Core questions in philosophy:
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
New York ; London
Routledge
2020
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| Ausgabe: | Seventh edition |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Klappentext |
| Beschreibung: | Includes bibliographical references and index |
| Beschreibung: | xxv, 331 Seiten |
| ISBN: | 9781138487352 9781138487338 |
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| adam_text | Contents List of Boxes Preface Acknowledgments Routledge Companion Website xxiii xxiv XXVI xxvii PART I Introduction 1 What Is Philosophy? 3 Chapter Outline 3 Examples 4 Three Theories about What Philosophy Is 5 The Nature of Philosophy Has Changed Historically 7 Philosophical Method 7 Summary 8 Review Questions 8 A Problem for Further Thought 8 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 8 2 Deductive Arguments Chapter Outline 9 Arguments 9 Good Arguments 10 Deductive Validity Defined 10 “Validity” Is a Technical Term 11 Logical Form 11 Invalidity 12 Testing for Invalidity 13 Circularity, or Begging the Question 16 Truth 16 “True for Me” 17 Wishful Thinking 17 Self-Fulfilling Prophesies 17 9
x Contents Reviens Questions 18 Problems for Further Thought 19 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 20 3 Inductive and Abductive Arguments 21 Chapter Outline 21 Deductive Validity b a Limitation 21 Nondeductive Inference—A Weaker Guarantee 22 Two Gambling Strategies 23 Universal Laws 23 Detective Work 24 Induction 24 Two Factors Influence Inductive Strength 24 Abduction 25 Inferring What Isn’t Observed 25 Abduction Differs from Induction 26 Can You Deduce the Explanation from the Observations? 26 Deducing Observational Predictions from a Theory 26 When the Prediction Comes True 27 When the Prediction Turns Out to Be False 27 How True Predictions and False Predictions Are Interpreted 27 The Surprise Principle: When Does Successful Prediction Provide Strong Evidence? 28 Evidence May Discriminate between Some Hypotheses While Failing to Discriminate between Others 30 True Prediction Isn’t Enough 31 Modest Favoring 32 The Surprise Principle Summarized 32 The Only Game in Town Fallacy 32 Review Questions 33 Problems for Further Thought 34 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 35 PART II Philosophy of Religion 4 Aquinas’s First Four Ways Chapter Outline 39 The Concept of God 40 The First Two Arguments: Motion and Causality 40 Aquinas on the Cause of Motion 41 God Is a Person, Not Just a Cause That Exists Outside of Nature 42 The Birthday Fallacy 42 Why Can’t Nature Be Infinitely Old? 43 37 39
Contents xi Why Must Every Event in Nature Have a Cause? 43 The Third Argument: Contingency 44 Necessary and Contingent Beings 44 Possible Worlds 44 Reductio Ad Absurdum 45 Contingency and Eternity 46 Conservation Laws in Physics 47 The Birthday Fallacy (Again) 47 Necessary Beings other than God 48 Necessary and Contingent Propositions 48 Mathematical Truths 48 Names Differfrom the Things Named 48 Numbers Aren’t Numerals 49 Sets 49 Necessity and Certainty Are Different 50 Numbers Are Necessary Beings 51 Aquinas’s Fourth Argument: Properties That Come in Degrees 51 Criticizing an Argument versus Showing the Argument’s Conclusion Is False 52 Review Questions 52 Problems for Further Thought 52 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 53 5 The Design Argument 54 Chapter Outline 54 Goal-Directed Systems 55 Two Kinds of Design Argument 55 Paley’s Watch 56 Tire Analogy 56 Abductive Arguments Often Postulate Unobserved Entities 57 Hume’s Criticisms of the Design Argument 58 Is the Design Argument a Weak Argumentfrom Analogy? 58 Is the Design Argument a Weak Induction? 60 Review Questions 60 Problems for Further Thought 61 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 61 6 Evolution and Creationism Chapter Outline 62 Creationism 62 Some Creationist Arguments 63 Darwin’s Two-Part Theory 64 Natural Selection 65 Spéciation 66 The Tree of Life 67 62
xii Contents The Principie of the Common Cause 61 Arbitrary Similarities among Organisms 68 Useful Similarities among Organisms 68 Irreducible Complexity 69 Is Creationism Testable? 70 Predictive Equivalence 71 Prediction versus Accommodation 12 Does Evolutionary Theory Make Novel Predictions? 12 Concluding Remarks 73 Review Questions 74 Problems for Further Drought 74 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 74 1 Can Science Explain Everything? Chapter Outline 75 Scientific Ignorance 76 The Only Game in Town Fallacy 76 The Two Questions 77 What Is a Scientific Explanation? 77 A Thesis about Explanation 78 Why Is There Something Rather than Nothing? 78 Can Physics Explain the Origin of the Universe? 78 Leibniz: God Chooses Which Possible World to Actualize 79 Clarke: God Explains Why the Actual World Consists of One Total History Rather than Another 79 The Only Game in Town Fallacy, Again 80 Causality 80 The Principle of Sufficient Reason 81 Review Questions 81 Problems for Further Thought 82 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 82 8 The Ontological Argument Chapter Outline 83 A Posteriori and A Priori 83 Definitions and Existence 84 Anselm’s Argument 84 Gaunilo’s Criticism 86 How Are the Ontological Argument and the Island Argument Related? 87 Anselm’s Reply 88 Dispensing with Perfection 88 Conclusion 89 Review Questions 89 Problems for Further Thought 90
