Quest for status: Chinese and Russian foreign policy
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
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New Haven ; London
Yale University Press
[2019]
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| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Register // Gemischte Register |
| Beschreibung: | xiv, 333 Seiten |
| ISBN: | 9780300236040 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xiii
i. Status and Identity i
2.. Imperial Identities: Glory and Humiliation 2Z
3. The Communist Contest for Status 82.
4. The Social Creativity of Deng and Gorbachev 134
5. Status and Identity after the Cold War 177
6. Recognition and Cooperation 2.3Z
Notes 2.53
Index 317
Index
Abkhazia, 201, 2.03
Adzhubei, Aleksei, 108
Aehrenthal, Alois von, 70
Afghanistan: Russian assistance to US in,
2,18, 2,49; Soviet invasion (1979), 12,9-31,
133, 144, 153, M7; Soviet relations with,
86, 105, Z45; Soviet withdrawal from,
146, 151,157, 161; US war in, xo, 196,
2.31, 2.49
Akhromeyev, Sergey, 167
Alekseev, Evgeny, 69
Alekseyev, Alexander, 1x9
Alexander I (Russian tsar), 48-49, 61, 79,
2,47
Alexander II (Russian tsar), 51, 61—64
Alexander III (Russian tsar), 64
Amin, Hafizullah, 1Z9
Andropov, Yuri, 12,7, 12.9, 146
anger and hostility: as disproportionate re-
sponse to humiliation or disrespect, 5,15,
107; Khrushchev’s reactions, 108-9, no,
1x9, Z47; Mao’s relationship with Khru-
shchev, 113-16; Obama’s actions causing
Chinese reactions, 2.06-7; post-Cold War
status of Russians and, 180, 202; Russia’s
anger mismanagement in post—Cold War
world, 216-22; social creativity efforts
not acknowledged, resulting in, 13,
202; symbolic issues arousing Chinese
overreaction, 2.08—9; Tiananmen Square
demonstrations (1989), Deng’s reaction
to, 163. See also humiliation
Angola, 1Z7—2.8, 130, 144, 157 2-34
Antiballistic Missile treaty, US withdrawal
from, 199
APEC. See Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation
Arbatov, Alexei, 147
Arbatov, Georgy, 130, 146
Aron, Leon, 158
ASEAN. See Association of Southeast Asian
Nations
Asian Development Bank, zxz
Asian financial crisis (1997), 190-91, Z49
Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
(AIIB), ziz-13
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC),
177, 190; summit meeting (zooi), 197;
summit meeting {Z014), Z13
al-Assad, Bashar, zzo, zzz, zz8
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN): ASEAN Plus Three, 190-91;
Declaration on the Conduct of Parties
in the South China Sea, 190; Regional
Forum meeting (1996), 190; Regional
Forum meeting (zoio), Z07, zxo; South
China Sea claims and, i8z
Augustus II (king of Poland), 34
317
318 índex
Augustus III (king of Poland), 40
Austria: in Balkans and annexation of Bos-
nia and Herzegovina, 70-72; Catherine
the Great and, 41, 44, 79; Peter the Great
and, 33, 37; Russian relations with, 38,
2.42,; Soviets signing Austrian State Treaty
(May 15, i955)5 1045 130
Baker, James, 170
Bakunin, Mikhail, 72.
Balkans and Balkan Wars, 10, 43, 63-64,
67, 70-72., 93, 185, 242
Bandung Discourse, 101-3, 155
Bark, Peter, 72
Basic Principles Agreement (BPA, 1972.),
12.6-2.7, 2.38
Bathory, Stephen (Polish king), 2.8, 29
Batu (Mongol leader), 26
Bay of Chesme battle (1771), 41
Bay of Pigs invasion (1961), 119
Beccaria, Marquis di, 22
“Beijing Consensus,” 194
Belgrade, US accidental bombing of Chinese
embassy in (1999), 5, 196
Biden, Joe, 224
Big Three, 9^-93, 95 98, 2.385 *4*
bilateral negotiations. See great power
status; status hierarchy
Bo Yibo, 113, 162
Bogomolov, Oleg, 147
Bolsheviks, 72-74, 77, 82-84, 85-86, 89,
1315 2-375 M7
Bosnia and Herzegovina, 63—64, 70—71,
183, 184, 187
Bosnian crisis (1908—9), 70-71, 243
Bovin, Alexander; 147
Boxer Protocol (1901), 67
Boxer rebellion (1900), 67, 69, 164
BPA. See Basic Principles Agreement
Brazil, 4, 5, 12, 205, 207, 239
Brezhnev, Leonid: on Chinese as lacking
civility, 1x7; competition with the West,
237; détente policy, 125-30, 132, 174,
234, 247; insecurity about international
status, 238, 243; PRC-US relationship
and, 123; Tashkent speech on Chinese
relations (March 1982), 161; Third
World interventions and focus on mili-
tary power, 10, 133, 136, 234
BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South
Africa), 205, 212, 239
Britain: Chinese relations with, 17, 25,
44“475 52-53; Crimean War and, 51-53;
Great Game (competition between Russia
and Britain), 242; Peter the Great’s title,
recognition of, 37; post-World War II
decline in status of, 92; Soviet relations
with, 85, 86—88; World War I and, 9—10
Brutents, Karen, 130
Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 151, 175, 205
Buddhism, 12, 30, 31
Bulganin, Nikolai, 104
Biilow, Bernhard von, 8
Burma, 46, 102, 105, 138, 245
Bush, George H. W., 15 3, 167
Bush, George W.: Chinese relations with,
192, X96-97, 209; Georgia and, 203;
India’s nuclear status, acceptance of, 12;
Putin’s Russia and, 198-200, 217, 226,
239, 245, 249; Taiwan and, 193, 207
Byrnes, James, 95, 96
Cambodia, 46, 102, 152, 153, 157, 161
Carter; Jimmy, 129, 150-51, 155
Catherine the Great (Catherine II, Russian
empress), 38-44; Polish partition and,
40-41, 80; pursuit of great power status,
79, 235; Russia as European power and,
22, 24-25, 44, 49, 246-47; Turkish wars
and, 41-43
CCP. See Chinese Communist Party
Ceausescu, Nicolae, 164, 165
Central Asia: Qianlong’s control over, 3 2;
Russia’s expansion into, 61-62, 64, 80,
213, 234; Soviet control of, 86; War on
Terror and, 198-99
Central Europe, 6, 13, 183-84
Chaadaev, Peter, 49-50, 74
Chamberlain, Neville, 91
Charap, Samuel, 184
Charles XII (Swedish king), 35-36
Chechnya, 186, 187, 198
Chen Duxiu, 74-75* 77
Chen Shui-bian, 193
Chen Yi, 113, 1x5
Chen Yun, 113
Cheney, Dick, 201
Chernyaev, Anatoly, r47, 158, 160, 167
Chernyaev, M. G., 62
Chernyshevsky, Nikolai, 78
Chervonenko, Stepan, ri6
Chiang Kai-shek, 88, 97-99, 151, 2.37
Index 319
Chicherin, Georgy, 87, 136
China (pre—communist revolution): British
relations with, 17, 2.5, 44-47, 52.-53;
“Chinese Enlightenment” project, 74;
Chinese revolution to overthrow Qing
dynasty (1911), 74; compared to Russia,
65, 75, 76, 78, 81; different identities in
ceremony and practice, 57; distinctive
identity maintained, 30, 58, 80, 2.39,
2.42,; great power status as driving force
for Qing dynasty, 33, 2.34; identity crisis
after defeats by barbarian powers, 2,0, 2,3,
52.—61, 2.42.; internal rebellions (1850—
73), 55; Japanese defeating, effect of,
26, 60-61; May Fourth movement, 74,
76, 79, 139; most-favored-nation clause
granted to Britain, 53; New Culture
movement, 74—75, 241; “pure discussion”
group in late 1800s, 59; Purist Party
(Qingliu Dang), 59; self-strengthening
strategy in late x8oos, 52, 56, 57-60, 79,
142, 239, 245; self-sufficiency of Imperial
China, 22—23; Sinocentric world order,
45? 59i 66; territorial expansion of (pre-
1800) Qing dynasty, 235; Tongzhi reign
and reforms, 54—55, 57, 59; traditional
world order of, 18; in Treaty of Versailles
(1919), reaction to disregard China’s
territorial integrity, 76, 79-80, 241; treaty
port system, 53, 54, 57; US extrater-
ritoriality, 5 3. See also Middle Kingdom
worldview (China); Ming China; Opium
Wars; Qing dynasty
China, People’s Republic of (PRC): “Belt
and Road Initiative,” 2x3; Confucianism’s
reinterpretation, 11, 124, 195, 239; dis-
sidents released by, 192; fairness as goal
for; 1, 220; Five Year Plan (1953—57),
in; Indian border fighting with, 12,
1x5; methodology and case selection
of, 14—16; modern market economy
and swift rise in, 191, 204-11; national
rejuvenation of, 1, 56, 232; New Security
Concept, 189—90, 193; “one China”
principle and, 123, 154, 174, 193, 196;
political-diplomatic equality with West
and Soviets as goal, 82; post—Tiananmen
Square challenges, 180-82, 196, 23o;
pursuit of great power status, 1—2, 103,
131, 138, 189-95, 2-055 2.09, 211, 213-
14, 232-33, 236; response to collapse of
communism, 21; “Silk Road” initiative,
213; Sino-Soviet alliance, benefits of, 117,
146; social competition strategy, use of,
21, 132-33, 180, 212, 242-43; social
creativity strategy, use of, 21, 134, 137,
165, 174, 200-204, 245-46, 247; social-
ism with Chinese characteristics, 142,
239; special economic zones, creation
of, 139—40, 172; Strategic Economic
Dialogue with the US, 197; strategic tri-
angle formed with US and USSR, 20, 85,
120-25, 132, 153; technological advances
in, 213—14; territorial expansion and,
23 7; US nonrecognition policy dur-
ing 19 50s and 1960s, 241; US opening
relations with, 12, 121-24, 138, 150-51,
238; US trade with, 155; USSR relation-
ship, inequality in, 20, 97—101, 132. See
also post—Cold War status and identity;
specific leaders
Chinese Communist Party (CCP): 8th
National Congress, 112; 12th Party
Congress, 153; 14th Party Congress, 181;
17th Party Congress, 194; Comintern
helping to form, 88, 97; constitution of,
97; first leaders of, 78; international sta-
tus, quest to improve, 82; Soviet disregard
for, in dealings with Chiang Kai-shek, 98.
