Strategic frames: Europe, Russia, and minority inclusion in Estonia and Latvia
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Pittsburgh, Pa.
University of Pittsburgh Press
[2018]
|
| Schriftenreihe: | Pitt series in Russian and East European studies
|
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Literaturverzeichnis Register // Gemischte Register |
| Beschreibung: | XXII, 394 Seiten Diagramme |
| ISBN: | 9780822965114 |
Internformat
MARC
| LEADER | 00000nam a2200000 c 4500 | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | BV045067746 | ||
| 003 | DE-604 | ||
| 005 | 20200129 | ||
| 007 | t| | ||
| 008 | 180629s2018 xx |||| m||| 00||| eng d | ||
| 020 | |a 9780822965114 |9 978-0-8229-6511-4 | ||
| 035 | |a (OCoLC)1047475709 | ||
| 035 | |a (DE-599)BVBBV045067746 | ||
| 040 | |a DE-604 |b ger |e rda | ||
| 041 | 0 | |a eng | |
| 049 | |a DE-12 |a DE-188 |a DE-19 | ||
| 084 | |a OST |q DE-12 |2 fid | ||
| 084 | |a MS 1200 |0 (DE-625)123556: |2 rvk | ||
| 100 | 1 | |a Schulze, Jennie L. |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)1164506250 |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Strategic frames |b Europe, Russia, and minority inclusion in Estonia and Latvia |c Jennie L. Schulze |
| 264 | 1 | |a Pittsburgh, Pa. |b University of Pittsburgh Press |c [2018] | |
| 300 | |a XXII, 394 Seiten |b Diagramme | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 490 | 0 | |a Pitt series in Russian and East European studies | |
| 610 | 2 | 7 | |a Europäische Union |0 (DE-588)5098525-5 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 648 | 7 | |a Geschichte 1992-2015 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Minderheitenpolitik |0 (DE-588)4170001-6 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Einflussnahme |0 (DE-588)4131701-4 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 651 | 7 | |a Lettland |0 (DE-588)4074187-4 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
| 651 | 7 | |a Estland |0 (DE-588)4015587-0 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
| 651 | 7 | |a Russland |0 (DE-588)4076899-5 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
| 653 | 0 | |a Minoritetspolitik | |
| 653 | 0 | |a Politiska förhållanden | |
| 653 | 0 | |a Minorities / Government policy / Estonia | |
| 653 | 0 | |a Minorities / Government policy / Latvia | |
| 653 | 0 | |a Minorities / Political activity / Estonia | |
| 653 | 0 | |a Minorities / Political activity / Latvia | |
| 653 | 2 | |a Baltikum | |
| 653 | 2 | |a Estland | |
| 653 | 2 | |a Lettland | |
| 653 | 2 | |a Litauen | |
| 653 | 2 | |a Estonia / Politics and government / 1991- | |
| 653 | 2 | |a Latvia / Politics and government / 1991- | |
| 655 | 7 | |0 (DE-588)4113937-9 |a Hochschulschrift |2 gnd-content | |
| 689 | 0 | 0 | |a Europäische Union |0 (DE-588)5098525-5 |D b |
| 689 | 0 | 1 | |a Russland |0 (DE-588)4076899-5 |D g |
| 689 | 0 | 2 | |a Einflussnahme |0 (DE-588)4131701-4 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | 3 | |a Estland |0 (DE-588)4015587-0 |D g |
| 689 | 0 | 4 | |a Lettland |0 (DE-588)4074187-4 |D g |
| 689 | 0 | 5 | |a Minderheitenpolitik |0 (DE-588)4170001-6 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | 6 | |a Geschichte 1992-2015 |A z |
| 689 | 0 | |5 DE-604 | |
| 856 | 4 | 2 | |m Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030459200&sequence=000004&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| 856 | 4 | 2 | |m Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030459200&sequence=000005&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Literaturverzeichnis |
| 856 | 4 | 2 | |m Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030459200&sequence=000006&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Register // Gemischte Register |
| 940 | 1 | |n oe | |
| 940 | 1 | |q BSB_NED_20200129 | |
| 942 | 1 | 1 | |c 909 |e 22/bsb |f 090511 |g 4 |
| 942 | 1 | 1 | |c 909 |e 22/bsb |f 090512 |g 4 |
| 942 | 1 | 1 | |c 909 |e 22/bsb |f 09049 |g 4 |
| 943 | 1 | |a oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-030459200 | |
Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1820142787642785792 |
|---|---|
| adam_text |
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS IX
PARTIES AND PARLIAMENTARY FACTIONS IN ESTONIA AND LATVIA XIII
INTRODUCTION
THE STRATEGIC FRAMING OF BALTIC SECURITY: EUROPE. RUSSIA, AND MINORITY
INCLUSION 3
CHAPTER 1
SETTING THE STAGE: THE 'NEXUS' IN ESTONIA AND LATVIA 37
CHAPTER 2
MAKING ALIENS AND CITIZENS IN ESTONIA FROM SECURITY TO
'CONDITIONALITY' 85
CHAPTER 3
NATURALIZATION RESTRICTIONS IN LATVIA: GIVE A LITTLE, TAKE A
LITTLE 111
CHAPTER 4
NATURALIZATION FOR STATELESS CHILDREN: RUSSIA AS A BRAKE AND AN
ACCELERATOR FOR REFORM
136
CHAPTER 5
LANGUAGE AND ELECTORAL POLICIES: DEBATING EUROPE IN ESTONIA AND
RUSSIA IN LATVIA 165
CHAPTER 6
EXPLAINING STRATEGIC FRAMING ACROSS CASES: KIN-STATE ACTIVISM AND
DOMESTIC POLITICS 231
CONCLUSION
THE PATH AND FORM OF POLICIES: EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS. KIN-STATES. AND
MINORITIES 260
APPENDIX 275
NOTES 277
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX 371
353
353
Aalto, Pami. “Revisiting the Security/Identity Puzzle in Russo-Estonian Relations” Journal of
Peace Research 40, no. 5 (2003): 573-91.
Aasland, Aande, and Tone Flotten. “Ethnicity and Social Exclusion in Estonia and Latvia.”
Europe-Asia Studies 5, no. 7 (2001): 1033-49.
Abolafia, Mitchel Y. “Framing Moves: Interpretive Politics at the Federal Reserve.” Journal of
Public Administration Research and Theory 14, no. 3 (2004): 349-70.
Agarin, Timofey. “Cooptation as Integration? National Programme ‘Integration of Society in
Latvia’ on Minority Integration.” In Minority Integration in Central and Eastern Europe. Be-
tween Ethnic Diversity and Equality. Edited by Timofey Agarin and Malte Brosig, 199-223.
New York: Rodopi, 2009.
Agarin, Timofey. A Cat's Lick. Democratization and Minority Communities in the Post-Soviet
Baltic. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2010.
Agarin, Timofey, and Ada-Charlotte Regelmann. “Which Is the Only Game in Town? Minority
Rights Issues in Estonia and Slovakia.” Perspectives on European Politics and Society 13, no.
4 (2012): 443-46.
Agh, Atilla. Emerging Democracies in East Central Europe and the Balkans. Cheltenham: Ed-
ward Elgar, 1998.
Alba, Richard. Ethnic Identity. The Transformation of White America. New Haven: Yale Univer-
sity Press, 1990.
Alba, Richard. Remaking the American Mainstream: Assimilation and Contemporary Integra-
tion. Harvard University Press, 2003.
Alba, Richard D., and Victor Nee. “Rethinking Assimilation Theory for a New Era of Immigra-
tion.” International Migration Review 31, no, 4 (1997): 826-74.