Contents xiii Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 90 9 Is the Existence of God Testable? 91 Chapter Outline 9Í Logical Positivism 91 The Testability Theoty of Meaning 91 Analytietty 92 Falsifiability 92 Auxiliary Assumptions Needed 93 Auxiliary Assumptions Must Be Independently Established 95 “God Exists” Is Meaningful 96 Summary 96 Review Questions 96 Problems for Further Thought 91 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 91 10 Pascal and Irrationality 98 Chapter Outline 98 Prudential and Evidential Reasons for Belief 98 Wlten Does It Make Sense to Gamble? 99 Pascal’s Argument 100 First Criticism of Pascal’s Argument 101 Second Criticism of Pascal’s Argument 101 The Role of Reason 102 Freud’s Psychological Explanation of Theism 102 A New Prudential Argument 103 Pragmatism 104 Review Questions 105 Problems for Further Thought 105 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 106 11 The Argument from Evil Chapter Outline 101 First Version of the Argument 101 Two Kinds of Evil 108 Possible Reactions to the Argument 108 Theodicy and Defense 109 Soul-Building Evils 109 Second Version of the Argument 110 Free Will 111 Examples and a Third Version of the Argument 111 A Criticism of the Argument 112 Testability, Again 112 Another Kind ofArgument—The Evidential Argumentfrom Evil 112 107
xiv Contents Review Questions 113 Problems for Further Thought 114 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 114 PART III Theory of Knowledge 115 12 What Is Knowledge? 117 Chapter Outline 117 Epistemology 117 Three Kinds of Knowledge 118 Two Requirements for Knowledge: Belief and Truth 120 Plato: True Belief Isn’t Sufficient for Knowledge 120 Justification 121 The JTB Theory 121 Three Counterexamples to the JTB Tlteory 122 What the Counterexamples Have in Common 123 An Argument for Skepticism 123 Review Questions 124 Problems for Further Thought 125 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 125 13 Descartes’ Foundationalism Chapter Outline 126 Foundationalism 126 Euclid’s Parallel Postulate 127 Descartes’Method of Doubt 128 Tire Method Applied to a Posteriori Beliefs 128 Dubitability Is a Logical, Not a Psychological, Property 129 The Method Applied to Beliefs Based on Rational Calculation 129 I Am Thinking, Therefore I Exist 129 Thesis of the Incorrigibility of the Mental 131 Do First-Person Psychological Beliefs Provide a Sufficient Foundation? 131 An Additional Foundational Belief: God Exists and Is No Deceiver 132 How to Prove that. God Exists 133 The Clarity and Distinctness Criterion 134 The Cartesian Circle 135 Conclusion 135 Review Questions 136 Problems for Further Thought 137 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 137 126
Contents 14 The Reliability Theory of Knowledge XV 138 Chapter Outline 138 Descartes: Knowledge Is Internally Certifiable 138 What Makes a Thermometer Reliable? 139 Relevance to the Problem of Knowledge 140 Three Concepts of Impossibility 141 To Have Knowledge, You Don’t Have to Be Able to Construct a Philosophical Argument Refuting the Skeptic 142 A Consequence of the Reliability Theory 144 Thesis of the Relativity of Knowledge 145 What Does the Relativity Thesis Say about Skepticism? 145 Review Questions 146 Problems for Further Thought 147 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 47 15 Justified Belief and Hume’s Problem of Induction 148 Chapter Outline 148 Knowledge versus Justified Belief 148 Skepticism about Justified Belief 149 Hume’s Skeptical Thesis about Induction 149 Hume’s Argument that Induction Can’t Be Rationally Justified 150 Why Can’t PUN Be Justified? 151 Summary of Hume’s Argument 152 Review Questions 152 Problems for Further Thought 152 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 153 16 Can Hume’s Skepticism Be Refuted? 154 Chapter Outline 154 What, Exactly, Does the Principle of the Uniformity of Nature Say? 154 A New Concept: Degrees of Reliability 155 What Is a Rule of Inference? 156 Does the Past Reliability of Induction Provide an Answer? 156 Hume’s Argument Reformulated 157 Strawson: It Is Analytic that Induction Is Rational 157 Black: Induction Can Be Inductively Justified 158 Review Questions 159 Problems for Further Thought 159 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 160 17 Beyond Foundationalism Chapter Outline 161 Hume’s Problem and Descartes’ Problem
161 161
xvi Contents Whether K Is Evidence for Y Depends on Background Assumptions Z 163 Another Relativity Thesis 164 Foundationalism Leads to Skepticism 164 A Nonfoundationalist Approach to Justification 164 Standards ofJustification Often Depend on the Audience 165 Two Metaphors—Building a Building and Repairing a Raft 165 Review Questions 166 A Problem for Further Thought 166 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 166 18 Locke on the Existence of External Objects 167 Chapter Outline 167 Locke’s First Argument—“Those That Want the Organs of Any Sense” 168 Locke’s Second Argument—“Ideas Which Force Themselves upon Me” 169 Locke’s Third Argument— “Pleasure or Pain” 169 Locke’s Fourth Argument—“Our Senses Assist One Another’s Testimony” 170 Review Questions 171 A Problem for Further Thought 171 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 171 PART IV Philosophy of Mind I 73 19 Dualism and the Mind/Body Problem 175 Chapter Outline 175 What Is the Mind/Body Problem? 