See also China, People’s Republic of
Chinese Eastern Railway, 68-69, 100, 237
Chinese Nationalist Party (Guomindang),
84,88,97,98-99
Christian V (Danish king), 34
Churchill, Winston, 4, 93, 97, 238—39, 241;
“Iron Curtain” speech (1946), 159
Cixi (Chinese empress dowager), 55, 59-60,
65-67
climate change, 206—7, Z14
Clinton, Bill, 180—81, 182, 183, 185-86,
192, 196, 206
Clinton, Hillary, 205, 207, 210, 220
Cold War: ideology as powerful tool in, 17;
military competition and, 4, 125; Soviet
collapse and, 21, 137, 143, 165-70;
status markers during, 235-36. See also
communist contest for status
collectivism, 11, 19, 179, 245
colonies, great power status related to, 8
Colton, Timothy, 184
communist contest for status, 82-133;
Bandung Discourse, 101-3, 155, 245;
320 Index
communist contest for status {continued)
Bolshevik regime and Soviets in 1920s,
84, 85-90; Cuban Missile Crisis as chal-
lenge to the US, 118—20; detente period,
85, 125-31, 234, 247; great power status,
importance of, 82-83, 2-3 5-36; Sino-
Soviet relationship, inequality in, 20,
97-101, 132; Sino-Soviet split in competi-
tion for primacy, 82-83, 97, ixo-18,
161, 172, 243; Stalin’s expansionism vs.
US containment policy, 84, 92-96, 237;
strategic triangle formed by PRC with
US and USSR, 20, 85, 120—25, 132, 153,
248; US-USSR coexistence policies and,
84-85, 103-6; World War II and Stalin’s
great power status, 84, 90—92
Communist Tarty of the Soviet Union
(CPSU): nth Party Congress, 138, 139;
12th Party Congress, 153; 19th Party
Congress, 169; 20th Party Congress, 105;
27th Party Congress, 156; 1961 Program,
109; 1963 meeting of Central Committee
Presidium, 1x3; International Department
of the Central Committee, 147
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, 190
Concert of Europe (1815), 4, 47—48, 61, 79,
199, 238, 247
Confucianism: Legalist school and, 53;
Manchus/Qings and, 30, 239; New Cul-
ture movement and, 75; self-strengthen-
ing movement and, 57, 59, 66; taxes and,
4 5. See also China, People’s Republic of
Congress of Berlin {1878), 48, 64, 71
Congress of Vienna (1814—15), 4 8
constructivism: Chinese and Russian
changes in behavior due to domestic
discourse and, 136; Chinese and Russian
elites not socialized, 81; Chinese-British
dispute over ceremonies and titles and,
45-47; Deng’s reforms and, 155; as
explanation for foreign policy changes,
16, 132, 239; Gorbachev’s New Thinking
and, 143, 149, 175; identities of China
and Russia defined in relation to Western
“other,” 24, 132; Mao’s ideological
creativity and, 124; Marxism-Leninism
in relation to capitalist countries and,
84; post—Cold War status and, 179,
230; Putin’s role in Ukraine crisis and,
227; social identity theory compared to,
18-19, 132
Cossacks, 27, 31, 41, 227
CPSU. See Communist Party of the Soviet
Union
Crimea: Catherine the Great taking control
of, 41, 42-43, 80, 235; droit de regard,
Russian exercise of, 21; Putin’s annexa-
tion of, 222, 225-30, 231, 241, 243-44
Crimean War (1856), 51—52, 64-65, 80;
economic consequences of, 8x; Russian
loss of status after defeat in, 20, 25,
51-52, 61, 243, 247
Cuba, 116, 119-20, 127, 130, 157, 199
Cuban Missile Crisis, 116, 118-20, 133,
243,247
Cultural Revolution (China), 117, 120, 140,
141,247-48
Dalai Lama, 31, 115, 207, 209
Daniil (prince of Moscow), 26
Dashichev, Vyacheslav, 147
de Gaulle, Charles, 12, 122
Decembrists uprising (1825), 49
decolonization of Third World, 106. See
also Third World
deference, 3, 15, 233, 246
Deng Xiaoping, 20-21, X34-42; com-
pared to Gorbachev, 136-37, 142, 155,
157-58, 160, 169; compared to Mao,
140, 141, 238; domestic reform policies
of modernization, 137—42; economic
foundation for China’s great power role,
I, 21, 135, 168, 181, 238, 248; on great
power status of China, 103, 136, 150,
153-54, 177? z38; learning from the West
and other advanced economies, 140-41;
legacy of, 176; “New Long March” and,
139; “one country, two systems” policy
for proposed reunification with Hong
Kong and Taiwan, 154, 174; opening up
to outside world {kaifang) and, 139—40,
242; pragmatic diplomacy of, 150-55,
159, 171, 179; on Sino-Soviet split, 82;
social creativity strategy of, 134, 137;
“Three Worlds” concept (1974) and, 124;
Tiananmen Square demonstrations and,
161— 64; as Time magazine “Man of the
Year” (1978), 151; visit to US (1979),
151-52
Dewey, John, 75, 77
Diderot, Denis: Encyclopédie, 39-40
Dimitrov, Georgy, 92, 94
diplomatic recognition. See great power
status; status hierarchy
Index 321
Dobrynin, Anatoly, 119, 12.6, 12.7, 129-30
Dulles, John Foster, 102, 12,3, 2.38
Duterte, Rodrigo, 2.15
Eagleburger, Lawrence, 164
East Asia, 8, 2.09, 210; Chinese bid for
leadership in, 213, 215, 234; system of
tribute to China, 46, 57, 60, 81. See also
specific countries
East China Sea, 182., 2.07-8, Z14, 2.31; Air
Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ) in,
zxi
Eastern Europe: color revolutions in (Z004),
zoi; EU’s Eastern Partnership (EaP)
Program, zzz—Z3; Gorbachev’s policies
toward, 14Z—43, 160, 165—66, J75, 245;
post-Cold War, 6-7; Stalin and, Z37;
velvet revolutions in (1989), 164; World
War II and, 92-96. See also specific
countries
Eden, Anthony, 105
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 104, 107-9, 23 8
Elgin, Lord, 54-5 5
elite club(s): Big Three status, 92-93, 95,
98, 238, 241; China’s creation of new
clubs, 190, 205, 239; Eurasian Economic
Union intended to be, 223; exclusion of
communist regimes by capitalist states,
79-80, 82-83, 87, 90-91, 229, 240, 241;
Gorbachev’s New Thinking not interested
in, 149; imitation of members of, 6, 7,
14; Peter the Great and, 79; post-Cold
War status and, 179, 185-86; Russia after
collapse of USSR and, 182—83; Russian
membership in Concert of Europe and
Holy Alliance, 49, 79, 238, 247; Shanghai
Five, 190; social competition to penetrate,
19, 242; Soviet desire for recognition in,
86—87, 90; status markers attached to,
236, 238-39; World Trade Organization,
191, 194, 22i. See also G7; G8; G20;
NATO; social mobility
England. See Britain
Enlightenment, 39, 246
Ethiopia, 128-30, 144, 157, 234
Eurasian Customs Union, 223
Eurasian Economic Union (EEU), 223-24
European Social Democrats, as influence on
Gorbachev, 149
European Union (EU): Eastern European
and Central European states seeking
membership in, 7, 244; Eastern Partner-
ship (EaP) Program, 223; Putin’s Russia
and, 201, 222-24; Ukraine and, 223-24,
226, 227, 244; US relations with, 13;
Vilnius summit (November 20x3), 224;
“Weimar Triangle” in, 7
Falun Gong, 209
Feng Guifen, 55-56, 57-58
Five Powers, 102
Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, xoz,
103, 155, 174, 189-90, 245, 247
Foreign Affairs Work Conference (FAWC,
China)y 177
“Four Policemen,” 93, 241
France: allying with Russia and Germany
against Japanese interests (1890s), 68;
Catherine the Great, 38; Crimean War
and, 51-52; de Gaulle’s grandeur policy,
12; Li Dazhao’s analysis of French
revolution, 77; post—World War II status
as great power, 92; recognition of Peter
the Great’s title, 37; refusal to recognize
Bolshevik regime, 85; relations with So-
viet regime, 87-88; Vietnam war against
Chinese, 59, 234
Frederick II (Frederick the Great, Prussian
king), 22, 40, 41, 240
Free Trade Area of the Asia Pacific (FTAAP),
213
free trade ideology and agreements, 53, 191,
218
Freedman, Lawrence, 187
Fursenko, Aleksandr, 104
G2 (Group of Two), 205
G7 (Group of Seven), 4, 15, 183, 185, 192,
200, 239, 241
G8 (Group of Eight), 4, 186, 199, 200, 220,
226
G20 (Group of Twenty), 15, 177, 205
al-Gaddafi, Muammar, 220
Gagarin, Yuri, 109
Gaidan (Zunghar Mongol leader), 31-32
Gandhi, Indira, 122
Gaulle, Charles de, 12, 122
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT), 6, 183
Geneva Conference on Indochina and Ko-
rea (April-July 1954), 101-2, 104, 238
Geneva Summit (USSR and Western powers,
July 1955), 104-5, 2-38
Genoa Conference (April—May 1922), 87
322 Index
George III (British king), 2.2.-2,3
Georgia, 86, 201, 203-4, 218, 223, 227, 230
Germany: in Balkans, 70—72; Berlin dis-
putes between US and USSR, 118—15;
late nineteenth-century rise and change
of status, 8, 9, 68; Lenin’s regime, rela-
tions with, 87; post-World War II West
Germany, 7; reunification, 143, 167;
Russian alienation of, by Ukraine crisis,
231; Security Council membership status
sought by, 5
Gilpatric, Roswell, 1x8
global financial crisis (2008), 21, 180, 204,
231, 249
globalization, effect of, 194, 2.04, 230
Golovkin, Gavriil, 36
Gong, Prince (China), 55-57, 59
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 20-21; arms control
negotiations with Reagan (1986-87),
156-57; failure to tap into Asian-Pacific
economic dynamism, 158, 169, 170—74;
foreign policy options rejected by, 145—
47; German reunification and, 167-68;
lack of economic pragmatism and real-
politik, 158; legacy of, 175-76; Leninist
overtones in New Thinking of, 149, 175;
New Thinking and, 12, 21, 131, 133,
136-37, 142—50, 156, 158-60, 165-66,
170, J72.-75, 2*42, 245; Perestroika:
New Thinking for Our Country and the
World, 171, 173; perestroika s economic
effects, 159, 165-66, 168-69, *731
on post—Cold War treatment of Russia
by the West, 185; Reagan and, 131; self-
image and pride, 158, 160; social creativ-
ity and, 13, 134-37* *45* 148-50* *74*
245, 248; Soviet collapse and, 165—70,
175; universal human values promoted
by, 135* I4i* 143* 165* I74* 2-42-* 2-45*
visit to Beijing (1989), x6i
Gorchakov, Alexander, 61—62, 63, 65, 87,
126, 236
Grachev, Andrei, 149
Graham, Thomas, 219
Grand Alliance. See Big Three
Great Game (competition between Russia
and Britain), 242
Great Leap Forward (China), 78, 111-12,
114-15, 139-40, 172, 237
Great Northern War (Russia vs. Sweden),
24, 36, 80
great power status: Chinese pursuit of, 1-2,
83* 97-98, 101-2, 131, 138, 189-95,
205, 209, 211, 213-14; in contemporary
era, 15—16, 233-39; in early twentieth
century, 15; economic prosperity as
criterion for, 138, 192, 233; in eighteenth
century, 15; Korean War as boost to
China’s national status, 100-101; in
nineteenth century, 8, 15; Nixon’s China
diplomacy and, 121—24; Putin seeking
to restore, 198-200, 216-17, 228—29,
232, 244, 249; Russian pursuit of, 1—2,
187, 233, 244; Soviet pursuit of, 83, 86,
90—91, 94, 107, 125—31, 138, 21 x. See
also military power; moral rectitude and
superiority; nuclear weapons; prestige
and respect
Great Recession. See global financial crisis
Gromyko, Andrei, 125, 129, 146, 166
Guangxu emperor, 59, 65, 67
Guomindang. See Chinese Nationalist
Party
Habsburg Empire, 37, 41, 49
Hagel, Chuck, 211-12
Hague Permanent Court of Arbitration,
215, 232
Han Chinese, 30, 32
Harriman, Averell, 95, 106
hegemonism, 7, 100, 124, 153—55, 166,
180, 198, 249
Herzegovina. See Bosnia and Herzegovina
Herzen, Alexander, 72, 78
Hirohito (Japanese emperor), 8
Hitler, Adolf, 12, 90-92, 233
Ho Chi Minh, 102
Holy Alliance (Russia, Prussia, and Austria),
47-48, 238, 247
Holy Roman Empire, 36-37, 42
Hong Kong, 53, x 16, 154,174
Hong Taiji, 30
Hu Jintao, 193-97, 206, 208-9
Hu Shi, 74, 75
Hu Yaobang, 153, 161, 163
human rights: in China, 163, 181, 191—92,
194, 205; in Russia, 217, 221
humiliation: China’s defeat by Japan (late
1800s), 26, 60—61, 66, 79; Chinese cen-
tury of humiliation, 52-54, 79, 98, 139,
164, 211, 247; Deng’s relations with US
and, 150, 152-53, 164; disproportion-
Index 323
ate response to, 5, 2.43; Khrushchev’s
belligerence caused by, 104-5, 108-9,
no, 113-16, xi8, 119, 2.38, 2.43, 2.47;
Marxist-inspired revolutions in countries
suffering from, 81; as motivation for Chi-
nese to restore China’s greatness, 54, 237;
post—Cold War Russia and, 186; Putin’s
Russia and, 201, 224—25, Z3I Russian
reaction to 1908-9 Bosnian crisis, 71—72.,
2.43; social identity theory and, 230;
social mobility strategy and, 7, 24, 188;
Soviet economic collapse and, 169—70;
Soviet subversion in Western relations
and, 88—89; Tiananmen Square demon-
strations {1989), 161-62, 173; Treaty of
Versailles (1919), reaction to disregard of
China’s territorial integrity in, 76, 79—80;
Yeltsin’s diplomatic initiatives and,
187—88. See also anger and hostility
Humphrey, Hubert, 107
Hundred Days’ Reform (China, 1898), 61,
65-67
Hungary, 49, 8x, 166, 244
Iaroslav the Wise (Kievan Rus), 26
identity: collapse of Soviet Union and,
170, 171; distinctive identity valued, 33,
49“5° 58, 80, 83-84, no, 227, 230,
239, 241, 242; Gorbachev’s New Think-
ing to develop new positive international
identity for Soviet Union, 148—49; great
power status linked to, 83, 230, 233;
Orthodox Christianity as part of Rus-
sian identity, xi, 24, 2.5, 245; Putin and
Russia’s identity, 198, 239, 244; Russian
debate between Slavophiles and Western-
izers, 48, 50, 72, 241, 242,, 245; social
creativity focusing on cultural uniqueness,
136; Stalin’s emphasis on, 90-91. See also
post—Cold War status and identity; social
identity theory
identity management strategies, 5—14,
239—46. See also social competition;
social creativity; social mobility
ideology: definition of, 17; as foreign policy
driver, 16, 23—24, 80—81, 131—32., 236;
post—Cold War status and, 179; social
identity theory compared to, 17—18, 19.