Almond, Gabriel, and Sidney Verba. The Civic Culture. London: Sage Publications, 1989.
Auers, Daunis. “Latvia.” In The Handbook of Political Change in Eastern Europe. Edited by Sten
Berglund, Joakin Ekman, Kevin Deegan-Krause, and Terje Knutsen, 85-124. Cheltenham:
Edward Elgar, 2013.
Auers, Daunis. Comparative Politics and Government of the Baltic States. Estonia, Latvia, and
Lithuania in the 21st Century. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.
354
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baehr, Peter. “Problems of Aid Conditionality: The Netherlands and Indonesia.” Third World
Quarterly 18, no. 22 (1997): 363-76.
Baltic Institute of Social Sciences. “Towards a Civic Society-2000.” Survey of Latvian Inhabi-
tants. Riga: Baltic Institute of Social Sciences, 2000/2001.
Baltic Institute for Social Sciences, Canadian International Development Agency, OSCE, Soros
Foundation Latvia, Analysis of the Implementation of Bilingual Education. Riga: Baltic In-
stitute of Social Sciences, 2002.
Barnett, Michael, and Martha Finnemore. Rules for the World. International Organizations in
Global Politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004.
Barrington, LowelL “The Domestic and International Consequences of Citizenship in the Soviet
Successor States.” Europe-Asia Studies 47, no. 5 (1995): 731-64.
Bates, Robert. “Ethnic Competition and Modernization in Contemporary Africa,” Comparative
Political Studies 6 (1974): 457-84.
Benford, Robert D., and David A. Snow. “Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Over-
view and Assessment.” Annual Review of Sociology 26 (2000): 611-39.
Berg, Eiki, and Piret Ehin, eds. Identity and Foreign Policy: Baltic-Russian Relations and Euro-
pean Integration. Farnham: Ashgate, 2009.
Berzina, leva, ed. The Possibility of Societal Destabilization in Latvia: Potential National Security
Threats: Executive Summary. Riga: National Defence Academy of Latvia, 2016.
Birch, Sarah. “Elections and Representation in Post-Communist Eastern Europe.” In Election in
Central and Eastern Europe: The First Wave. Edited by Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Ekkehard
Mochmann, and Kenneth Newton, 13-35. Berlin: Edition Sigma, 2000.
Birckenbach, Hanne-Margret. Preventive Diplomacy through Fact-Finding. How International
Organisations Review the Conflict over Citizenship in Estonia and Latvia. Hamburg: LIT
Verlag, 1997.
Birnbaum, Michael. “In Latvia Fresh Fears of Aggression as Kremlin Warns about Russian Mi-
norities.” The Washington Post, September 27, 2014. Accessed May 2. 2016, https://www
.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/in-latvia-fresh-fears-of-aggression-as-kremlrn-warns
-about-russian-minorities/2014/09/26/b723blaf-2aed-44dl-a791-38cebbbadbd0_story
.html?tid=a_inl.
Blank, Stephen. “Putins Next Potential Target: The Baltic States.” Atlantic Council Tanu-
ary 5, 2016. Accessed May 3, 2016, http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist
putin-s-next-potential-target-the-baltic-states.
Blank, Stephen. “Counting Down to a Russian Invasion of the Baltics.” Newsweek. Janu-
ary 12, 2016. Accessed May 2, 2016, http://www.newsweek.com/counting-down-russian
-invasion-baltics-414877.
Bloom, Stephen. “The 2010 Latvian Parliamentary Elections.” Electoral Studies 30, no. 2 (2011):
379-83.
Bob, Clifford. The Marketing of Rebellion. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Bosswick, W., and F. Heckmann. “Integration of Migrants: Contribution of Local and Regional
Authorities.” European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Condi-
tions, 11. Accessed February 18, 2009, http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2006/22/
en/I/ef0622en.pdf,
Brace, Kimball, Bernard Grofman, and Lisa Handley. “Does Redistricting Aimed to Help Blacks
Necessarily Help Republicans?” Journal of Politics 49, no. 1 (1987): 169-85.
Brosig, Malte, ed. Human Rights in Europe: A Fragmented Regime? Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2006.
Brosig, Malte. “A Plan for the Future? The Estonian State Integration Programme on Nation-
al Minorities 2000-2007.” Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 2 (2008):
1-19.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
355
Brosig, Malte. “The Advisory Committee of the Framework Convention for the Protection of
National Minorities and Equality Promotion ” In Minority Integration in Central and East-
ern Europe. Between Ethnic Diversity and Equality. Edited by Timofey Agarin and Malte
Brosig, 79-102. New York: Rodopi, 2009.
Brown, Kara. “Learning the Language: International, National and Local Dimensions of Re-
gional-Language Education Policy in Estonia.” Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 2006.
Brubaker, Rogers. “Citizenship Struggles in Soviet Successor States.” International Migration
Review, 26, no. 2 (1992): 269-91.
Brubaker, Rogers. Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New
Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Brubaker, Rogers. “The Return of Assimilation? Changing Perspectives on Immigration and
Its Sequels in France, Germany and the United States.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 24 (2001):
531-48.
Bruggemann, Karsten, and Andres Kasakamp. “Identity Politics and Contested Histories in
Divided Societies: The Case of Estonian War Monuments.” In Identity and Foreign Policy:
Baltic-Russian Relations and European Integration. Edited by Eiki Berg and Piret Ehin,
51-64. Farnham: Ashgate, 2009.
Brusis, Martin. “The European Union and Interethnic Power-Sharing Arrangements in Ac-
cession Countries.” Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 1, no. 1 (2003):
1-20.
Brusis, Martin. “Enlargement and Interethnic Power-Sharing Arrangements in Central and
Eastern Europe.” In The Protection of Minorities in the Wider Europe. Edited by Marc Weller,
Denika Blacklock, and Katherine Nobbs, 232-50. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
Budryte, Dovile. Taming Nationalism? Political Community Building in the Post-Soviet Baltic
States. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005.
Bugajski, Janusz, Cold Peace: Russia's New Imperialism. Westport: Praeger, 2004.
Bulakh, Anna, Julian Tupay, Karel Kaas, Emmet Tuohy, Kristiina Visnapuu, and Juhan Ki-
virahk. “Russian Soft Power and Non-Military Influence: The View from Estonia.” In Tools
of Destabilization. Russian Soft Power and Non-Military Influence in the Baltic States. Edited
by Mike Winnerstig, 30-70. Stockholm: Swedish Defense Agency FOI-R-3990-SE, 2014.
Carpenter, Ted Galen. “Are the Baltic States Next?” The National Interest, March 24, 2014.
Accessed May 2, 2016, http://nationalinterest.org/commentary/are-the-baltic-states-next
-10103.
Castles, Stephen. “Migration and Community Formation under Conditions of Globalization.”
International Migration Review 36, no. 4 (2002): 1143-68.
Chandra, Kanchan. Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India
New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Checkel, Jeffrey. “Norms, Institutions, and National Identity in Contemporary Europe.” Inter-
national Studies Quarterly 43, no. 1 (1999): 83-114.
Checkel, Jeffrey. “Why Comply? Social Learning and European Identity Change.” International
Organization 55, no. 3 (2001): 553-88.
Cheskin, Ammon. “The Discursive Construction of ‘Russian-Speakers’: The Russian Language
Media and Demarcated Political Identities in Latvia.” In Shrinking Citizenship: Discursive
Practices That Limit Democratic Participation in Latvian Politics, 133-54. Edited by M. Gol-
ubeva and R. Gould. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2010.
Cheskin, Ammon. “Identity and Integration of Russian Speakers in the Baltic States: A Frame-
work for Analysis.” Ethnopolitics 14, no. 1 (2015): 72-93.