176 Descartes’Dualism 176 The Mind/Brain Identity Theory 176 Immortality of the Soul 177 Leibniz’s Law 177 Descartes’ First Argument for Dualism—The Indubitable Existence Argument 178 An Analogy 178 Propositional Attitudes and Aboutness 179 Descartes’ Second Argument for Dualism—The Divisibility Argument 181 Causality between the Physical and the Nonphysical 182 Review Questions 183 Problems for Further Thought 183 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 184 20 Logical Behaviorism Chapter Outline 185 The Attack on the Ghost in the Machine” 186 Logical Behaviorism Says Mentalism Is False Because It Leads to Skepticism 186 ţgg
Contents xvü Do We Know about the Mental States of Others by Analogy with Our Own Case? 187 Abduction 187 Logical Behaviorism’s Positive Thesis—Its Analysis of Mentalistic Vocabulary 188 The Dispositional Analysis of Desire Is Incomplete 189 A Dispositional Analysis Does Not Refute Mentalism 189 Review Questions 190 Problems for Further Thought 191 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 191 21 Methodological Behaviorism 192 Chapter Outline 192 The Negative Thesis: Psychology Should Avoid Belief/Desire Explanations 193 Methodological Behaviorism’s Positive Thesis 194 First Objection to Behaviorism’s Positive Thesis: Novel Behaviors 195 Second Objection to Behaviorism’s Positive Thesis: It Assumes that Environmental Determinism Is True 197 The Two Objections Summarized 198 Review Questions 198 Problems for Further Thought 199 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 199 22 The Mind/Brain Identity Theory 200 Chapter Outline 200 The Identity Theory Is an A Posteriori Claim 200 Materialism 201 Progress in Science 201 Dualism Resembles Vitalism 202 A Correlation Experiment 202 The Principle of Parsimony 203 Review Questions 205 Problems for Further Thought 205 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 205 23 Functionalism Chapter Outline 206 Functionalism’s Negative Thesis: Wlrat’s Wrong with the Identity Theory? 206 Multiple Realizability 207 Could a Computer Have Psychological Characteristics? 208 Multiple Realizability within the Class of Living Things 208 Functionalism’s Positive Thesis 209 Sensations 210 Summary 211 Review Questions 212 206
xviii Contents Problems for Further Thought 212 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 212 24 Freedom, Determinism, and Causality 213 Chapter Outline 213 ТІге Problem of Freedom 214 Examples of Unfree Acts 215 Are All Behaviors Like Those Produced by Brainwashing and Compulsions? 216 A Clash of Plausible Conceptions 216 What Is Causality? 216 Determinism 217 Indeterminism 217 Does Indeterminism Make Us Free? 219 Causality Is the Issue, Not Determinism 220 What Does Determinism Say about the Causation of Behavior? 220 Determinism Differs from Fatalism 220 Review Questions 221 A Problem for Further Thought 222 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 222 25 A Menu of Positions on Free Will 223 Chapter Outline 223 “Compatibility” Defined 223 Incompatibilism and Compatibilism 224 Libertarianism 225 Two Soft Determinist Theories 227 Hume 227 First Objection to Hume’s Theory: Compulsive Behavior 227 Second Objection to Hume’s Theory: Locke’s Locked Room 228 Does Coercion Rob Us of Free Will? 229 A Second Compatibilist Proposal: The Relevance of Second-Order Desires 229 Review Questions 230 Problems for Further Thought 231 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 231 26 Compatibilism Chapter Outline 232 The Weather Vane Analogy 232 Function and Malfunction 233 What Does It Mean to Ascribe a Function to Something? 234 The Function of the Desire-Generating Device 234 Reply to the Distant Causation Argument 235 Wltat Does Responsibility Mean? 236 Moral Responsibility 236 232
Contents xix Reply to the Could-Not-Have-Done-Otherwise Argument 237 Are Coerced Actions Unfree? 238 An Objection to the Weather Vane Theory: Freely Chosen, Rational Self-Sacrifice 239 Review Questions 240 Problems for Further Thought 240 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 240 27 Psychological Egoism 241 Chapter Outline 24Í Two Truisms 242 Goals and Side Effects of an Act 242 A Simple Example 243 Four Preference Structures 243 People Are Rarely Pure Altruists or Pure Egoists 245 An Experimental Test 246 A Second Experimental Test 248 Conclusion 248 Review Questions 248 Problems for Further Thought 249 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 249 PART V Ethics 251 28 Ethics—Normative and Meta 253 Chapter Outline 253 Ethics and Religion 253 Metaethics and Normative Ethics 254 Truth and Opinion 254 Alternative Metaethical Positions 254 Subjectivism 255 Realism 255 Conventionalism 255 Three Varieties of Conventionalism 256 Review Questions 257 A Problem for Further Thought 257 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 257 29 The Is/Ought Gap and the Naturalistic Fallacy Chapter Outline 258 Subjectivism: Ethical Statements Are neither True nor False 258 Does the Existence of Ethical Disagreement Show that Subjectivism Is True? 259 258