See also Marxism-Leninism
Ignatiev, Nicholas, 64
IMF. See International Monetary Fund
implications of case study for recogni-
tion and cooperation, 232—51; effect on
foreign policy of great power concerns,
2.33—39; effectiveness of status-seeking
strategies, 2.46—51; future roles for China
and Russia, 249-50; identity management
strategies and, 239—46
India: border conflicts with China, 12, 115;
Chinese recognition essential to obtain
status markers by, 246; communist party
in, 138; Khrushchev’s visit to (1955),
105; Nixon’s and Kissinger’s dislike of,
122; nuclear weapons and nonprolifera-
tion regime and, 8—9, 12, 250; Security
Council membership status sought by, 5;
Soviet relations with, 146, 245; US rela-
tions with, 250
India-Pakistan war (1971), 121—22
Indo-Soviet mutual security treaty (1971),
122
instability and illegitimacy of hierarchy. See
social competition; status hierarchy
international conferences and summit
meetings. See great power status; status
hierarchy; specific meetings
International Covenant on Civil and Politi-
cal Rights, 192
International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights, 192
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 5, 6,
141, 183, 205,212
international organizations. See elite clubs;
specific organizations
Iran: Islamic revolution in, 129; nuclear
program, 16, 218, 228; P5 + 1 negotia-
tions, 236; sanctions against, 218, 249;
Six Party Talks, 22.8; Soviet relations
with, 96
Iraq, 10, 129, 186, 187
Iraq war, 200, 231
Ivan III (Ivan the Great, Russian grand
prince), 26—27
Ivan IV (Russian tsar), 24, 25, 27-29, 235
Ivanov, Sergei, 202
Izvolsky, Alexander, 70-71
Jackson-Vanik amendment, 200, 221
Japan: China’s emulating model of export-
led industrialization by, 139, 140—41;
Chinese relations with, 197, 230; com-
pared to China, 58, 59; Deng’s visit to
324 Index
Japan (continued)
(1978), 134; discrimination against, by
Western nations, 7—8; East China Sea
and, 211; economic rise of, 181; Iwakura
mission (1871), 6, 141; Meiji-era reforms,
6, 7-9, 60, 67; post-World War II, 6;
PRC recognized by, 121; Security Council
membership status sought by, 5; Senkaku
(Diaoyu) islands dispute with China,
207-8, 210, 2ii; Soviet relations with,
85,94-96, 146, 158; state-sponsored
capitalism in, 191; Versailles Peace
Conference and, 20; victories over Russia
and China, 25, 67, 234; war with China
over Korea (1894), 60-61, 234. See also
Sino-Japanese War
Jiang Jingguo, 152
Jiang Zemin, 181—82, 189-92, 196-97
Jin dynasty, 30
John III (Swedish king), 29
Joseph II (Holy Roman emperor), 42, 235
Jowitt, Kenneth, 130
Kabakov, Alexander, 169-70
Kang Youwei, 6i, 65—67
Kangxi emperor (Qing dynasty), 31-32,
33 54
Kaufman, Konstantin, 62
Kazakhstan, 190, 2x8, 223
Kennedy, John E, 118-20, 243
Khodorkovsky, Mikhail, 226
Khrushchev, Nikita: competition with the
West, 20, ro6—10, X25, 126, 132—33, 228,
237; Cuban missile crisis and, 118-20,
133, 243, 247; Gorbachev borrowing
“grand idea” from, X58; humiliation
causing belligerence of, 104-5, 108-9,
no, 113-16, 118, 119, 238, 243, 247;
Mao and, xio-u, 113—x6, 133, 243;
peaceful coexistence policies and, 83,
103-6, 245; visit to Afghanistan, Burma,
and India (1955), 105; visit to US (1959),
107-8
Kievan Rus (882-1240), 24, 25-28, 39, 227
Kim Il-sung, zoo
Kissinger, Henry, 82, 117, 121-24, 126-27,
166, 222, 250
Kliuchevsky, V. O., 242
Kohl, Helmet, 167, 168
Korea: armistice agreement (1953), 104;
China s tributary system and, 81; Chinese
war with Japan over (1894), 60—61;
Russia s rights and influence in, 25, 69,
234; Stalin’s interest in, 93; in Treaty of
Portsmouth (1905), 70
Korean War, 100—xox, 104, 237, 247
Kosachyov, Konstantin, 202
Kosovo, 186-87, 243
Kostikov, Vyacheslav, 184
Kozak, Dmitry, 201
Kozyrev, Andrei, 183-85, 187-88
Kurile Islands, 94, 98, 146, 158
Kyrgyzstan, 190, 201, 218, 223
Lake, Anthony, 195-96
Laos, 46, X02, 130, 138
League of Nations, 8, 15, 90-91, 241
Lee Kuan Yew, 175
Lee Teng-hui, 182
Legalist school (China), 53, 60
Lenin, Vladimir, 73, 85, 86-87, x37
Leninism. See Marxism-Leninism
Lévesque, Jacques, 149
Li Dazhao, 76-77, 78
Li Hongzhang, 55-56, 58-60, 68
Li Peng, 161, 162, 182
Li Xiannian, 113
Liang Qichao, 65-66
Liang Shuming, 75
Liaodong Peninsula, 60, 68-69, 70
Libya, 144, 220, 237, 249
Lin Zexu, 5 2
Lithuania, 26, 28, 41, 43-44
Litvinenko, Alexander, 202
Litvinov, Maxim M., 90—91, 136
Liu Shaoqi, 113
Liu Xiaobo, 208
Lloyd George, David, 86, 87
London Foreign Ministers Conference, 238
Lu Xun, 74
Lukin, Vladimir, 187
Lukyanov, Fyodor, 204
Lula da Silva, Luiz Inacio, 4
Ma Ying-jeou, 193-94
Mac Arthur, Douglas, 100, 247
Macartney, Lord, 45, 46-47
Macmillan, Harold, 105, 107, 109
Macmillan, Margaret, 123
Magnitsky, Sergey, 221
Malia, Martin, 144
Malinovsky, Rodion, 119
Index 325
Manchuria, 2,5, 31, 68—69, 93, 98, xoo,
in, 2.34
Manchus, 2.9—30, 32.-33, 2.35, Z36, 2.37. See
also Qing dynasty7
Mao Zedong: challenge to Soviets for com-
munist leadership, 20, 110-18, 172,, Z43;
Confucianism and, n; Cuban Missile
Crisis and, 1x6; Cultural Revolution and,
1x7, izo, 140, 14x, Z47—48; distrust of
West, 139; identity management strategy
and, 103; ideology as powerful tool for,
17, 140, 141, 153; Khrushchev’s relation-
ship with, iio-ii, 113—16, 133, 2.43;
motivation to restore China’s interna-
tional greatness, 78; Nixon’s opening of
US diplomacy with China and, 1Z1-Z4;
rejection of Western democracy by, 76;
Soviet relations with, 97—101, no— n;
“Three Worlds” concept (1974) and, 1Z4
Marshall Plan, 96
Marxism-Leninism: appeal to both China’s
and Russia’s intelligentsia, 76—77; Chi-
nese embrace of, 7Z, 76; constructivism
and, 84; Deng downplaying role of, in
China, 135—36, 141, 154; Gorbachev’s
New Thinking and, 135—36, 146, 149,
175; ideology as powerful tool, 17,
18, Z36—37; illegitimacy and instabil-
ity of social order and, 7, 78, 117, 131,
24Z; Mengistu Haile Mariam and, xz8;
post—Tiananmen Square challenges, 181;
Reagan predicting failure of, 144, 2.47;
refusal to seek respect from imperialist
states, 83; Russian embrace of, 7Z—73;
Sino-Soviet split over correct pursuit of,
8z—83, 97, 110-18, 161, 17Z, Z43; social
competition and, Z4Z
Matvienko, Valentina, zoz
May Fourth movement (China), 74, 76, 139
McCain, John, ZZ4, ZZ7
McNamara, Robert, 119
Medvedev, Dmitry, Z17—zo
Mengistu Haile Mariam, iz8
Merchant, Livingston T., 105
Merkel, Angela, Z07, zx8
methodology and case selection, 14—16
Middle Kingdom worldview (China), 1, 16,
18, zo, Z3, Z4, 45, 47, 80, 81, Z36
Mikoyan, Anastas, 113—14
military power: Chinese and Russian
display to assert superiority, Z44; Chinese
desire to produce Western-style weap-
ons, 56; as condition for great power
status, Z46; détente period with Soviets,
85, 1Z5-31, 151, 2,34, Z47; Gorbachev-
Reagan negotiations (1986-87), 156-57;
Gorbachev’s defense spending, 145, 147,
157; imperial Russia and, 5Z, Z4Z; neore-
alism and, 4; perestroika’s effect on, 159;
Putin’s Russia and, ZZ9; Soviets seeking
parity with US strength, 89-91, 118-zo,
1Z5, 130, 149; US-Russian attempt to
cooperate on missile defense systems
(zoxi), Z19; World War I Germany and,
9—10. See also nuclear weapons; specific
countries
Ming China, Z9—30, 3Z
Moldavia, 41, 49
Moldova, zoi, ZZ3
Molotov, Vyacheslav, 90-9Z, 94-96, 1Z5,
Z38
Mongolia, 30, 31, 161, Z37
Mongols, 2.6-27, 30-32-. 46, 77. 9«, 2-34.
2.36
Montesquieu: Spirit of the Laws, zz
moral rectitude and superiority, 13, IZ4,
136, 145, 148-50, zz4, Z35, Z43
Munich Agreement (September 1938), 91,
z4x
Muscovy, rise of (136Z—1533), Z4, Z5—Z9,
31
Musharraf, Pervez, 196
Muslims, 55, 98, 1Z9
Naftaii, Timothy, 104
Nakasone, Yasuhiro, 158
Napoleon, 47-48, 80, Z47
Napoleon III, 51
Nasser, Gamal Abdel, xx, 105
National Essence movement (China), 75
national identity. See identity
national rejuvenation (China), Z3 2.