Cheskin, Ammon. Russian Speakers in Post-Soviet Latvia. Discursive Identity Strategies. Edin-
burgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2016.
356
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chinn, Jeff, and Robert Kaiser. Russians as the New Minority: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the
Soviet Successor States. Boulder: Westview Press, 1996.
Cianetti, Licia. “Granting Voting Rights to Non-citizens in Estonia and Latvia: The Conundrum
of Minority Representation in Two Divided Democracies.” Journal of Ethnopolitics and Mi-
nority Issues in Europe 13, no. 1 (2014): 86-112.
Ciziunas, Pranas. “Russia and the Baltic States: Is Russian Imperialism Dead?” Comparative
Strategy 27 (2008): 287-307.
Clemens, Walter C. Baltic Independence and Russian Empire. New York: St. Martins Press, 1991.
Collier, David. “Understanding Process Tracing.” In PS. Political Science Politics 44, no. 4
(2011): 235-52.
Collier, Paul, and Anke Hoeffler, “On the Economic Causes of Civil War.” Oxford Economic
Papers 50 (1998): 563-73.
Commercio, Michele. Exit and Voice in the Near Abroad: The Russian Minority in Kyrgystati,
Kazakhstan, and Latvia. Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2004.
Commercio, Michele. Russian Minority Politics in Post-Soviet Latvia and Kyrgyzstan. Philadel-
phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010.
Cooley, Alex. “Western Conditions and Domestic Choices: The Influence of External Actors
on the Post-Communist Transition.” In Nations in Transit: 2003: Democratization in East
Central Europe and Eurasia. Edited by Adrian Karatnycky, Alexander Motyl, and Amanda
Schnetzer. New York: Freedom House, 2003.
Cordell, Karl, Timofey Agarin, and Alexander Osipov, eds. Institutional Legacies of Commu-
nism. Change and Continuities in Minority Protection. New York: Routledge, 2013.
Cott, Van, and Donna Lee. From Movements to Parties in Latin America: The Evolution of Ethnic
Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Csergo, Zsuzsa. Talk of the Nation: Language and Conflict in Romania and Slovakia. Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 2007.
Csergo, Zsusza, and James M. Goldgeier. “Virtual Nationalism in Comparative Context: How
Unique Is the Hungarian Approach?” Central European Political Science Review 5, no. 16
(2004): 40-56.
Csergo, Zsuzsa, and James M. Goldgeier. “Kin-State Activism in Hungary, Romania, and Russia:
The Politics of Ethnic Demography.” In Divided Nations and European Integration. Edited
by James Mabry, John McGarry, Margaret Moore, and Brendan O’Leary, 89-126. Philadel-
phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013.
Csergo, Zsuzsa, and Ada Regelmann. “Europeanization and Collective Rationality in Minority
Voting: Lessons from Central and Eastern Europe.” Problems of Post-Communism, http://
www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10758216.2017.1330659.
Dambrauskaite, Z, T. Janeliunas, V. Jurkonis, and V. Sirijos Gira. “Lithuanian-Poiish Relations
Reconsidered: A Constrained Bilateral Agenda or an Empty Strategic Partnership?” Lithua-
nian Foreign Policy Review 26 (2011): 100-44.
Deets, Stephen. “Reconsidering East European Minority Policy: Liberal Theory and European
Norms.” East European Politics and Societies 16, no. 1 (2002): 30-53.
Deets, Stephen. “Re-imagining the Boundaries of the Nation: Politics and the Development ot
Ideas on Minority Rights.” East European Politics and Societies 20, no. 3 (2006): 419-46.
de Luce, Dan. “If Russia Started a War in the Baltics, NATO Would Lose—Quickly.” Foreign
Policy, February 3, 2016. Accessed May 3, 2016, http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/02/03
if-russia-started-a-war-in-the-baltics-nato-would-lose-quickiy/.
de Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. The Henry Reeve text as revised by Francis Bow-
en. Edited by Phillips Bradley. New York: Vintage Classics, 1990.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
357
de Witte, Bruno. “Politics versus Law in the EU’s Approach to Ethnic Minorities,” EUI Working
Papers RSC 2000/4. San Domenico, European University Institute, 2000.
de Witte, Bruno. “The Constitutional Resources for Any EU Minority Policies.” In Minority
Protection and the Enlarged European Union: The Way Forward. Edited by Gabriel N. Tog-
genburg, 109-24. Budapest: LGI Books, 2004.
Diamond, Larry, and Richard Gunther. Political Parties and Democracy. Baltimore: John Hop-
kins University Press, 2001.
Dombrovsky, Vyacheslav, and Alf Vanags. “Latvian-Russian Economic Relations ” In Latvi-
an-Russian Relations: Domestic and International Dimensions. Edited by Nils Muiznieks,
98-109. Riga: Latvijas Universitate, 2006.
Druckman, James N. “The Implications of Framing Effects for Citizen Competence.” Political
Behavior 23 (March 2001): 225-56.
Druckman, James N. “Political Preference Formation: Competition, Deliberation and the (Ir)
relevance of Framing Effects.” American Political Science Review 98, no. 4 (2004): 671-86.
Drzewicki, Krysztof. "The Lund Recommendations on the Effective Participation of National
Minorities in Public Life: Five Years After and More Years Ahead.” International Journal on
Minority and Group Rights 12 (2005): 123-31.
Drzewicki, Krysztof. “The Enlargement of the European Union and the OSCE High Commis-
sioner on National Minorities.” In The Protection of Minorities in the Wider Europe. Edited
by Marc Weller, Denika Blacklock, and Katherine Nobbs, 154-70. New York: Palgrave Mac-
millan, 2008.
Ehala, Martin. “The Bronze Soldier: Identity Threat and Maintenance in Estonian Society.” Jour-
nal of Baltic Studies 40, no. 1 (2009): 139-58.
Ehin, Piret, and Eiki Berg. “Incompatible Identities?” In Identity and Foreign Policy: Baltic-
Russian Relations and European Integration. Edited by Eiki Berg and Piret Ehin, 1-14. Farn-
ham: Ashgate, 2009.
Epstein, Rachel, and Ulrich Sedelmeier. “Beyond Conditionality: International Institutions in
Postcommunist Europe after Enlargement.” Journal of European Public Policy 15, no. 6 (Sep-
tember 2008): 795-805.
Fearon, James, and David D. Laitin. “Violence and the Social Construction of Ethnic Identity,”
International Organization 54, no. 4 (2000): 845-77.
Finnemore, Martha, and Kathryn Sikkink. “International Norm Dynamics and Political
Change.” International Organization 52, no. 4 (1998): 887-917.
Flockhart, Trine. “Europeanization or EU-ization? The Transfer of European Norms across
Time and Space.” Journal of Common Market Studies 48, no. 4 (2010): 787-810.
Foley, Michael, and Bob Edwards. “The Paradox of Civil Society.” Journal of Democracy 7, no. 3
(1996): 38-52.
Galbreath, David. Nation-Building and Minority Politics in Post-Socialist States. Interests, Influ-
ences, and Identities in Estonia and Latvia. Stuttgart: ibidem-Verlag, 2005.
Galbreath, David J., and M.E. Galvin. “The Titularization of Latvian Secondary Schools: The
Historical Legacy of Soviet Policy Implementation.” Journal of Baltic Studies 36, no. 4
(2005): 449-66.
Galbreath, David, and Joanne McEvoy, “European Integration and the Geopolitics of National
Minorities.” Ethnopolitics 9, no. 3-4 (2010): 357-77.
