gorske, Sv. Juraj u Trnju, Čepin ֊ Ovčara, Borinci - Crkvište, Crkvari - Sv. Lovro i dr.); the ce metery in Đelekovac should also be considered one such ce metery, which can for now be defined as the possible upper temporal border of the Bijelo Brdo culture. The process of relocating cemeteries around churches was likely completed by the mid-i2th century, which is a re flection of the existence of centralised rule. Multiple previous overviews of particular Bijelo Brdo cemeteries have noted the existence of decrees by Hungarian kings Ladislaus I (10771095) and Coloman (1095-1116) making burials “in atris ecclesiarum” mandatory for roughly ten village cemeteries. 634 More recent research results show a clear continuity of Bije lo Brdo jewellery types alongside new types of jewellery, such as filigreed, granulated earrings with three interconnected beads, as well as the tradition of coin offerings of Western and (to a cer tain extent) Byzantine coins. These phenomena can currently be followed up to the first half of the 13th century. We consider this period, which began in the late nth century, the final, third stage of the Bijelo Brdo culture, which would have appeared at the turn of the 12th century and lasted until Mongol invasion and destruction in the mid-i3th century, or until roughly 1300. Friesach pfennigs made of high-quality silver began being minted in the second quarter of the 12th century. They were na med after the city of Friesach in Carinthia, one of whose two fortifications belonged to the powerful Archdiocese of Salzburg. Alongside the archbishop of Salzburg, similar coins eventually began being minted by other Central European church officials, as well as secular lords. Friesach pfennigs were also minted in Croatia during the rule of King Emeric (1196-1204) and of An drew II both as duke (1196-1204) and king (1205-1235). During the rule of Andrew II, Croatian Friesach pfennigs were minted by the bans between 1204 and 1209, by Ban Bertol Meranski (1209-1211), by the Patriarch of Aquileia (1218-1251), as well as by the bans between 1212 and 1220, and finally by Princes Béla (Bela Dalmatie et Croatie gubernator, 1220-1226) and Coloman (Союmanus, Dalmatie et Croatie dux, 1226-1235). Among findings corresponding to the third stage of the Bijelo Brdo cultural circle, we may generally include findings of silver Friesach pfennigs, occasionally with gold and silver jewel lery. Such findings, hailing from the period from 1230 to 1261, are known from the surroundings of Gačište village near Suhopolje. Tumultuous events tied to the threat of Tatar invasion are indi cated by a group finding of 846 Friesach pfennigs discovered in 1984 outside Čakovec, which has been scientifically analysed in detail and reliably dated to after 1246. The Suhopolje - Kliškovac locality also displays silver pfennigs of Salzburg Archbishop Eb erhard II (1200-1246). Grave unit 69 south of the Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Stenj evec displays a Friesach pfennig eriacensis - grupe (1170 - ca. 1200) of Salzburg Archbishop Adalbert II (1168-1177; 1183-1200). Furthermore, the cemetery in Stenjevec also displays specific forms of silver tem ple rings with three interconnected biconic beads made from filigreed wire hung on a hoop with a square cross section end ing in a wide, hammered S loop sewn and tied to a ribbon. This form of earring is known as type Stenjevec, and is attributed to the Bijelo Brdo culture at the transition from the Early to the High Middle Ages at the turn of the 12th century. These earrings, like somewhat related examples from the cemeteries in Lobor and Suhopolje ֊ Kliškovac, certainly hail from the Byzantine cultural circle, which settled within the Bi- Summary, 623-635 jelo Brdo cultural circle. Suhopolje - Kliškovac cemetery, which hails from roughly 1000 to 1250, also registers a non-contextual denarius of Coloman (1095-1116) and a ring with lapis lazuli em bedded in a hoop edged with granulation. A second kind of Mediaeval coin rarer in Croatia is the bracteate, such as findings of silver coins from Ostrovo near Vinkov ci, which were minted in Germany beginning in the 1130s and in Hungary (obolus) from the mid-i3th century. Árpád dynasty King Béla lV s (1235-1270) accession to the throne signalled the beginning of a new era of coins in the King dom of Slavonia: the Slavonian banovac. It is not known where the first mints of Prince Andrew s Croatian coins were located, however we assume they were active in Virovitica and Požega immediately after the destructive Mongol invasion; it is reliably known that a mint of Slavonian denarii was located in Pakrac (camera de Puchruch). Another important element in shaping impressions of the third stage of the Bijelo Brdo cultural circle is the image of po pulation density at the turn of the High Middle Ages. In this sense, it is important to note e.g. research on a multi-layered site at Stara Vodenica near Jurjevac Punitovački in Osijek-Baranya County. This is a rural settlement dated to the 12th and early 13th century. A settlement in Beketinci - Bentež is equally important, which displays an archaeological ftmd from the Early and High Middle Ages. To paint a comprehensive picture of the Bijelo Brdo cultural circle in the Early and High Middle Ages, the modern results of research on climatic conditions based on the multi-layered Be ketinci - Bentež settlement are exceptionally important. Tem perature graphs of the period from 500 to 2000 CE and tables of temperature relations, land abandonment, cost of living, and population growth between 300 and 1500 CE provide a realistic portrayal of climatic conditions within which the life of several generations unfolded in the Bijelo Brdo cultural area in Lower Pannónia. Around 1000 CE, a warm Mediaeval period known as the Mediaeval Optimum began, with one very cold interval around 1240, immediately prior to the Mongol invasion of Europe in 1242. During this period, there were three exceptionally warm periods: 1010-1040,1070-1105, and 1155-1190. The Optimum last ed until 1300. This was a period of intense agricultural activity, deforestation, and demographic growth. After 1300, tempera tures gradually fell, and the period known as the “Little Ice Age” began.