xx Contents The Genetic Fallacy 260 Hume: The Is/Ought Gap 260 (S.J: An Argument for Subjectivism with Hume’s Thesis as a Premise 261 The Naturalistic Fallacy 262 (Տշ): An Argument for Subjectivism with Moore’s Thesis as a Premise 263 Summary 264 Review Questions 264 Problems for Further Thought 265 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 265 30 Observation and Explanation in Ethics Chapter Outline 266 Reasoning about Ethical Issues 266 Testing General Principles by Applying Them to Specific Examples 261 Thought Experiments versus Empirical Experiments 268 Observations Are “Theory Laden” 268 Observation Does Not Imply Objectivity 269 Insoluble Disagreements 269 Is Subjectivism Preferable to Realism on Grounds of Parsimony? 271 Does Subjectivism Follow? 212 An Explanatory Role for Ethical Principles 213 What Is the Point of Ethics? 213 Review Questions 213 Problems for Further Thought 274 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 274 31 Conventionalist Theories Chapter Outline 275 Wliat Makes a View Conventionalist? 275 Trivial Semantic Conventionalism 216 Substantive versus Trivial Conventionalism 216 Plato’s Critique of the Divine Command Theory 211 Two Objections to the Divine Command Theory 278 Ethical Relativism 219 Ethical Relativism Is Normative, Not Descriptive 219 A Further Clarification of Ethical Relativism 219 Ethical Relativism Is a Version of Conventionalism 280 If Imperialism Is Wrong, Does That fustify Ethical Relativism? 280 Sartre’s Existentialism 282 Review Questions 283 Problems for Further Thought 283 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 284
Contents 32 Utilitarianism xxi 285 Chapter Outline 285 Mill’s Defense of the Greatest Happiness Principle 286 Reciprocal Illumination 287 What Is Happiness? 288 The Problem of the Experience Machine 288 Mill on “Higher” and “Lower” Pleasures 289 Objection to Hedonistic Utilitarianism 290 Preference Utilitarianism 290 The Apples and Oranges Problem 290 Utilitarianism and Justice: The Case of the Lonesome Stranger 291 Punishment 292 A Reply: Distinguish Rule and Act Utilitarianism 292 Utilitarianism and Tolerance: The Problem of the Fanatical Majority 293 Utilitarianism and Personal Integrity: The Problem of Dirty Hands 296 Utilitarianism and Personal Loyalties 297 A Psychological Objection to My Criticisms of Utilitarianism 297 Summary 297 Review Questions 298 Problems for Further Thought 298 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 299 33 Kant’s Moral Theory 300 Chapter Outline 300 Hume on Reason’s Role 301 Kant Rejects the Idea that Reason Is Purely Instrumental 301 Kant: Moral Rules Are Categorical Imperatives 301 The Moral Law 301 Kant: The Moral Value of an Act Derives from Its Maxim, Not from Its Consequences 302 Kant Rejected Consequentialism 3 03 The Universalizability Criterion 303 Four Examples 303 Evaluation of Kant’s Examples 304 A Problem for the Universalizability Criterion 305 Kant: People Are Ends in Themselves 307 The Rabbit and the Hat 307 Review Questions 308 Problems for Further Thought 308 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 309 34 Aristotle on the Good Life Chapter Outline 310 How Far Do Obligations Extend? 310 310
xxii Contents The Theory of the Right and the Theory of the Good 311 Are There General Principles about the Good Life? 311 Wlmt Is a Good X? 311 Human Beings Are Goal-Directed Systems 312 The Capacity to Reason 313 Aristotle: Happiness Is Not a Subjective State 314 Why the Life of Rational Activity Is Best: Two More Reasons 314 The Doctrine of the Mean 315 A Second Criticism of Aristotle’s Theory—Defining What a Good X Is Differs from Saying What Is Goodfor anX 315 A Third Criticism—Why Single Out Contemplation as the Best Life? 317 Review Questions 318 Problems for Further Thought 318 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 319 Glossary Index 320 32g
Writing in an engaging lecture-style format, Elliott Sober shows students how philosophy is best used to evaluate many different kinds of arguments and to construct sound theories. Well-known historical texts are discussed, not as a means to honor the dead or merely to discuss what various philosophers have thought, but to engage with, criticize, and even improve ideas from the past. In addition — because philosophy cannot function apart from its engagement with the wider society—traditional and contemporary philosophical problems are brought into dialogue with the physical, biological, and social sciences. Text boxes highlight key concepts, and review questions, discussion questions, and a glossary of terms are also included. Core Questions in Philosophy has served as a premier introductory textbook for more than two decades, with updates to each new edition. New improvements to this seventh edition include a lower price and a new Routledge companion website that includes: • • Updated supplementary readings, with the inclusion of more work from female philosophers New videos and podcasts, organized by their relevance to each chapter in the book. Visit the companion website at: www.routledge.com/cw/sober. Elliott Sober is Hans Reichenbach Professor and William F. Vilas Research Professor in the Philosophy Department at the University of Wisconsin—Madison, USA. His most recent book is The Design Argument (201 8).