Galbreath, David J. and Joanne McEvoy. The European Minority Rights Regime. Towards a Theo-
ry of Regime Effectiveness. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
Galbreath, David J., and Ainius LaSas. “The ‘Baltic’ Factor in EU-Russian Relations: In Search of
Coherence and Co-operation in an Era of Complexity.” Journal of Contemporary European
Studies 19, no. 2 (2011): 261-72.
358
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Galbreath, David, and Nils Muiznieks. “Latvia: Managing Post-Imperial Minorities.” In Minori-
ty Rights in Central and Eastern Europe. Edited by Bernd Rechel, 135-50. London: Rout-
ledge, 2009.
Garrison, Jean A. “Framing Foreign Policy Alternatives in the Inner Circle: President Carter,
His Advisors, and the Struggle for the Arms Control Agenda.” Political Psychology 22, no.
1 (2001): 775-807.
Gelazis, Nida M. “The Effects of EU Conditionality on Citizenship Policies and the Protection
of National Minorities in the Baltic States.” In The Road to the European Union. Vol. 2. Es-
tonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Edited by Velio Pettai and Jan Zielonka, 46-74. Manchester:
Manchester University Press, 2003.
George, Alexander L., and Andrew Bennett. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social
Sciences. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005.
Gilbert, Christopher, Raul Hopkins, Andrew Powell, and Amlan Roy. “The World Bank and
Conditionality.” Journal of International Development 9 (2001): 507-16.
Glazer, Nathan. “Is Assimilation Dead?” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social
Science 530 (1993): 187-202.
Goffman, Erving. Frame Analysis. An Essay on the Organization of Experience. Boston: North-
eastern University, 1974.
Golubeva, Maria and Robert Gould, eds. Shrinking Citizenship. Discursive Practices That Limit
Democratic Participation in Latvian Politics. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2010.
Gordon, Milton. Assimilation in American Life. The Role of Race, Religion, and National Origins.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1964.
Grabbe, Heather. “How Does Europeanisation Affect CEE Governance? Conditionality, Diffu-
sion, and Diversity.” Journal of European Public Policy 8, no. 6 (2001): 1013-31.
Grabbe, Heather. “European Union Conditionality and the Acquis Communautaire.” Interna-
tional Political Science Review 23, no. 3 (2002): 249-68.
Grenoble, Lenore A. Language Policy in the Soviet Union. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers,
2003.
Grigas, Agnia. Legacies, Coercion and Soft Power: Russian Influence in the Baltic States, Briefing
Paper, Chatham House. Accessed July 4, 2016, https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/
chathamhouse/public/Research/Russia%20and%20Eurasia/0812bp_grigas.pdf.
Grigas, Agnia. Post-Soviet Politics: The Politics of Energy and Memory between the Baltic States
and Russia. Farnham: Routledge, 2016.
Gross, Kimberly. “Framing Persuasive Appeals: Episodic and Thematic Framing, Emotional Re-
sponse, and Policy Opinion.” Political Psychology 29, no. 2 (2008): 169-92.
Hansen, Holley, E. “Ethnic Voting and Representation: Minority Russians in Post-Soviet States.”
Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 2009.
Hansson, Ulf. “The Latvian Language Legislation and the Involvement of the OSCE-HCNM:
The Developments 2000-2002.” Global Review of Ethnopolitics 2, no. 1 (2002): 17-28.
Heckmann, F., and D. Schnapper, eds. The Integration of Immigrants in European Societies: Na-
tional Differences and Trends of Convergence. Stuttgart: Lucius and Lucius, 2003.
Heintze, Hans-Joachim. “Article 3.” In The Rights of Minorities: A Commentary on the European
Framework for the Protection of National Minorities. Edited by Marc Weller, 107-37. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2008.
Héritier, Adrienne. “Europeanization Research East and West: A Comparative Assessment.” In
The Europeanization of Central and Eastern Europe. Edited by Frank Schimmelfennig and
Ulrich Seidelmeier, 199-209. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005.
Hofmann, Rainer. “The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities: An
BIBLIOGRAPHY
359
Introduction” In The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities: A
Commentary, edited by Marc Weller, 1-24. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Hofmann, Rainer. "The Future of Minority Issues in the Council of Europe and the Organiza-
tion for Security and Cooperation in Europe.” In The Protection of Minorities in the Wid-
er Europe. Edited by Marc Weller, Denika Blacklock, and Katherine Nobbs, 171-205. New
York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
Hogan-Brun, Gabrielle. “At the Interface of Language Ideology and Practice: The Public Dis-
course Surrounding the 2004 Education Reform in Latvia.” Language Policy 5 (2006): 313-33.
Hogan-Brun, Gabrielle, Uldis Ozolins, Meilute Ramoniene, and Mart Rannut. "Language Poli-
tics and Practices in the Baltic States.” Current Issues in Language Planning 8, no. 4 (2007):
469-630.
Holoboff, Elaine. "National Security in the Baltic States: Rolling Back the Bridgehead.” In State
Building and Military Power in Russia and the New States of Eurasia. Edited by Bruce Par-
rott, 111-33. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1995.
Horowitz, Donald. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
Hovi, Jon. “Causal Mechanisms and the Study of International Environmental Regimes.” In
Regime Consequences: Methodological Challenges and Research Strategies. Edited by Arild
Underdal and Oran Young, 71-86. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2000.
Hughes, James. "‘Exit’ in Deeply Divided Societies: Regimes of Discrimination in Estonia and
Latvia and the Potential for Russophone Migration.” Journal of Common Market Studies 43,
no. 4 (2005): 739-62.
Hughes, James, and Gwendolyn Sasse. "Monitoring the Monitors: EU Enlargement Condition-
ality and Minority Protection in the CEECs.” Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in
Europe 1, no. 1 (2003): 1-36.
Hughes, James, Gwendolyn Sasse, and Claire Gordon. “Conditionality and Compliance in the
EU’s Eastward Enlargement: Regional Policy and the Reform of Sub-national Government.”
Journal of Common Market Studies 42, no. 3 (2004): 523-51.
Jacoby, Wade G. “Issue Framing and Public Opinion on Government Spending.” American Jour-
nal of Political Science, 44 (2000): 750-67.
Jacoby, Wade. The Enlargement of the EU and NATO: Ordering from the Menu in Central Europe.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Jacoby, Wade. "Inspiration, Coalition, and Substitution: External Influences on Post-Commu-
nist Transformations.” World Politics 58, no. 4 (2006): 623-51.
Jacquot, S., and C. Woll. “Using Europe: Strategic Action in Multi-level Politics.” Comparative
European Politics 8, no. 1 (2010): 110-26.
Jarve, Priit. “Soviet Nationalities Policy and Minorities Protection in the Baltic States: A Battle
of Legacies.” In Institutional Legacies of Communism. Change and Continuities in Minority
Protection. Edited by Cordell, Karl, Timofey Agarin, and Alexander Osipov, 172-185. Lon-
don: Routledge, 2013.
Jarve, Priit, and Vadim Poleshchuk. “Country Report: Estonia.” EUDO Citizenship Observa-
tory, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, 2013. Accessed July 13, 2016, http://
eudo-citizenship.eu/docs/CountryReports/Estonia.pdf.
Jenkins, Richard. Social Identity. London: Routledge, 1996.
Jenne, Erin. Ethnic Bargaining: The Paradox of Minority Empowerment. Ithaca: Cornell Univer-
sity Press, 2007.
Johannsen, Lars. “Baltic Role Models between Realism and Optimism.” In After EU Enlarge-
ment— Changes and Challenges in the Baltic Sea Region. Edited by M.B Schartau and H.