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author	Tomičić, Željko 1942-
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spelling	Tomičić, Željko 1942- Verfasser (DE-588)1069885886 aut Bjelobrdski kulturni krug groblja 9. do 13. stoljeća u međurječju Mure, Drave, Dunava i Save Željko Tomičić The Bijelo brdo cultural circle Zagreb ; Požega Hrvatska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti, Zavod za znanstveni i umjetnički rad u Požegi 2019. 642 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme, Karten 31 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Naklada 500. - Literaturverzeichnis Seite 603-621 Englische Zusammenfassung: The Bijelo brdo cultural circle Geschichte 800-1300 gnd rswk-swf Cemeteries fast Excavations (Archaeology) fast Antiquities fast Material culture fast Archaeology Mittelalterliche Archäologie (DE-588)4138633-4 gnd rswk-swf Gräberfeld (DE-588)4071980-7 gnd rswk-swf Siedlungsarchäologie (DE-588)4181216-5 gnd rswk-swf Europe / Mur River fast Europe / Drava River Valley fast Danube River Valley fast Europe / Sava River Valley fast Save-Gebiet (DE-588)4460554-7 gnd rswk-swf Mur-Gebiet (DE-588)4567110-2 gnd rswk-swf Bijelo brdo Osijek (DE-588)7519948-8 gnd rswk-swf Drau-Gebiet (DE-588)4526464-8 gnd rswk-swf Bijelo brdo Osijek (DE-588)7519948-8 g Mur-Gebiet (DE-588)4567110-2 g Save-Gebiet (DE-588)4460554-7 g Drau-Gebiet (DE-588)4526464-8 g Gräberfeld (DE-588)4071980-7 s Siedlungsarchäologie (DE-588)4181216-5 s Mittelalterliche Archäologie (DE-588)4138633-4 s Geschichte 800-1300 z DE-604 SWB Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032496818&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München 25 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032496818&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München 25 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032496818&sequence=000005&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract
spellingShingle	Tomičić, Željko 1942- Bjelobrdski kulturni krug groblja 9. do 13. stoljeća u međurječju Mure, Drave, Dunava i Save Cemeteries fast Excavations (Archaeology) fast Antiquities fast Material culture fast Archaeology Mittelalterliche Archäologie (DE-588)4138633-4 gnd Gräberfeld (DE-588)4071980-7 gnd Siedlungsarchäologie (DE-588)4181216-5 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4138633-4 (DE-588)4071980-7 (DE-588)4181216-5 (DE-588)4460554-7 (DE-588)4567110-2 (DE-588)7519948-8 (DE-588)4526464-8
title	Bjelobrdski kulturni krug groblja 9. do 13. stoljeća u međurječju Mure, Drave, Dunava i Save
title_alt	The Bijelo brdo cultural circle
title_auth	Bjelobrdski kulturni krug groblja 9. do 13. stoljeća u međurječju Mure, Drave, Dunava i Save
title_exact_search	Bjelobrdski kulturni krug groblja 9. do 13. stoljeća u međurječju Mure, Drave, Dunava i Save
title_exact_search_txtP	Bjelobrdski kulturni krug groblja 9. do 13. stoljeća u međurječju Mure, Drave, Dunava i Save
title_full	Bjelobrdski kulturni krug groblja 9. do 13. stoljeća u međurječju Mure, Drave, Dunava i Save Željko Tomičić
title_fullStr	Bjelobrdski kulturni krug groblja 9. do 13. stoljeća u međurječju Mure, Drave, Dunava i Save Željko Tomičić
title_full_unstemmed	Bjelobrdski kulturni krug groblja 9. do 13. stoljeća u međurječju Mure, Drave, Dunava i Save Željko Tomičić
title_short	Bjelobrdski kulturni krug
title_sort	bjelobrdski kulturni krug groblja 9 do 13 stoljeca u medurjecju mure drave dunava i save
title_sub	groblja 9. do 13. stoljeća u međurječju Mure, Drave, Dunava i Save
topic	Cemeteries fast Excavations (Archaeology) fast Antiquities fast Material culture fast Archaeology Mittelalterliche Archäologie (DE-588)4138633-4 gnd Gräberfeld (DE-588)4071980-7 gnd Siedlungsarchäologie (DE-588)4181216-5 gnd
topic_facet	Cemeteries Excavations (Archaeology) Antiquities Material culture Archaeology Mittelalterliche Archäologie Gräberfeld Siedlungsarchäologie Europe / Mur River Europe / Drava River Valley Danube River Valley Europe / Sava River Valley Save-Gebiet Mur-Gebiet Bijelo brdo Osijek Drau-Gebiet
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