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Contents List of Boxes Preface Acknowledgments Routledge Companion Website xxiii xxiv XXVI xxvii PART I Introduction 1 What Is Philosophy? 3 Chapter Outline 3 Examples 4 Three Theories about What Philosophy Is 5 The Nature of Philosophy Has Changed Historically 7 Philosophical Method 7 Summary 8 Review Questions 8 A Problem for Further Thought 8 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 8 2 Deductive Arguments Chapter Outline 9 Arguments 9 Good Arguments 10 Deductive Validity Defined 10 “Validity” Is a Technical Term 11 Logical Form 11 Invalidity 12 Testing for Invalidity 13 Circularity, or Begging the Question 16 Truth 16 “True for Me” 17 Wishful Thinking 17 Self-Fulfilling Prophesies 17 9
x Contents Reviens Questions 18 Problems for Further Thought 19 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 20 3 Inductive and Abductive Arguments 21 Chapter Outline 21 Deductive Validity b a Limitation 21 Nondeductive Inference—A Weaker Guarantee 22 Two Gambling Strategies 23 Universal Laws 23 Detective Work 24 Induction 24 Two Factors Influence Inductive Strength 24 Abduction 25 Inferring What Isn’t Observed 25 Abduction Differs from Induction 26 Can You Deduce the Explanation from the Observations? 26 Deducing Observational Predictions from a Theory 26 When the Prediction Comes True 27 When the Prediction Turns Out to Be False 27 How True Predictions and False Predictions Are Interpreted 27 The Surprise Principle: When Does Successful Prediction Provide Strong Evidence? 28 Evidence May Discriminate between Some Hypotheses While Failing to Discriminate between Others 30 True Prediction Isn’t Enough 31 Modest Favoring 32 The Surprise Principle Summarized 32 The Only Game in Town Fallacy 32 Review Questions 33 Problems for Further Thought 34 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 35 PART II Philosophy of Religion 4 Aquinas’s First Four Ways Chapter Outline 39 The Concept of God 40 The First Two Arguments: Motion and Causality 40 Aquinas on the Cause of Motion 41 God Is a Person, Not Just a Cause That Exists Outside of Nature 42 The Birthday Fallacy 42 Why Can’t Nature Be Infinitely Old? 43 37 39
Contents xi Why Must Every Event in Nature Have a Cause? 43 The Third Argument: Contingency 44 Necessary and Contingent Beings 44 Possible Worlds 44 Reductio Ad Absurdum 45 Contingency and Eternity 46 Conservation Laws in Physics 47 The Birthday Fallacy (Again) 47 Necessary Beings other than God 48 Necessary and Contingent Propositions 48 Mathematical Truths 48 Names Differfrom the Things Named 48 Numbers Aren’t Numerals 49 Sets 49 Necessity and Certainty Are Different 50 Numbers Are Necessary Beings 51 Aquinas’s Fourth Argument: Properties That Come in Degrees 51 Criticizing an Argument versus Showing the Argument’s Conclusion Is False 52 Review Questions 52 Problems for Further Thought 52 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 53 5 The Design Argument 54 Chapter Outline 54 Goal-Directed Systems 55 Two Kinds of Design Argument 55 Paley’s Watch 56 Tire Analogy 56 Abductive Arguments Often Postulate Unobserved Entities 57 Hume’s Criticisms of the Design Argument 58 Is the Design Argument a Weak Argumentfrom Analogy? 58 Is the Design Argument a Weak Induction? 60 Review Questions 60 Problems for Further Thought 61 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 61 6 Evolution and Creationism Chapter Outline 62 Creationism 62 Some Creationist Arguments 63 Darwin’s Two-Part Theory 64 Natural Selection 65 Spéciation 66 The Tree of Life 67 62
xii Contents The Principie of the Common Cause 61 Arbitrary Similarities among Organisms 68 Useful Similarities among Organisms 68 Irreducible Complexity 69 Is Creationism Testable? 70 Predictive Equivalence 71 Prediction versus Accommodation 12 Does Evolutionary Theory Make Novel Predictions? 12 Concluding Remarks 73 Review Questions 74 Problems for Further Drought 74 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 74 1 Can Science Explain Everything? Chapter Outline 75 Scientific Ignorance 76 The Only Game in Town Fallacy 76 The Two Questions 77 What Is a Scientific Explanation? 77 A Thesis about Explanation 78 Why Is There Something Rather than Nothing? 78 Can Physics Explain the Origin of the Universe? 78 Leibniz: God Chooses Which Possible World to Actualize 79 Clarke: God Explains Why the Actual World Consists of One Total History Rather than Another 79 The Only Game in Town Fallacy, Again 80 Causality 80 The Principle of Sufficient Reason 81 Review Questions 81 Problems for Further Thought 82 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 82 8 The Ontological Argument Chapter Outline 83 A Posteriori and A Priori 83 Definitions and Existence 84 Anselm’s Argument 84 Gaunilo’s Criticism 86 How Are the Ontological Argument and the Island Argument Related? 87 Anselm’s Reply 88 Dispensing with Perfection 88 Conclusion 89 Review Questions 89 Problems for Further Thought 90