Mussener, 39-46. Schwedische Perspektive, Sodertorns Hogskola, Huddinge, 2006.
360
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Johns, Michael. “Do As I Say, Not As I Do: The European Union, Eastern Europe, and Minority
Rights.” East European Politics and Societies 17, no. 4: 682-99.
Johnston, Hank. Tales of Nationalism: Catalonia 1939-1979. New Brunswick: Rutgers University
Press, 1991.
Johnston, Hank. “A Methodology for Frame Analysis: From Discourse to Cognitive Schema.”
In Social Movements and Culture, edited by Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans, 217-46.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995.
Jovanovic, Tamara Hoch. “Introduction—Rethinking Approaches to Europeanization of Mi-
nority Politics.” In Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 13, no. 3 (2014):
1-14.
Jovanovic, Tamara Hoch. “Reinventing National Minority Rights through European Integra-
tion: From Top-down to Bottom-up Europeanization.” Ph.D. diss., Roskilde University,
Denmark, 2014.
Jubulis, Mark A. “The External Dimension of Democratization in Latvia: The Impact of Europe-
an Institutions.” International Relations 13, no. 3 (1996): 59-73.
Jurado, Elena. “Liberalizing Estonia’s Citizenship Policy: The Role of the European Union,
OSCE and Council of Europe.” In European Integration and the Nationalities Question. Ed-
ited by John McGarry and Michael Keating. London: Routledge, 2006.
Kaldor, Mary, and Ivan Vejvoda. “Democratization in Central and Eastern European Countries:
An Overview.” In Democratization in Central and Eastern Europe. Edited by Mary Kaldor
and Ivan Vejvoda. London: Pinter, 1999.
Kalev, Leif and Rein Ruutsoo. “Citizenship Policies between Nation-State Building and Glo-
balization: Attitudes of the Decision-Makers in Estonia.” Studies of Transition States and
Societies 2, no. 1: 3-21.
Kallas, Kristina. “Political Participation of National Minorities in Decision-Making Process:
Cases of Estonia and Latvia.” Paper presented at the international workshop focusing on
Effective Political, Economic and Social Participation of Minorities Closing Conference,
Forum Minority Research Institute. Samorin, Slovak Republic. September 29-30, 2008.
Karklins, Rasma. Ethnopolitics and Transition to Democracy: The Collapse of the USSR and Lat-
via. Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1994.
Kasatkina, Natalija, and Vida Beresneviciute. “Ethnic Structure, Inequality, and Governance in
the Public Sector in Lithuania.” Ethnicity Studies 1, no. 2 (2010): 7-25.
Kasekamp, Andres. “Why Narva Is Not Next,” Estonian Foreign Policy Institute Series no.
21, May 2015. Accessed August 4, 2016, http://www.evi.ee/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/
EVI-mottepaber21_mail5.pdf.
Katzenstein, Peter J. Cultural Norms and National Security: Police and Military in Postwar Japan.
Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Kelley, Judith. Ethnic Politics in Europe. The Power of Norms and Incentives. Princeton: Prince-
ton University Press, 2004.
Kemp, Walter. Quiet Diplomacy in Action: The OSCE High Commissioner on National Alinori-
ties. Berlin: Springer, 2001.
Kinder, D. R., and L. M. Sanders. “Mimicking Political Debate with Survey Questions: The Case
of White Opinion on Affirmative Action for Blacks.” Social Cognition 8, no. 1 (1990): / 3-103.
King, Charles, and Neil J. Melvin. Nations Abroad. Oxford: Westview Press, 1998.
King, Charles, and Neil J. Melvin. “Diaspora Politics: Ethnic Linkages, Foreign Policy, and Secu-
rity in Eurasia.” International Security 24, no. 3 (1999/2000): 108-38.
Kivirahk, Juhan. Public Opinion and National Defense. Estonian Ministry of Defense. Turu-
uuringute AS, October 2016.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
361
Kolstoe, Paul. Russians in the Former Soviet Republics. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University
Press, 1995.
Korts, Kulliki. “Interethnic Attitudes and Contacts Between Ethnic Groups in Estonia.” Journal
of Baltic Studies 40, no. 1 (2009): 121-37.
Krastins, Uldis, ed. Latvia in the Council of Europe—10 Years. Riga: Council of Europe Infor-
mation Bureau, 2005.
Krippendorf, Klaus. Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. 2nd ed. Thousand
Oaks: Sage Publications, 2004.
Kruma, Kristine. “Country Report on Citizenship Law: Latvia.” EUDO Citizenship Observa-
tory. Badia Fiesolana, San Domenico di Fiesole (FI), Italy: European University Institute,
Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, 2015.
Kubicek, Paul, ed. The European Union and Democratization. London: Routledge, 2003.
Kudors, Andis. “Latvia between the Centers of Gravitation of Soft Power—the USA and Russia.”
In Latvia and the United States: A New Chapter in the Partnership. Edited by Ivars Indans.
Riga: Centre for East European Policy Studies, 2012.
Kudors, Andis. “Russian World—Russia’s Soft Power Approach to Compatriots Policy.” Russian
Analytical Digest 81, no. 10 (2010): 2-4.
Kudors, Andis. “Russian Soft Power and Non-Military Influence: The View from Latvia.” In Tools
of Destabilization. Russian Soft Power and Non-military Influence in the Baltic States. Edited
by Mike Winnerstig, 71-112. Stockholm: Swedish Defense Agency FOI-R-3990-SE, 2014.
Kuus, Merje. “European Integration in Identity Narratives in Estonia: A Quest for Security.” In
Journal of Peace Research 39, no. 1 (2002): 91-108.
Kymlicka, Will. “Western Political Theory and Ethnic Relations in Eastern Europe.” In Can Lib-
eral Pluralism Be Exported? Western Political Theory and Ethnic Relations in Eastern Europe.
Edited by W. Kymlicka and M. Opalski, 13-106. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Kymlicka, Will. “The Evolving Basis of European Norms of Minority Rights: Rights to Culture,
Participation, and Autonomy,” In The Protection of Minorities in the Wider Europe. Edited
by Marc Weller, Denika Blacklock and Katherine Nobbs, 11-41. New York: Palgrave Mac-
millan, 2008.
Kymlicka, Will. “National Cultural Autonomy and International Minority Rights Norms.” Eth-
nopolitics 6, no. 3 (2008): 379-93.
Kymlicka, Will, and Alan Patten, eds. Language Rights and Political Theory. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2003.
Lagerspetz, Mikko. “Civil Society Resources in the Modernization of Estonia.” In Estonian Hu-
man Development Report, 36-40. Tallinn: TPU RASI, 1999.
Lagerspetz, Mikko. “Consolidation as Hegemonization: The Case of Estonia.” Journal of Baltic
Studies 32, no. 4 (2001): 402-20.
Lagerspetz, Mikko. “From NGOs to Civil Society: A Learning Process.” In Non-Profit Sector
and the Consolidation of Democracy: Studies on the Development of Civil Society in Esto-
nia. Edited by M. Lagerspetz, A. Trummal, R. Ruutsoo, and E. Rikmann, 86-103. Tallinn:
Kunst, 2004.
Lagerspetz, Mikko, and Henri Vogt. “Estonia.” In The Handbook of Political Change in Eastern
Europe. Edited by Sten Berglund, Joakin Ekman, Kevin Deegan-Krause, and Terje Knutsen.
Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Laitin, David. Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the New Abroad. Itha-
ca: Cornell University Press, 1998.
Lauristin, Marju, and Kristina Kallas. “The Participation of Non-Estonians in Estonian Social
Life and Politics.” In Estonian Human Development Report 2008. Tallinn, 2008.