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organiza-
tion): Bucharest summit (April zoo8),
Z03, 244; Eastern European and Central
European states seeking membership in,
7, 2.03-4, 2.17, 2-2.65 ZZ7, Z44; enlarge-
ment of, 185-86, 187, Z4 3; German
membership in, 167; Lisbon summit
(November zoio), zx8—19; Partnership
for Peace Program, 184; Putin’s Russia
and, 180, 183—84, zoo, zz5? 2.2.7, 2-2.9,
326 Index
NATO (continued)
2,39, 2.49; Russia-NATO Permanent
Joint Council, 186, 2.18; Serb bombings
in Bosnia (1994), 184, 2,43; Yugoslavia
bombings {1999), 186
Nehru, Jawaharlal, 11-12, 102
neorealism: Chinese facing foreign threats
in late 1800s and, 2.3, 58, 80; Cuban
Missile Crisis and, 120; Deng’s reforms
and, 155, 174; disarmament initiatives
and, 157; distinctive Chinese and Soviet
identities and, 83; expansion of China
and Russia and, 23, 80, 234; as explana-
tion for foreign policy changes, 16, 132;
Gorbachev’s New Thinking and, 143,
160, 174—75; Gorbachev’s refusal to emu-
late Chinese and, 171; Hu Jintao’s China
and, 209; military power as determinant
of status, 4, 229; post-Cold War status
and, 178—79, 229—30; Putin’s takeover of
Crimea and Ukraine crisis and, 227, 244;
security priorities for communist states
and, 83—84, 132; Sino-Soviet alliance and,
101; social identity theory compared to,
17, 19, 13 2; soft power pursued by Deng
and Gorbachev outside purview of, 135
Nevsky, Alexander, 26
New Culture movement (China), 74-75,
241
New International Economic Order agenda,
141
New START Treaty (spring 2010), 218
New Thinking. See Gorbachev, Mikhail
Nicholas I (Russian tsar), 18, 48, 49, 51, 61,
79, 8x, 247
Nicholas II (Russian tsar), 68-70, 71
Nixon, Richard: Brezhnev and, 117,
126—27; China, opening of, 12, 121-24,
138, 238, 250; détente period in USSR
relations, 85, 125—31; origins of strategic
triangle and, 120-24
Nobel Peace Prize, 15, 208, 209
non-aligned movement, 12. See also Ban-
dung Discourse
North Korea, 237; nuclear program, 16,
197; as PRC ally, 120, 208, 214; Six Party
Talks, 23 6, 249; Soviet relations with,
158. See also Korean War
Northern War. See Great Northern War
Nu, U, 102
Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (1967), 9
nuclear weapons: atomic bomb (World
War II), 94; Chinese developing and
stockpiling, 114, 2x5; Chinese signing
arms control treaties, 190; great power
status related to, 8—9, 233, 236; India’s
agreement (2008), 250; inherited from
USSR by Russia, 182; Russian refusal
to supply to China, 114; Soviet nuclear
parity, 127
Nuland, Victoria, 224
Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction
program, 221
Nurhaci (Jurchen leader), 30
Obama, Barack: Asian pivot strategy,
21 o~i 1; Australian Parliament speech
(November 16, 2011), 210; Chinese rela-
tions with, 206-9, 2.12,-13, 2.14; climate
change and, 214; NATO membership
possibility for Ukraine and, 227; Russian
relations with (reset policy), 216-17,
219, 248, 249; State of the Union address
(January 2015), 228; Ukraine crisis and,
227-28
Olympic Games: Sochi (winter 20x4), 4,
222; status associated with hosting, 4,
236; status associated with winning
medals, 15
Opium Wars (1839-42 and 1856-60), 16,
20, 25, 52-54, 81, 211, 234
Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD), 6, 239
originality in foreign policy, 136, 145
Orthodox Christianity (Russia): compared
to Western rationalism, legalism,
and compulsion, 50; dispute with
Catholic Christians over Holy Places
of Palestine (1853—54), 51, 80; Putin’s
support for, 198, 230; religious rights
in Ottoman Empire, 42; Russian
identity and, 11, 24, 25, 245; Ukraine
as birthplace of, 227, 244; Vladimir I’s
conversion to, 25
Osnos, Evan, 203
Ossetia, 201
Ottoman Empire, 20; Catherine the Great
and, 79, 235; Crimean War and, 51-52;
dispute over Holy Places of Palestine
(1853-54), 51; Russian wars with and
expansion at expense of, 20, 25, 33, 34,
41-44» 79» 2.34» 2.42.
Index 327
Pakistan, 12.0, 122, 196, 218
Palme Commission, 149
Panin, Nikita, 39
Panslavism, 18, 24, 63, 80, 236
Paris Climate Change Agreement (Decem-
ber 20x5), 214
Peng Zhen, 1x5, 116
People’s Liberation Army (PLA, China),
152, 182, 190
People’s Republic of China (PRC). See
China, People’s Republic of
perestroika. See Gorbachev, Mikhail
Peter the Great (Peter I, Russian tsar and
emperor), 33—38; Chinese reforms using
Peter’s as model, 67; Grand Embassy to
Europe, 33—34; pursuit of great power
status, 37, 78—79, 235; rationale for wars,
20, 33-34, 38; Swedish wars, 24, 33—36?
80; Turkish wars, 33, 34; Westernization
and,239,241—42
Philippines, 138, 181, 206, 209, 215
Pilsudski, Joseph, 86
Pipes, Richard, xo
Plekhanov, Georgy, 73
Poland: Catherine the Great and, 40—41,
43—44, 79, 80; Congress of Vienna
awarding Poland to Russia, 48; consti-
tution (1791), 43; EU membership, 7;
Ivan IV and, 235; Kievan Rus and, 26;
Muscovy and, 28; nationalism in, 44;
NATO and, 244; partition of (1772),
41; partition of (1793), 43; partition
of (1795), 44; Peter the Great and,
33; Putin’s relations with, 218; Russia
expanding at expense of, 20, 86, 234;
Russian suppression of revolutionary
uprising in (1830-31), 49; US missile
defense system and, 217
Poltava, battle of (1709), 35-36, 41
Poniatowski, Stanislas, 40
Ponomarev, Boris, 129
Port Arthur (Lüshun), 69—70, 98, 100, no,
in
Possevino, Antonio, 28
post—Cold War status and identity,
177—231; China’s responsible power
strategy and “peaceful rise,” 189—95, 2.14?
245—46, 249; China’s swift economic
growth, 204—11; China vs. Russia as
global power, 177—78; crisis for Rus-
sian social creativity, 200—204; illiberal
democracy and oligarchical corporatism
in Russia, 185; post—Tiananmen Square
challenges, 180—82, 196, 230; Putin’s
creative diplomacy, 198-200; Russia’s
anger mismanagement, 216—22; Ukraine
crisis, 222—29; US support for China’s
responsible power identity, 195-97, 2.49;
Xi Jinping and great power diplomacy,
zn-i 6; Yeltsin’s diplomacy, from social
mobility to social competition, 182—88;
Yeltsin’s market Bolshevism, 184—8 5
Potemkin, Gregory, 42
Potsdam Conference (1945), 93, 241
PRC. See China, People’s Republic of
prestige and respect, 3, 15, 233; Catherine
the Great and, 39, 41, 79, 235; China’s
pursuit of, by turning to Marxism-
Leninism, 72, 97—98; Chinese-British
dispute over ceremonies and titles and,
4 5“47; détente period in US-USSR rela-
tions and, 125—31, 234, 247; Gorbachev’s
insistence on importance of, 144, 158,
248; Hu Jintao’s China and, 208—9; inter-
national image created by Khrushchev’s
banging shoe at UN (1961), 109, 228,
247; Khrushchev at international meet-
ings (1955-59), 104-8, 238; Khrushchev-
Kennedy relationship and, 118; Khru-
shchev’s and Eisenhower’s reaction to U-2
spy planes, 108-9; Korean War as boost
to China’s national pride, 100-iûi; Peter
the Great and, 33, 34, 36-37, 79, 2.35;
post—Cold War Russia and, 185; Putin’s