Contents xiii Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 90 9 Is the Existence of God Testable? 91 Chapter Outline 9Í Logical Positivism 91 The Testability Theoty of Meaning 91 Analytietty 92 Falsifiability 92 Auxiliary Assumptions Needed 93 Auxiliary Assumptions Must Be Independently Established 95 “God Exists” Is Meaningful 96 Summary 96 Review Questions 96 Problems for Further Thought 91 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 91 10 Pascal and Irrationality 98 Chapter Outline 98 Prudential and Evidential Reasons for Belief 98 Wlten Does It Make Sense to Gamble? 99 Pascal’s Argument 100 First Criticism of Pascal’s Argument 101 Second Criticism of Pascal’s Argument 101 The Role of Reason 102 Freud’s Psychological Explanation of Theism 102 A New Prudential Argument 103 Pragmatism 104 Review Questions 105 Problems for Further Thought 105 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 106 11 The Argument from Evil Chapter Outline 101 First Version of the Argument 101 Two Kinds of Evil 108 Possible Reactions to the Argument 108 Theodicy and Defense 109 Soul-Building Evils 109 Second Version of the Argument 110 Free Will 111 Examples and a Third Version of the Argument 111 A Criticism of the Argument 112 Testability, Again 112 Another Kind ofArgument—The Evidential Argumentfrom Evil 112 107
xiv Contents Review Questions 113 Problems for Further Thought 114 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 114 PART III Theory of Knowledge 115 12 What Is Knowledge? 117 Chapter Outline 117 Epistemology 117 Three Kinds of Knowledge 118 Two Requirements for Knowledge: Belief and Truth 120 Plato: True Belief Isn’t Sufficient for Knowledge 120 Justification 121 The JTB Theory 121 Three Counterexamples to the JTB Tlteory 122 What the Counterexamples Have in Common 123 An Argument for Skepticism 123 Review Questions 124 Problems for Further Thought 125 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 125 13 Descartes’ Foundationalism Chapter Outline 126 Foundationalism 126 Euclid’s Parallel Postulate 127 Descartes’Method of Doubt 128 Tire Method Applied to a Posteriori Beliefs 128 Dubitability Is a Logical, Not a Psychological, Property 129 The Method Applied to Beliefs Based on Rational Calculation 129 I Am Thinking, Therefore I Exist 129 Thesis of the Incorrigibility of the Mental 131 Do First-Person Psychological Beliefs Provide a Sufficient Foundation? 131 An Additional Foundational Belief: God Exists and Is No Deceiver 132 How to Prove that. God Exists 133 The Clarity and Distinctness Criterion 134 The Cartesian Circle 135 Conclusion 135 Review Questions 136 Problems for Further Thought 137 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 137 126
Contents 14 The Reliability Theory of Knowledge XV 138 Chapter Outline 138 Descartes: Knowledge Is Internally Certifiable 138 What Makes a Thermometer Reliable? 139 Relevance to the Problem of Knowledge 140 Three Concepts of Impossibility 141 To Have Knowledge, You Don’t Have to Be Able to Construct a Philosophical Argument Refuting the Skeptic 142 A Consequence of the Reliability Theory 144 Thesis of the Relativity of Knowledge 145 What Does the Relativity Thesis Say about Skepticism? 145 Review Questions 146 Problems for Further Thought 147 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 47 15 Justified Belief and Hume’s Problem of Induction 148 Chapter Outline 148 Knowledge versus Justified Belief 148 Skepticism about Justified Belief 149 Hume’s Skeptical Thesis about Induction 149 Hume’s Argument that Induction Can’t Be Rationally Justified 150 Why Can’t PUN Be Justified? 151 Summary of Hume’s Argument 152 Review Questions 152 Problems for Further Thought 152 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 153 16 Can Hume’s Skepticism Be Refuted? 154 Chapter Outline 154 What, Exactly, Does the Principle of the Uniformity of Nature Say? 154 A New Concept: Degrees of Reliability 155 What Is a Rule of Inference? 156 Does the Past Reliability of Induction Provide an Answer? 156 Hume’s Argument Reformulated 157 Strawson: It Is Analytic that Induction Is Rational 157 Black: Induction Can Be Inductively Justified 158 Review Questions 159 Problems for Further Thought 159 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 160 17 Beyond Foundationalism Chapter Outline 161 Hume’s Problem and Descartes’ Problem
161 161
xvi Contents Whether'K Is Evidence for Y Depends on Background Assumptions Z 163 Another Relativity Thesis 164 Foundationalism Leads to Skepticism 164 A Nonfoundationalist Approach to Justification 164 Standards ofJustification Often Depend on the Audience 165 Two Metaphors—Building a Building and Repairing a Raft 165 Review Questions 166 A Problem for Further Thought 166 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 166 18 Locke on the Existence of External Objects 167 Chapter Outline 167 Locke’s First Argument—“Those That Want the Organs of Any Sense” 168 Locke’s Second Argument—“Ideas Which Force Themselves upon Me” 169 Locke’s Third Argument— “Pleasure or Pain” 169 Locke’s Fourth Argument—“Our Senses Assist One Another’s Testimony” 170 Review Questions 171 A Problem for Further Thought 171 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 171 PART IV Philosophy of Mind I 73 19 Dualism and the Mind/Body Problem 175 Chapter Outline 175 What Is the Mind/Body Problem? 176 Descartes’Dualism 176 The Mind/Brain Identity Theory 176 Immortality of the Soul 177 Leibniz’s Law 177 Descartes’ First Argument for Dualism—The Indubitable Existence Argument 178 An Analogy 178 Propositional Attitudes and Aboutness 179 Descartes’ Second Argument for Dualism—The Divisibility Argument 181 Causality between the Physical and the Nonphysical 182 Review Questions 183 Problems for Further Thought 183 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 184 20 Logical Behaviorism Chapter Outline 185 The Attack on "the Ghost in the Machine” 186 Logical Behaviorism Says Mentalism Is False Because It Leads to Skepticism 186 ţgg