362
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lauristin, Marju and Peter Vihalemm. "The Political Agenda during Different Periods of Es-
tonian Transformation: External and Internal Factors.” Journal of Baltic Studies 40, no. 1
(2009): 1-28.
Lerhis, Ainars, Ivars Indans, and Andis Kudors. Outside Influence on the Ethnic Integration Pro-
cess in Latvia. 2nd ed. Riga: Center for Eastern European and Policy Studies, 2008.
Lewis, Paul G. “The ‘Third Wave' of Democracy in Eastern Europe. Comparative Perspectives on
Party Roles and Political Development.” Party Politics 7 (2001): 543-65.
Lieven, Anatol. The Baltic Revolution. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993.
Linden, Tove. “Explaining Civil Society Core Activism in Post-Soviet Latvia.” Ph.D. diss.,
Sodertorn, 2008.
Linden, Ronald. “EU Accession and the Role of International Actors.” In Central and Eastern
European Politics: From Communism to Democracy, 2nd ed. Edited by Sharon L. Wolczuk
and Jane L. Curry, 125-42. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2011.
Mabry, Tristan James, John McGarry, Margaret Moore, and Brendan O'Leary, eds. Divided Na-
tions and European Integration. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013.
Malksoo, Maria. “Liminality and Contested Europeanness: Conflicting Memory Politics in the
Baltic Space. In Identity and Foreign Policy: Baltic-Russian Relations and European Integra-
tion. Edited by Eiki Berg and Piret Ehin, 65-83. Farnham: Ashgate, 2009.
Malloy, Tove. “National Minorities between Protection and Empowerment: Towards a Theory
of Empowerment.” Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe Special Issue 2
(2014): 11-29.
Mansbridge, Jane. “Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contin-
gent ‘Yes.’” The Journal of Politics 61, no. 3 (1999): 628-57.
Martyn-Hemphyll, Richard. “Estonia’s New Premier from Party with Links to Russia.”
New York Times, November 20, 2016. Accessed February 18, 2017, https://www.nytimes
xom/2016/1 l/21/world/europe/estonia-juri-ratas-center-party.html?_r=0.
McAdam, Doug, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, eds. Comparative Perspectives on So-
cial Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings. New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
McCarthy, John D., Jackie Smith, and Mayer N. Zald. “Accessing Public, Media, Electoral, and
Governmental Agendas.” In Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Op-
portunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings. Edited by Doug McAdam, John
D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, 291-311. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Meijknecht, Anna K. Minority Protection. Standards and Reality. The Hague: Asser Press, 2004.
Melvin, Neil. Russians beyond Russia: The Politics of National Identity. London: Royal Institute
for International Affairs, 1995.
Melvin, Neil. “The Russians: Diaspora and the End of Empire.” In Nations Abroad: Diaspora
Politics and International Relations in the Former Soviet Union. Edited by Charles King and
Neil Melvin. Boulder: Westview Press, 1998.
Melvin, Neil. “Post-Imperial Ethnocracy and the Russophone Minorities of Estonia and Latvia.”
In The Politics of National Minority Participation Post-communist Europe. Edited by Jona-
than P. Stein. Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 2000.
Mihkels, Dagne. “Court Suspends Savisaar from Being Mayor of Tallinn.” Postimees, Septem-
ber 30, 2015. Accessed August 3, 2016, http://news.postimees.ee/3345877/court-suspends
-savisaar-from-being-mayor-of-tallinn.
Ministry of Culture. “Estonian Integration Monitoring 2011. A Summary.” Tallinn: Ministry
of Culture. Accessed March 28, 2013, http://www.kul.ee/webeditor/fiIes/integratsioon/Inte
gratsiooni_monitooring_2011_ENG_Jyhiversioon.pdf.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
363
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. “Concept of the Foreign Policy of the
Russian Federation.” Approved by President of the Russian Federation V. Putin on Febru-
ary 12, 2013. Accessed July 4, 2016, http://archive.mid.rU//brp_4.nsf/0/76389FECl68189ED
44257B2E0039B16D.
Mole, Richard C. M. The Baltic States from the Soviet Union to the European Union: Identity,
Discourse, and Power in the Post-Communist Transition of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
Oxon: Routledge, 2012.
Mollenkopf, John. “Assimilating Immigrants in Amsterdam: A Perspective from New York.”
Netherlands Journal of Social Science 36 (1999): 126-45.
Moravscik, Andrew and Milada Anna Vachudova. “National Interests, State Power, and EU En-
largement.” East European Politics and Societies 17, no. 1 (2003): 42-57,
Morawska, Ewa. “Immigrant Transnationalism and Assimilation: A Variety of Combinations
and the Analytic Strategy It Suggests.” In Toward Assimilation and Citizenship: Immigrants
in Liberal Nation-State. Edited by C. Joppke and E. Morawska, 133-76. Basingstoke: Pal-
grave Macmillan, 2003.
Morris, Helen M. “EU Enlargement and Latvian Citizenship Policy.” Journal on Ethnopolitics
and Minority Issues in Europe 1 (2003): 1-38.
Muiznieks, Nils, ed. Latvian Human Development Report 1995. Riga: United Nations Develop-
ment Program, 1995.
Muiznieks, Nils, ed. Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and International Dimensions. Riga:
University of Latvia, 2006.
Muiznieks, Nils. “Government Polices and the Russian Minority.” In Latvian-Russian Relations:
Domestic and International Dimensions. Edited by Nils Muiznieks, 11-21. Riga: University
of Latvia, 2006.
Muiznieks, Nils, ed. Manufacturing Enemy Images? Russian Media Portrayal of Latvia. Riga:
University of Latvia Academic Press, 2008.
Muiznieks, Nils. How Integrated Is Latvian Society? An Audit of Achievements, Failures, and
Challenges. Riga: University of Latvia Press, 2010.
Muiznieks, Nils, ed. The Geopolitics of History in Latvian-Russian Relations. Riga: University of
Latvia Academic Press, 2011.
Muiznieks, Nils. Latvian-Russian Relations: Dynamics since Latvia’s Accession to the EU and
NATO. Riga: University of Latvia Press, 2011.
Muiznieks, Nils, and Ilze Brands Kehris. “The European Union, Democratization, and Minori-
ties in Latvia.” In The European Union and Democratization. Edited by Paul J. Kubicek,
30-55. London: Routledge, 2003.
Muiznieks, Nils, Juris Rozenvalds, and leva Birka. "Ethnicity and Social Cohesion in the
Post-Soviet Baltic States.” Patterns of Prejudice 47, no. 3 (2013): 288-308.
Mylonas, Harris. The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minori-
ties. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Nakai, Ryo. “The Influence of Party Competition on Minority Politics: A Comparison of Latvia
and Estonia.” Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 13, no. 1 (2014): 57-85.
Norgaard, Ole, and Lars Johannsen. The Baltic States after Independence. 2nd ed. Cheltenham:
Edward Elgar, 1999.
Nelson, T. E., R. A. Clawson, and Z. M. Oxley. “Media Framing of a Civil Liberties Conflict and
Its Effect on Tolerance.” American Political Science Review 91 (1997): 567-83.
Nielson, Rachel. “Estonia Launches New Channel to Win Over Its Russians,” The Moscow Times,
September 27, 2015, http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/estonia-launches-new
-channel-to-win-over-its-russians/535517.html, accessed June 20, 2016.
364
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Nimmerfeldt, Gerti, Jennie Schulze, and Marti Taru. “The Relationship between Integration Di-
mensions among Second Generation Russians in Estonia.” Studies of Transition States and
Societies 3, no. 1 (2011): 76-91.