Russia and, 178, 201, 220, 228, 249;
Qing dynasty and, 33; Reagan calling
USSR “evil empire,” 131, 247; Russian
exercise of droit de regard, 21; Soviet
aid to Third World countries and, 106;
Soviet-British relations (1920s), 86-88;
Soviet-Chinese relations and, 115—17,
172; space race and, 84, 106-7, 109, 247;
Stalin’s plans at end of World War II and
treatment by Western allies, 94—95, 238;
Stalin’s purges, effect of, 91; USSR claim-
ing to match US droit de regard, 96. See
also humiliation
pride. See prestige and respect; self-esteem
and pride
Primakov, Evgeny, 147, 185, 186
Prussia, 41-44, 48, 63, 79, 242. See also
Frederick II
328 Index
Przhevalsky, Nikolai, 1x7
Purist Party (Qingliu Dang), 59
Pushkov, Alexey, 201
Putin, Vladimir: anti-American rhetoric of,
2.2.0, z2.6, Z39; authoritarian rule of, zz6;
creative diplomacy of, 198—zoo; Crimea
takeover and, zzz, ZZ5—30, Z41, Z43—44;
desire to restore great status, x, 198—zoo,
zi6—17, zz8—Z9, Z3Z, Z44, Z49; Eurasian
Economic Union and, ZZ3-Z4; as FSB di-
rector, on Yeltsin as NATO puppet, 187;
on lack of respect from the West, 178,
zox, zzo, zz8, Z49; Millennium Message
(1999), 1; Munich address (February
Z007), Z03, ZZ5, Z44; Obama relations
with, z 16-18; “Russia at the Turn of
the Millennium” statement {1999), 198;
Sochi Olympics (Z014) and, 4, zzz; social
creativity and, 17, zi, 198—Z04, zzz,
Z45; Syrian civil war and, zzz, zz8—Z9,
Z3 z; Ukraine crisis (Z014) and, 178,
zzz—Z9, Z30, Z3Z, Z43—44; Valdai Club
meeting (ZO14), zz8; war on terror and,
180, zz6, Z44, Z49
Pyatt, Geoffrey, 224
Qian Qichen, 189—90
Qianlong emperor, zz—z3, Z5, 32.-33,
44-45, 47, Z3 5
Qing dynasty: attitude toward Europe,
zz; Boxer Rebellion and Protocol, 67;
British relations with, 44—47; Chinese
revolution to overthrow (1911), 74, 80,
Z41; clinging to rituals of the past to its
detriment, 79, Z35; great power status
as driving force for, 33^34; humilia-
tion and loss of control, 5Z—54; Reform
Movement (1898), 65-66; territorial
expansion campaigns, Z9—33, 80; Tongzhi
reign and reforms, 54—55; tribute system,
46, 54, 57, 81, Z35; universalist ideology
of, Z36. See also China (pre-communist
revolution)
Quadruple Alliance (Britain, Russia, Aus-
tria, and Prussia), 48
Radchenko, Sergey, 171
Rakovsky, Christian, 88
Rapallo treaty (192Z), 87
Reagan, Ronald, 131, X44, 15Z, 156, Z47
recognition and cooperation, See implica-
tions of case study for recognition and
cooperation
religion. See specific religions
Remnick, David, Z03
Republic of China (ROC). See Taiwan
respect. See prestige and respect
Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 9Z
RIMPAC (Rim of the Pacific) military
exercises, Z3Z
Riurikid princes, Z5, z6, Z9
Romanov dynasty, Z9. See also specific tsars
“Romantic Atlanticism” (Kozyrev’s poli-
cies), 184,188
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 4, 93—94, 97—98,
2-38-39. 2.41
Rozman, Gilbert, 171
Rumiantsev, P. A., 41
Russia (post—USSR): Chinese relations
with, 189; collectivism, spiritualism,
and Orthodox Christianity as valued
traits in, 11; compared to China, Z33,
Z36; corruption in, 187, 2.2.6; Foreign
Policy Concept (zooo), 187-88; Georgia
intervention by (2008), Z04; methodology
and case selection of, 14-16; NATO and,
183—84; opposition to Balkan and Iraq
interventions by US, 10; regional power
status as insult to, zox, zi6, ZZ7—z8,
Z31, Z49; in Shanghai Five, 190; use of
social competition strategy, zi, Z31; use
of social creativity strategy, zi. See also
post-Cold War status and identity; Putin,
Vladimir; Yeltsin, Boris
Russia (pre-USSR): Act of October 17ZI,
36; Balkan wars with Turks, zo, Z5;
Boxer rebellion (1900) role of, 69; dis-
tinctive identity in, 33, 49—50; economic
considerations and significance in foreign
policy decisions, 81; effect of Japanese
defeat, Z5; Great Game (competition
between Russia and Britain), Z4Z; identity
debate between Slavophiles and Western-
izers in, 48, 50, 7Z, Z41, Z42., Z45; Kievan
Rus (88z— 1Z40), Z4, Z5-Z8, 39, ZZ7;
Li Dazhao’s analysis of Russian revolu-
tion, 77; loss of status after Crimean War
defeat, zo, Z5, 51—5z; loss of status due
to backwardness of 1800s, 48—5 z; loss of
status due to defeat, backwardness, and
Index 329
rise of Leninism, 72.-77; membership in
Concert of Europe and Holy Alliance,
47—49, 79, 2.47; Napoleon’s defeat and,
47—48; Official Nationality ideology (or-
thodoxy, autocracy, and nationality) in,
18, 49; peasant socialism in, 72,; pursuit
of great power status, 2.3, 36—38, 49, 70,
148, 2.46—47; repression of intellectual
independent thought in, 49—51; rise of
Muscovy {1362.—1533), 24, 25—2.9, 31;
Russian revolution, 7Z, 77, Z47; social
competition strategy chosen by, Z3, Z5,
148; territorial expansion in Asia as
consequence of need to appear as great
national power, 67-7Z, 80, Z34; tsar (use
of term), Z7, 36—37, 2.35; West adopted as
its reference group, zz; World War I mili-
tary disaster and, zo. See also Catherine
the Great; Peter the Great; specific tsars
Russia-India-China triangle (Primakov’s
proposal), 185
Russian Orthodox Church. See Orthodox
Christianity
Russo-Japanese War, Z5, Z34, Z43
Russo-Turkish War (1768—74), Z5, 41-4Z
Russo-Turkish War (r787-9Z), 25, 43
Russo-Turkish War (1877—78), Z5, 80-81
Saakashvili, Mikheil, Z03
Sagdeev, Roald, 147
Sandinistas, 157
Sazonov, Sergei, 71— 7Z
Schmidt, Helmut, 131
Scowcroft, Brent, 164, 167
Security Council: composition of, 5, 98,
188; India seeking permanent seat on,
Z46; Japan seeking permanent seat on,
197; Korean War and, 100; permanent
membership as status marker, 93, i8z,
189, Z33, Z36, Z41; resolution 1973
(zon), zzo; sanctions against Iran, zi8,
Z49; US circumventing, by using NATO,
186
self-esteem and pride, 3, 15; Chinese-British
dispute over ceremonies and titles and,
45; effect of recognition of inferiority, Z4,
5 6; post—Cold War status of Chinese and,
180, 2.05; Putin’s character and, 219-20,
zzz, 2Z4- See also prestige and respect
Senkaku (Diaoyu) islands, Z07—8, zio, zii
Sense of Shame Study Society (China), 66
September 11, zooi, terrorist attacks, 196,
198-99, Z39, Z44,Z49
Serbia, 63-64, 71—7Z, Z43
Serbian forces in Bosnia, 183—84
Sergey Magnitsky Rule of Law Accountabil-
ity Act (US, 2012), zzi
Shafirov, Peter; 34
Shakhnazarov, Georgy, 127, 147, 173
Shanghai Communiqué (197Z), IZ3
Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO),
190, Z39
Shanghai Five, 190
Shevardnadze, Eduard, 148, 170
Shevchenko, Arkady, 107
Sino-British Joint Declaration on Hong
Kong (1984), 154
Sino-Japanese War (1894—95), 57, 60, 65,
68, zo8
Sino-Soviet tensions, 8z—83, 110-18, i6x,
17Z, Z37, Z43
Sino-Soviet treaty of friendship and alliance
(August 194 5 ) 98-99
SIT. See social identity theory
Six Party Talks: with Iran, zz8; with North
Korea, Z3 6, 24 9
Smith, Adam, 5 3
Snowden, Edward, zzi
social competition, z, 7—11; China choosing
this strategy, 16—17, zi, 56, 101, x 3 z—3 3?