Contents xvü Do We Know about the Mental States of Others by Analogy with Our Own Case? 187 Abduction 187 Logical Behaviorism’s Positive Thesis—Its Analysis of Mentalistic Vocabulary 188 The Dispositional Analysis of Desire Is Incomplete 189 A Dispositional Analysis Does Not Refute Mentalism 189 Review Questions 190 Problems for Further Thought 191 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 191 21 Methodological Behaviorism 192 Chapter Outline 192 The Negative Thesis: Psychology Should Avoid Belief/Desire Explanations 193 Methodological Behaviorism’s Positive Thesis 194 First Objection to Behaviorism’s Positive Thesis: Novel Behaviors 195 Second Objection to Behaviorism’s Positive Thesis: It Assumes that Environmental Determinism Is True 197 The Two Objections Summarized 198 Review Questions 198 Problems for Further Thought 199 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 199 22 The Mind/Brain Identity Theory 200 Chapter Outline 200 The Identity Theory Is an A Posteriori Claim 200 Materialism 201 Progress in Science 201 Dualism Resembles Vitalism 202 A Correlation Experiment 202 The Principle of Parsimony 203 Review Questions 205 Problems for Further Thought 205 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 205 23 Functionalism Chapter Outline 206 Functionalism’s Negative Thesis: Wlrat’s Wrong with the Identity Theory? 206 Multiple Realizability 207 Could a Computer Have Psychological Characteristics? 208 Multiple Realizability within the Class of Living Things 208 Functionalism’s Positive Thesis 209 Sensations 210 Summary 211 Review Questions 212 206
xviii Contents Problems for Further Thought 212 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 212 24 Freedom, Determinism, and Causality 213 Chapter Outline 213 ТІге Problem of Freedom 214 Examples of Unfree Acts 215 Are All Behaviors Like Those Produced by Brainwashing and Compulsions? 216 A Clash of Plausible Conceptions 216 What Is Causality? 216 Determinism 217 Indeterminism 217 Does Indeterminism Make Us Free? 219 Causality Is the Issue, Not Determinism 220 What Does Determinism Say about the Causation of Behavior? 220 Determinism Differs from Fatalism 220 Review Questions 221 A Problem for Further Thought 222 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 222 25 A Menu of Positions on Free Will 223 Chapter Outline 223 “Compatibility” Defined 223 Incompatibilism and Compatibilism 224 Libertarianism 225 Two Soft Determinist Theories 227 Hume 227 First Objection to Hume’s Theory: Compulsive Behavior 227 Second Objection to Hume’s Theory: Locke’s Locked Room 228 Does Coercion Rob Us of Free Will? 229 A Second Compatibilist Proposal: The Relevance of Second-Order Desires 229 Review Questions 230 Problems for Further Thought 231 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 231 26 Compatibilism Chapter Outline 232 The Weather Vane Analogy 232 Function and Malfunction 233 What Does It Mean to Ascribe a Function to Something? 234 The Function of the Desire-Generating Device 234 Reply to the Distant Causation Argument 235 Wltat Does Responsibility Mean? 236 Moral Responsibility 236 232
Contents xix Reply to the Could-Not-Have-Done-Otherwise Argument 237 Are Coerced Actions Unfree? 238 An Objection to the Weather Vane Theory: Freely Chosen, Rational Self-Sacrifice 239 Review Questions 240 Problems for Further Thought 240 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 240 27 Psychological Egoism 241 Chapter Outline 24Í Two Truisms 242 Goals and Side Effects of an Act 242 A Simple Example 243 Four Preference Structures 243 People Are Rarely Pure Altruists or Pure Egoists 245 An Experimental Test 246 A Second Experimental Test 248 Conclusion 248 Review Questions 248 Problems for Further Thought 249 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 249 PART V Ethics 251 28 Ethics—Normative and Meta 253 Chapter Outline 253 Ethics and Religion 253 Metaethics and Normative Ethics 254 Truth and Opinion 254 Alternative Metaethical Positions 254 Subjectivism 255 Realism 255 Conventionalism 255 Three Varieties of Conventionalism 256 Review Questions 257 A Problem for Further Thought 257 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 257 29 The Is/Ought Gap and the Naturalistic Fallacy Chapter Outline 258 Subjectivism: Ethical Statements Are neither True nor False 258 Does the Existence of Ethical Disagreement Show that Subjectivism Is True? 259 258
xx Contents The Genetic Fallacy 260 Hume: The Is/Ought Gap 260 (S.J: An Argument for Subjectivism with Hume’s Thesis as a Premise 261 The Naturalistic Fallacy 262 (Տշ): An Argument for Subjectivism with Moore’s Thesis as a Premise 263 Summary 264 Review Questions 264 Problems for Further Thought 265 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 265 30 Observation and Explanation in Ethics Chapter Outline 266 Reasoning about Ethical Issues 266 Testing General Principles by Applying Them to Specific Examples 261 Thought Experiments versus Empirical Experiments 268 Observations Are “Theory Laden” 268 Observation Does Not Imply Objectivity 269 Insoluble Disagreements 269 Is Subjectivism Preferable to Realism on Grounds of Parsimony? 271 Does Subjectivism Follow? 212 An Explanatory Role for Ethical Principles 213 What Is the Point of Ethics? 213 Review Questions 213 Problems for Further Thought 274 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 274 31 Conventionalist Theories Chapter Outline 275 Wliat Makes a View Conventionalist? 275 Trivial Semantic Conventionalism 216 Substantive versus Trivial Conventionalism 216 Plato’s Critique of the Divine Command Theory 211 Two Objections to the Divine Command Theory 278 Ethical Relativism 219 Ethical Relativism Is Normative, Not Descriptive 219 A Further Clarification of Ethical Relativism 219 Ethical Relativism Is a Version of Conventionalism 280 If Imperialism Is Wrong, Does That fustify Ethical Relativism? 280 Sartre’s Existentialism 282 Review Questions 283 Problems for Further Thought 283 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 284