Nye, Joseph. Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. New York: Public Affairs, 2004.
Olsen, Johan P. “The Many Faces of Europeanization.” Journal of Common Market Studies 40,
no. 5 (2002): 921-52.
Onken, Eva-Clarita. “Commemorating May 9: The Baltic States and European Memory Pol-
itics.” In Identity and Foreign Policy: Baltic-Russian Relations and European Integration.
Edited by Eiki Berg and Piret Ehin. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2009.
Overby, L. Marvin, and Kenneth M. Cosgrove. “Unintended Consequences? Racial Redistricting
and the Representation of Minority Interests.” The Journal of Politics 58, no. 2 (1996): 540-50.
Ozolina, Zaneta. “Crisis Prevention or Invention: Latvia’s Response to the Proposed Security
Guarantees.” In Crisis Management in a Transitional Society: The Latvian Experience. Edit-
ed by Eric K. Stern and Dan Hansen, 188-215. Stockholm: Forsvaghogskolan, 2000.
Ozolins, Uldis. “The Impact of European Accession upon Language Policy in the Baltic States.”
Language Policy 2 (2003): 217-38.
Pabriks, Artis. “From Nationalism to Ethnic Policy: The Latvian Nation in the Present and the
Past.” BIAB Report No. 17, Inter-University Working Group on the Baltic States (BAIB).
Berlin: Freie Universität, 1999.
Pabriks, Artis. “Occupational Representation and Ethnic Discrimination in Latvia.” The Soros
Foundation Latvia, 2002.
Pabriks, Artis. “In Defiance of Fate. Ethnic Structure, Inequality, and Governance of the Public
Sector in Latvia.” United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, 2003.
Packer, John. “The Protection of Minority Language Rights through the Work of OSCE Institu-
tions.” In Minority Rights in Europe. European Minorities and Languages. Edited by Snezana
Trifunovska, 255-74. The Hague: TMC Asser Institute, 2001.
Parekh, Bhikhu. Rethinking Multiculturalism. Cultural Diversity and Political Theory. London:
Macmillan, 2000.
Pelnens, Gatis, ed. The Humanitarian Dimension of Russian Foreign Policy toward Georgia, Mol-
dovaiy Ukraine, and the Baltic States. Riga: Center for East European Policy Studies, 2009.
Pentassuglia, Gaetano. “Monitoring Minority Rights in Europe: The Implementation Machin-
ery of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities—with Special
Reference to the Role of the Advisory Committee.” International Journal on Minority and
Group Rights 6 (1999): 417-61.
Pentassuglia, Gaetano. Minorities in International Law: An Introductory Study. Strasbourg:
Council of Europe Publishing, 2002.
Persson, Gudrun. “Russian Influence and Soft Power in the Baltic States: The View from Mos-
cow.” In Tools of Destabilization. Russian Soft Power and Non-military Influence in the Bal-
tic States. Edited by Mike Winnerstig, 17-29. Stockholm: Swedish Defense Agency FOI-R-
3990-SE, 2014.
Pettai, Velio. “Explaining Ethnic Politics in the Baltic States: Reviewing the Triadic Nexus Mod-
el.” Journal of Baltic Studies 37, no. 1 (2006): 124-36.
Pettai, Velio, and Klara Hallik. “Understanding Processes of Ethnic Control: Segmentation, De-
pendency, and Co-optation in Post-communist Estonia.” Nations and Nationalism 8, no. 4
(2002): 505-29.
Pettai, Velio, and Kristina Kallas. “Estonia: Conditionality Amidst a Legal Straitjacket.” In Mi-
nority Rights in Central and Eastern Europe. Edited by Bernd Reche, 104-18. London: Rout-
ledge, 2009.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
365
Pettai, Velio, Daunis Auers, and Aine Ramonaite. “Political Development.” In Estonian Human
Development Report 2011. Baltic Ways of Human Development. Twenty Years On. Tallinn:
AS Eesti Ajalehed, 2011.
Petersoo, Pille. “Reconsidering Otherness: Constructing Estonian Identity.” Nations and Na-
tionalism 13, no. 1 (2007): 117-33.
Phillips, Anne. The Politics of Presence. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Poleshchuk, Vadim. Non-Citizens in Estonia. Report 2004. Tallinn: Legal Information Center
for Human Rights, 2004.
Poleshchuk, Vadim, ed. Chance to Survive: Minority Rights in Estonia and Latvia. Paris: Institute
of Democracy and Cooperation, 2009.
Poleschuk, Vadim, and Jelena Hellemae. “Estonia—In Quest of Minority Protection.” In In-
ternational Obligations and National Debates: Minorities around the Baltic Sea. Edited by
Athanasia Spiliopoulou Akermark and Leena Huus. Mariehamn: Aland Islands Peace In-
stitute, 2006.
Popescu, Nicu. “Russia’s Soft Power Ambitions.” CEPS Policy Brief no. 115, October 2006.
Preece, Jennifer Jackson. Minority Rights: Between Diversity and Community. Cambridge: Polity,
2005.
Pridham, Geoffrey. “The European Unions Democratic Conditionality and Domestic Politics
in Slovakia: The Meciar and Dzurinda Governments Compared.” Europe-Asia Studies 54,
no. 2 (2002): 203-27.
Pridham, Geoffrey. “Political Elites, Domestic Politics and Democratic Convergence with the
European Union: The Case of Romania during Accession.” Journal of Communist Studies
and Transition Politics 23, no. 4 (2007): 525-47.
Putnam, Robert D. “Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games.” Interna-
tional Organization 42, no. 3 (Summer 1988): 427-60.
Putnam, Robert D. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton: Prince-
ton University Press, 1993.
Raedelli, Claudio M. “Europeanization: Solution or Problem.” In European Integration Online
Papers, 8:16 (2004). Accessed August 3, 2015, http://eiop.or.at/eiop/pdf/2004-016.pdf.
Raedelli, C., and R. Pasquier. “Conceptual Issues.” In Europeanization: New Research Agendas.
Edited by P. Graziano and P. M. Vink, 35-45. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
Ratner, Steven R. “Does International Law Matter in Preventing Ethnic Conflict?” Journal of
International Law and Politics 32 (2000): 591-698.
Raubisko, leva. “NATO. Robertson Urges Latvia to Amend Its Election Laws,” RFE/RL, Feb-
ruary 22, 2002. Accessed July 15, 2016, http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1098896.html.
Rechel, Bernd, ed. Minority Rights in Central and Eastern Europe. London: Routledge, 2009.
Regelmann, Ada-Charlotte. “Introduction-—Minority Participation in Estonia and Latvia.”
Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 13, no. 1 (2014): 1-18.
Riedel, Manuela. “The EU as a Promoter of Minority Rights?” In Minority Integration in Central
and Eastern Europe: Between Ethnic Diversity and Equality. Edited by Timofey Agarin and
Malte Brosig. New York: Rodopi, 2009.
Riker, William H. “The Political Psychology of Rational Choice Theory.” Political Psychology 16
(March 1995): 23-44.
Risse, Thomas, ed. Bringing Transnational Relations Back In: Non-State Actors, Domestic Struc-
tures, and International Institutions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Risse, Thomas. “Let s Argue! Communicative Action in World Politics.” International Organi-
zation 54 (2000): 1-39.
Risse, Thomas, Stephen C. Ropp, and Kathryn Sikkink. The Power of Human Rights: Interna-
366
BIBLIOGRAPHY
tional Norms and Domestic Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Rose,
Richard, and William Maley. Nationalities in the Baltic States: A Survey Study. Glasgow:
Centre for the Study of Public Policy, 1994.