180, z i z, 242-43; China’s defense
spending and, 2x4—15; China’s South
China Sea claims and, ziz; China’s threat
theory creating backlash against China,
182, 190; China vs. USSR in, ixo—18,
172, 237, 243; Eurasian Economic Union
and, 223—24; instability and illegitimacy
of hierarchy and, 7, 19, 78, 85, xo6, 117,
131, 204, 231, 240, 242, 250; overlap
with social creativity, 245; Peter the Great
and eighteenth-century Russia choos-
ing this strategy, 33, 79, 234, 242, 246;
post—Cold War status and, 180, 188;
Russia’s isolation and exclusion likely to
lead to, 231; seeking to equal or surpass
dominant group, 9, 14; stable status
hierarchy leading to failure of, 138, 240;
Third World rivalry between USSR, US,
and PRC, 85; Ukraine crisis (20x4) and,
zzz; USSR choosing this strategy, 16, zx,
330 Index
social competition (continued)
84-85» 9^» 106-10, 132.-33» 180, 2.37,
242—43, 2,50; USSRs failure to achieve
Western acceptance via, 144; as spoiler
behavior, 10, 231; war as result of, 10,
11, 242; Yeltsin’s diplomacy and, 182—88
social creativity, 2, 11-14; Bandung Dis-
course and, 101—3; Chinese revolution
and, 76—77; Chinese self-strengtheners
in late nineteenth century and, 52, 56,
57-60, 79, 142, 239, 245; conditions
conducive to using, 12—14, I9 138, 195,
2*44-45; Deng and, 134, 137, 165, 174,
200—204, 245—4^» different dimension
used to measure status, 11, 13, 14, 124;
economic foundation for, 200—204,
245-46, 248; future roles for China
and Russia in, 249-50; Gorbachev and,
134-35» 145» 149-50, 174» 248; imperial
Russia and, 50, 245; as method to change
meaning of status, 83, 245, 248; moral
rectitude as path to great power status,
13, 124, 136, 145, 148-50; negative
characteristics reiramed as positive in, 11,
150, 245; overlap with social competi-
tion, 245; post-Cold War status and, 17,
21, 180, 191, 193, 195; Putin and, 17, 21,
198-204, 222, 245; Russian revolution
and, 72, 77; stability and legitimacy of
hierarchy as prerequisite to, 179, 240,
244, 250; US reaction to Chinese use of,
231, 249—50; Zhou’s use of, 247
social identity theory (SIT), 2-5; choice
of foreign policy strategy, 14, 230, 234,
239, 249; constructivism compared to,
18—19, 2-39; deference expected from
lower-status group members, 3, 15,
233, 246; definition of social identity, 3;
Deng’s reforms and, 136; expectations
for early Russia and China based on, 24;
Gorbachev’s New Thinking and, 136,
144, 149, 160, 165; Gorbachev’s refusal
to emulate Chinese and, 171—72; identity
management strategies, 5-14, 239—46;
ideology compared to, 17-18, 19; meth-
odology and case selection of China and
Russia, 14—16; multiple traits used in
comparisons reducing direct competition,
4; neorealism compared to, 17, 19; post-
Cold War status and, 179; predictions
vs. alternative explanations, 16-19, 229,
234; prestige and ranking in hierarchical
order, 3; refusal to emulate values of great
powers due to fear of losing distinctive
identity, 230; relativity of and comparison
among social groups, 3; social coopera-
tion identified as positive approach, 249;
status as intrinsically satisfying, 3, 15; as
theory of “group freedom,” 18; threats
to positive identity, 5. See also implica-
tions of case study for recognition and
cooperation; social competition; social
creativity; social mobility
social justice, 101
social mobility, 2, 6—7; China and Russia
rejecting strategy of, 16, 136; China’s
rejection of Westernization and, 73—74,
80, 241; Deng’s reforms and, 155; emu-
lating values and practices of established
powers, 7, 14; failure of China to achieve
economic gains, Deng’s recognition of,
140; Gorbachev’s New Thinking not
interested in, 149; permeability of elite
clubs as key factor for, 240; Soviet failure
to achieve acceptance, 85—86, 240—41;
Yeltsin’s diplomacy and, 182—88. See also
elite clubs
socialism. See Marxism-Leninism
soft power: Deng and Gorbachev pursuing,
135; essential for a great power, 246; Hu
Jintao pursuing, 194; Medvedev pursu-
ing, 218
Somalia, 128-29
South Africa, 127, 153, 205, 207, 239
South China Sea, 182, 205—7, 211, 214,
244; ASEAN L eclaration on the Conduct
of Parties in the South China Sea, 190;
Hague Permanent Court of Arbitration
ruling on, 215, 232; US interventions in
China’s territorial claims, 212, 231; US-
Vietnam joint naval exercise in, 210
South Korea, 100, 14°» 158, 163, 190, 191,
208, 211. See also Korean War
South Manchurian Railway, 69, 70, 98
Soviet Union: Angolan civil war {1974—75)
and, 127—28; Bolshevik regime and Sovi-
ets in 1920s, 84, 85—90; Chinese relations
with, 161; coexistence policies with the
West and cooperative initiatives, 84—85,
103-6; collapse of, 21, 137, 165—70, 175,
18 2-8 3; competition with the West, 20,
106—10; Cuban Missile Crisis as chai-
Index 331
lenge to US, 118—2.0; détente period, 85,
12.5-31, 151, 2.34, 2,47; economic decline
and change of course by Gorbachev, 143;
failure to tap into Asian-Pacific economic
dynamism, 158; Five Year Plan {192.9—
33)» 89; Gorbachev’s New Thinking and,
12., 2.1, 131, 133, 136-37, 142.-47,156;
inequality in PRC-USSR relationship, 2.0,
97—101, 13Z; military competition and, 4,
10, 89—91, 12.5; as moral visionary leader,
148-50, 158—59; New Economic Policy
(NEP) announced by Lenin, 86-87; as
norm entrepreneur; 156—60; political-
diplomatic equality with West as goal,
8z—85; PRC’s relationship with, 97-101;
Sino-Soviet alliance, benefits of, 117, 146;
Sino-Soviet split in competition for pri-
macy, 82.—83, 97, 110—18, x6x, 17a, Z43;
Stalin’s expansionism vs. US containment
policy, 84, 9Z-96; World War II and great
power status, 84, 90—9z, 94—96, 133. See
also specific leaders
Soviet Communist Party. See Communist
Party of the Soviet Union
Soviet-American Basic Principles Agreement
(BPA, 197Z), iz6—Z7, Z38
Soviet-Polish war (19Z0), 86
space race: Soviet prestige from Sputnik and
Gagarin flight, 84, 106—7, io9 2.47
special economic zones (SEZs), 17Z
Spratly Islands, i8i-8z, 212
Sputnik, 84, 106, hi
Stalin, Joseph: competition with the West,
zo; ideology as powerful tool for, 17;
Mao’s relationship with, 98—101, no-11;
military power and, 10; nonaggression
pact with Hitler, 9Z; origins of bipolar
status rivalry, 9Z—96; postwar aims
of, Z37; quest for recognition and, 84,
2.38-39; on Soviet need for collectiviza-
tion, industrialization, and improved
military, 89-91, Z47; World War II and, 4,
9Z-95, 133, Z41, Z47
START agreement and treaty {spring zoxo),
Z17—18
status and identity. See post-Cold War
status and identity
status hierarchy: Big Three and, 9Z—93, 95,
98, Z41; collapse of Soviet Union and,
18z; Five Powers, xoz; Gorbachev locked
into position by, 17Z; instability and ille-
gitimacy of, 7, 19, 78, 85, 106, 117, 131,
Z04; post—Cold War world, 188, 189;
rituals symbolizing in China, 47; stability
and legitimacy of, 13, 19, 138, 144* 179»
188, zxo, Z40, Z44, Z50; West adopted
as reference group for, zz, Z46. See also
great power status
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) I,
xz6
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) II,
151, 15Z
Strategic Defense Initiative (US), 156
Sudetenland, 91
summit meetings. See great power status;
status hierarchy; specific meetings
Sun Yat-sen, Z3 z
Surkov, Vladislav, zo 1
Suslov, Dmitry, z 19
Suslov, Mikhail, 1Z9
Sweden: Catherine the Great’s war with, 43,
44; Muscovy relations with, z6, z8, Z9;
Peter the Great’s war with, zo, Z4, 33-36,
38, 79; Russia expanding at expense of,
Z34, Z4Z, Z46
Syria, 157, zzo, zzz, zz8—Z9, Z3z, Z44
Taiping Uprising (1850—64), 55
Taiwan: Chinese assertive policies toward,
Z05—6; democratic politics of, 180;
Deng’s “one country, two systems” policy
for proposed reunification with, 154, 174;
election of Chen Shui-bian (2004), 193;
election of Ma Ying-jeou (zoo8), 193-94;
Japan taking control of (1895), 60; losing
UN seat to PRC, xzi, 193; Obama arms
sales to, Z07; political liberalization in,
163; post-Tiananmen treatment of, 180,
i8z; Qing control of, 30, Z35; special
economic zones of mainland China and,
140; Taiwan Strait crisis (1995—96),
195—96, Z30; Triads’ rebellion (1780s),
45; US position on, 103, IZ3, 151, 152.,
180, Z14, Z41
Taj fel, Henri, 3, 7
Talbott, Strobe, 184, 187
Tatars, z8, Z9, 43, 80
Tayler, Jeffrey, 187
Teltschik, Horst, 167
terrorism, 190, 196. See also War on
Terror
Thatcher, Margaret, 154
332 Index
Third World: Gorbachev’s lack of interest
in spreading communism to, 175; PRC’s
changing approach to, 136, 138, 141,
2.43; Soviet outreach to and reputation
in, 10, 105—6, 136, 158, 2,42., 2.47; Soviet
withdrawal from, 143-45, *53; “Three
Worlds” concept (1974) and, 12.4
Thompson, Llewellyn, 118
Tiananmen Square demonstrations (1989),
137, 161—64, 173, 178; post—Tiananmen
Square challenges, 180—82., 196, 230
Tibet, 30, 31-32., 80, X15, 2.05, 2.35, 237
Time of Troubles (Russia, 1598—1613), 29
Tirpitz, Alfred von, 9
Tito, Joseph, ii
Tongzhi reign (China, 1862—74), 55, 57,
59
Trans-Pacific Partnership, 213
Trans-Siberian railway, 68, 234
Treaty 0$ Aigun (1858), 30
Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual
Assistance (PRC and USSR, 1950), 100
Treaty of Jassy (1792), 43
Treaty of Kuchuk Kainardji (1774), 41-42
Treaty of Kyakhta (1727), 31
Treaty of Nanjing (1842), 53
Treaty of Nerchinsk, 31
Treaty of Nystadt (1721), 36, 38
Treaty of Paris (1856), 51, 63, 79
Treaty of Peking (i860), 30
Treaty of Portsmouth (1905), 70
Treaty of San Stefano (1878), 64
Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895), 60, 65
Treaty of Tarbagatai (1864), 30
Treaty of Tianjin (1858), 54—55
Treaty of Versailles (1919), 76, 79-80, 98.