Contents 32 Utilitarianism xxi 285 Chapter Outline 285 Mill’s Defense of the Greatest Happiness Principle 286 Reciprocal Illumination 287 What Is Happiness? 288 The Problem of the Experience Machine 288 Mill on “Higher” and “Lower” Pleasures 289 Objection to Hedonistic Utilitarianism 290 Preference Utilitarianism 290 The Apples and Oranges Problem 290 Utilitarianism and Justice: The Case of the Lonesome Stranger 291 Punishment 292 A Reply: Distinguish Rule and Act Utilitarianism 292 Utilitarianism and Tolerance: The Problem of the Fanatical Majority 293 Utilitarianism and Personal Integrity: The Problem of Dirty Hands 296 Utilitarianism and Personal Loyalties 297 A Psychological Objection to My Criticisms of Utilitarianism 297 Summary 297 Review Questions 298 Problems for Further Thought 298 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 299 33 Kant’s Moral Theory 300 Chapter Outline 300 Hume on Reason’s Role 301 Kant Rejects the Idea that Reason Is Purely Instrumental 301 Kant: Moral Rules Are Categorical Imperatives 301 The Moral Law 301 Kant: The Moral Value of an Act Derives from Its Maxim, Not from Its Consequences 302 Kant Rejected Consequentialism 3 03 The Universalizability Criterion 303 Four Examples 303 Evaluation of Kant’s Examples 304 A Problem for the Universalizability Criterion 305 Kant: People Are Ends in Themselves 307 The Rabbit and the Hat 307 Review Questions 308 Problems for Further Thought 308 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 309 34 Aristotle on the Good Life Chapter Outline 310 How Far Do Obligations Extend? 310 310
xxii Contents The Theory of the Right and the Theory of the Good 311 Are There General Principles about the Good Life? 311 Wlmt Is a Good X? 311 Human Beings Are Goal-Directed Systems 312 The Capacity to Reason 313 Aristotle: Happiness Is Not a Subjective State 314 Why the Life of Rational Activity Is Best: Two More Reasons 314 The Doctrine of the Mean 315 A Second Criticism of Aristotle’s Theory—Defining What a Good X Is Differs from Saying What Is Goodfor anX 315 A Third Criticism—Why Single Out Contemplation as the Best Life? 317 Review Questions 318 Problems for Further Thought 318 Recommended Readings, Video, and Audio 319 Glossary Index 320 32g
Writing in an engaging lecture-style format, Elliott Sober shows students how philosophy is best used to evaluate many different kinds of arguments and to construct sound theories. Well-known historical texts are discussed, not as a means to honor the dead or merely to discuss what various philosophers have thought, but to engage with, criticize, and even improve ideas from the past. In addition — because philosophy cannot function apart from its engagement with the wider society—traditional and contemporary philosophical problems are brought into dialogue with the physical, biological, and social sciences. Text boxes highlight key concepts, and review questions, discussion questions, and a glossary of terms are also included. Core Questions in Philosophy has served as a premier introductory textbook for more than two decades, with updates to each new edition. New improvements to this seventh edition include a lower price and a new Routledge companion website that includes: • • Updated supplementary readings, with the inclusion of more work from female philosophers New videos and podcasts, organized by their relevance to each chapter in the book. Visit the companion website at: www.routledge.com/cw/sober. Elliott Sober is Hans Reichenbach Professor and William F. Vilas Research Professor in the Philosophy Department at the University of Wisconsin—Madison, USA. His most recent book is The Design Argument (201 8). |
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| spelling | Sober, Elliott 1948- Verfasser (DE-588)171116666 aut Core questions in philosophy Elliott Sober Seventh edition New York ; London Routledge 2020 xxv, 331 Seiten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Includes bibliographical references and index Philosophie Philosophy Introductions Philosophie (DE-588)4045791-6 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4151278-9 Einführung gnd-content Philosophie (DE-588)4045791-6 s DE-604 Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe 978-1-351-04340-3 Digitalisierung UB Regensburg - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032068672&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung UB Regensburg - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=032068672&sequence=000003&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Klappentext |
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