See also Versailles Peace Conference
Triads’ rebellion (1780s), 45
Trotsky, Leon, 73, 77, 85, 87
Truman, Harry S., 94, 95
Turkey: Balkan Wars losses (October
1912—August 1913), 71; fall of Byzan-
tine Empire to, 27; Russian war with
(1877—78), 63—64, 70; Soviet relations
with, 86, 104; US air bases in, 96. See
also Ottoman Empire
Turkish Straits, 67, 70—72, 93—94, 96
Ukraine: Catherine the Great and, 38, 43—
44; crisis (2014), 178, 222-29, 230-31,
232, 243—44; EU program and, 223,
244; Maidan uprising, 222, 224; NATO
membership and, 203—4; Orange Revolu-
tion in (2004), 201, 226; Polish troops
invading (1920), 86; Russian exercise of
droit de regard, 21, 201, 227
unipolarity, 180, 188, 189, 229, 231
United Kingdom. See Britain
United Nations: Chinese contribution to
peacekeeping operations, 249; Commis-
sion on the Limits of the Continental
Shelf, 206; Conference on Disarmament
(March 1999), 190; Convention on the
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 206, 215;
Copenhagen Summit on climate change
(December 2009), 206—7; Gorbachev
and, 157, 159; High Commissioner for
Human Rights, 192; Hu Jintao address
(September 2005), x95» human rights
representatives visiting China, 192;
Khrushchev banging shoe at (1961), 109,
228, 247; Putin and, 220—21; sustainable
development goals, 214; Taiwan and,
121, 19 3 ; Working Group on Arbitrary
Detention, 192. See also Security Council
United States: balance of power consider-
ations in dealing with Chinese vis-à-vis
Soviets, 155, 248; Bolshevik regime,
refusal to recognize, 85; Chinese belief in
decline of, 181, 204; Chinese Nationalists
(Guomindang) supported by, 84; effect of
isolationism, 250; effect on PRC relations
of Tiananmen Square massacre, 164; nu-
clear missile superiority to Soviets, 119;
rapprochement with, as priority for Deng
and Gorbachev, 150; as reference group
for validity of great power status, 246;
sanctions against China after Tianan-
men Square (1989), 180; social creativ-
ity benefits to, 250; support for China’s
responsible power identity, 195—97, 249;
Vietnam War defeat encouraging view
of unstable status hierarchy, 85, 125;
war losses to communist forces, 85, 125,
127—28. See also specific presidents
US Agency for International Development,
221
USSR. See Soviet Union
Ustinov, Dmitry, 129
U-2 spy planes, 108—9
Index 333
Uvarov, Sergei, 49
Uzbekistan, 190, 2.18
Valuev, P. A., 62
Vance, Cyrus, 151
Varangians (Norsemen), 2.5
Vasily II (prince of Moscow), 26
Velikhov, Evgeny, 147
velvet revolutions in Eastern Europe (1989),
164
Versailles Peace Conference (19x9), 8, 20,
79-80, 98, 139, 2.41
Vietnam: in Cambodia, 153, 157, x6x;
Chinese relations with, after Vietnam
War, 152., 206, 230, 238; Chinese war
with France over, 59, 231; communist
revolution succeeding in, 138; division
into North and South, 102; Paracel Island
and, 211; Russian relations with, 199;
Soviet relations with, 138, 144, 152;
tributary state to China, 46, 81; US defeat
in Vietnam War encouraging Soviet view
of unstable status hierarchy, 85, 125; US
seeking Chinese assistance in ending war
in, 121
Vladimir I (prince of Riurikid dynasty),
25—26
Voikov, Peter, 88
Voloshin, Maximilian, 3 8
Voltaire, 39, 40
Voronin, Vladimir, 201
Wang Dan, 192
Wang Lun, 45
War on Terror, 21, 180, 198-99, 226, 229,
244,249
Warsaw Pact alliance, 165, 183, 217
“Washington Consensus,” 194
Waterloo, battle of (1815), 48
Wei Jingsheng, 192
Wei Yuan, 53—54, 60
Wen Jiabao, 193, 205, 207
Westad, Odd Arne, 128
White Lotus rebellion (1796—1805), 45
Wilhelm II (German kaiser), 9
Witte, Sergei, 68-70
World Bank, 5, 141, 212
World Trade Organization (WTO), 191,
194,221
World War I, 20, 81, 237
World War II, 4, 12, 92, 96, 197, 245, 247.
See also Churchill, Winston; Roosevelt,
Franklin D.; Stalin, Joseph
xenophobia, 59, 67
Xi Jinping: great power diplomacy of, 177,
211-16; on South China Sea claims, 232;
Soviet relations with, 178; stability of
status hierarchy and, 210
Xianfeng emperor (1850-61), 54
Xinjiang, 30, 32.-33» 44» 80, 93, 100, in,
2-34, 2.35, 237, 239
Yaffa, Joshua, 203
Yakovlev, Alexander, 147, 166, 171
Yalta Conference (1945), 4, 94, 98, 241
Yang Jiechi, 207
Yanukovych, Viktor, 201, 222, 224—25, 243,
244
Yeltsin, Boris, 182-88, 239, 243
Yudin, Pavel, no
Zagiadin, Vadim, 147
Zeng Guofan, 5 5-5 6
Zhang Zhidong, 58
Zhao Ziyang, 153, 162-63
Zheng Bijian, 192
Zhou Enlai: Bandung spirit and, 83, 101-3,
155; Five Principles of Peaceful Co-
existence and, 102,189—90, 245, 247;
as foreign minister for Mao, 98, 99, 102,
X2i; Great Leap Forward and, 1x3; US
opening relations with PRC and, 121-24,
238
Zhou Xiaochuan, 205
Zhu Rongji, 191
Zoellick, Robert, 197
Zuo Zongtang, 32-33, 55
Bayerische
Staatsbibliothek
München
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Larson, Deborah Welch 1951- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1047962233 (DE-588)1156785278 |
| author_facet | Larson, Deborah Welch 1951- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Larson, Deborah Welch 1951- |
| author_variant | d w l dw dwl |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV045509236 |
| classification_rvk | ML 6600 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1099905978 (DE-599)BVBBV045509236 |
| discipline | Politologie |
| era | Geschichte gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd Russland (DE-588)4076899-5 gnd China (DE-588)4009937-4 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Sowjetunion Russland China |
| id | DE-604.BV045509236 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T08:20:04Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780300236040 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-030893769 |
| oclc_num | 1099905978 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 DE-739 DE-824 DE-706 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 DE-739 DE-824 DE-706 |
| physical | xiv, 333 Seiten |
| psigel | BSB_NED_20190619 |
| publishDate | 2019 |
| publishDateSearch | 2019 |
| publishDateSort | 2019 |
| publisher | Yale University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Larson, Deborah Welch 1951- Verfasser (DE-588)1047962233 aut Quest for status Chinese and Russian foreign policy Deborah Welch Larson and Alexei Shevchenko Chinese and Russian foreign policy New Haven ; London Yale University Press [2019] © 2019 xiv, 333 Seiten txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Geschichte gnd rswk-swf Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 gnd rswk-swf Großmachtpolitik (DE-588)4158292-5 gnd rswk-swf Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 gnd rswk-swf Russland (DE-588)4076899-5 gnd rswk-swf China (DE-588)4009937-4 gnd rswk-swf Russia (Federation) / Foreign relations China / Foreign relations Diplomatic relations China Russia (Federation) Russland (DE-588)4076899-5 g Sowjetunion (DE-588)4077548-3 g China (DE-588)4009937-4 g Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 s Großmachtpolitik (DE-588)4158292-5 s Geschichte z DE-604 Shevchenko, Alexei Sonstige (DE-588)1156785278 oth Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030893769&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030893769&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Larson, Deborah Welch 1951- Quest for status Chinese and Russian foreign policy Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 gnd Großmachtpolitik (DE-588)4158292-5 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4003846-4 (DE-588)4158292-5 (DE-588)4077548-3 (DE-588)4076899-5 (DE-588)4009937-4 |
| title | Quest for status Chinese and Russian foreign policy |
| title_alt | Chinese and Russian foreign policy |
| title_auth | Quest for status Chinese and Russian foreign policy |
| title_exact_search | Quest for status Chinese and Russian foreign policy |
| title_full | Quest for status Chinese and Russian foreign policy Deborah Welch Larson and Alexei Shevchenko |
| title_fullStr | Quest for status Chinese and Russian foreign policy Deborah Welch Larson and Alexei Shevchenko |
| title_full_unstemmed | Quest for status Chinese and Russian foreign policy Deborah Welch Larson and Alexei Shevchenko |
| title_short | Quest for status |
| title_sort | quest for status chinese and russian foreign policy |
| title_sub | Chinese and Russian foreign policy |
| topic | Außenpolitik (DE-588)4003846-4 gnd Großmachtpolitik (DE-588)4158292-5 gnd |
| topic_facet | Außenpolitik Großmachtpolitik Sowjetunion Russland China |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030893769&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030893769&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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