Rostoks, Tom. “The Border Issue.” In Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and International
Dimensions. Edited by Nils Muiznieks, 131-39. Riga: University of Latvia, 2006.
Rostoks, Toms. “Latvia’s Security Defense post-2014;"Journal of Baltic Security 2, no. 2 (2016):
71-108.
Rozenvalds, Juris. How Democratic Is LatviaP Monitoring of Democracy 2005-2007. Riga:
Zinatne, 2007.
Ruutsoo, Rein, M. Jacobson, and Leif Kalev. “Segmented Civil Society as a Challenge for De-
mocracy: The Russophone Minority in Estonia.” In Nation-Building in the Context of Post-
Communist Transformation and Globalization: The Case of Estonia. Edited by Raivo Vetik,
73-114. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2012.
Sabanadze, Natale. “Beyond Conflict Prevention: HCNM and Minority Integration.” In Minori-
ty Integration in Central and Eastern Europe. Between Ethnic Diversity and Equality. Edited
by Timofey Agarin and Malte Brosig. New York: Rodopi, 2009.
Sadurski, Wojciech. “Minority Protection in Central Europe and Accession to the EU.” In The
Protection of Minorities in the Wider Europe. Edited by Marc Weller, Denika Blacklock, and
Katherine Nobbs, 209-31. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
Saideman, Stephen. The Ties that Divide: Ethnic Politics, Foreign Policy, and International Con-
flict. New York: Columbia University Press.
Salu, Mikk, and Inga Springe. “Who Is the Puppet and Who Is the Master?—PBK, Edgar Sav-
isaar, the Centre Party and Russian Influence in Estonian Politics.” Baltic Times, April 25,
2012. Accessed April 10, 2015, http://www.baltictimes.com/news/articles/31077/.
Sarv, Margit. Integration by Reframing Legislation: Implementation of the Recommendations of
the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities to Estonia, 1993-2001. Hamburg: Cen-
tre for OSCE Research, Working Paper 7, University of Hamburg, 2002.
Sasse, Gwendolyn. “The Politics of EU Conditionality: The Norm of Minority Protection during
and beyond EU Accession.” Journal of European Public Policy 15, no. 6 (2008): 842-860.
Sasse, Gwendolyn. “Tracing the Construction and Effects of EU Conditionality.” In Minority
Rights in Central and Eastern Europe. Edited by Bernd Rechel, 17-31. London: Routledge,
2009.
Schimmelfennig, Frank. “The Community Trap: Liberal Norms, Rhetorical Action, and the
Eastern Enlargement of the European Union.” International Organization 55, no. 1 (2001):
47-80.
Schimmelfenning, Frank. “The EU: Promoting Liberal Democracy through Membership Con-
ditionality.” In Socializing Democratic Norms. The Role of International Organizations for
the Construction of Europe. Edited by Trine Flockhart, 106-26. Basingstoke: Palgrave Mac-
millan, 2005.
Schimmelfennig, Frank, Stefan Engert, and Heiko Knobel. “The Impact of EU Political Condi-
tionality.” In The Europeanization of Central and Eastern Europe. Edited by Frank Schim-
melfennig, Stefan Engert, and Heiko Knobel, 29-50. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University
Press, 2005.
Schimmelfennig, Frank, Stefan Engert, and Heiko Knobel. International Socialization in Eu-
rope: European Organizations, Political Conditionality, and Democratic Change. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Schimmelfennig, Frank, and Ulrich Sedelmeier, eds. The Europeanization of Central and East-
ern Europe. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
367
Schimmelfennig, Frank» and Ulrich Sedelmeier. “Introduction: Conceptualizing the Europe-
anization of Central and Eastern Europe.” In The Europeanization of Central and Eastern
Europe. Edited by Frank Schimmelfennig and Ulrich Sedelmeier, 1-28. Ithaca: Cornell Uni-
versity Press, 2005.
Schulze, Jennie L. “Estonia Caught between East and West: EU Conditionality, Russia’s Activ-
ism, and Minority Integration.” Nationalities Papers, 38 no. 3 (2010): 361-92.
Schulze, Jennie L. “Shattering the Glass Ceiling: Russian Perspectives on Integration in Esto-
nia.” In Nation-Building in the Context of Post-Communist Transformation and Globaliza-
tion. Edited by Raivo Vetik, 283-318. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2012.
Schulze, Jennie L. “The Ethnic Participation Gap: Comparing Second Generation Russian Youth
and Estonian Youth.” Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 13, no. 1 (2014):
19-56.
Schulze, Jennie L. “Social Relations.” In The Integration of Second Generation Russians in Esto-
nian Society: Country Report on TIES Survey in Estonia. Tallinn: Institute for International
and Social Studies. Accessed June 26, 2016, http://www.tiesproject.eu/component/option
%2ccom_docman/task%2cdoc_download/gid%2c351/Itemid%2cl42/index. html.pdf.
Schwellnus, Guido. “The Adoption of Nondiscrimination and Minority Protection Rules in
Romania, Hungary, and Poland.” In The Europeanization of Central and Eastern Europe.
Edited by Frank Schimmelfennig and Ulrich Seidelmeier, 51-70. Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 2005.
Schwellnus, Guido. “Double Standards? Minority Protection as a Condition for Membership.”
In Questioning Enlargement: The EU in Search of Identity. Edited by Helene Sjursen, 186-
202. London: Routledge, 2006.
Setala, Mataja, and Theo Schiller, eds. Citizens' Initiatives in Europe. Procedures and Conse-
quences of Agenda-Setting by Citizens. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
Sherr, James. Hard Diplomacy and Soft Coercion. Russia's Influence Abroad. London: Chatham
House, 2013.
Simonsen, Sven Gunnar. “Compatriot Games: Explaining the ‘Diaspora Linkage* in Russia’s
Military Withdrawal from the Baltic States.” Europe-Asia Studies 53, no. 5 (2001): 771-91.
Sitter, Nick. “Beyond Class vs. Nation? Cleavage Structure and Party Competition in Central
Europe.” Central European Political Science Review 2 (2001): 75-76.
Slevyte, Janina. Russia's European Agenda and the Baltic States. London: Routledge, 2010.
Smith, Anthony D. National Identity. Las Vegas: University of Nevada Press, 1991.
Smith, David J. “Framing the National Question in Central and Eastern Europe: A Quadratic
Nexus?” Global Review of Ethnopolitics 2, no. 1 (2002): 3-16.
Smith, David J. “Minority Rights, Multiculturalism, and EU Enlargement: The Case of Estonia.”
Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 1, no. 1 (2003): 1-39.
Smith, Graham, Aadne Aasland, and Richard Mole. “Statehood, Ethnic Relations, and Citizen-
ship.” In The Baltic States: The Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Edited
by Graham Smith, 181-205. Basingstoke, 1994.
Smith, Karen. “Western Actors and the Promotion of Democracy.” In Democratic Consolidation
in Eastern Europe. Vol. 2. International and Transnational Factors. Edited by Jan Zielonka
and Alex Pravda. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Sniderman, P. M., and S. M. Theriault, “The Structure of Political Argument and the Logic of
Issue Framing.” In Studies in Public Opinion. Edited by W. E. Saris and P. M. Sniderman,
133-65. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004.
Snow, David A., and Robert D. Benford. “Ideology, Frame Resonance, and Participant Mobiliza-
tion.” International Social Movement Research 1 (1988): 197-217.
368
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Snow, David A., and Robert D Benford. “Master Frames and Cycles of Protest.” In Frontiers in
Social Movement Theory. Edited by A. Morris and C. Mueller, 133-55. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1992.
Snow, David A., Burke E. Rochford, Steven K. Worden, and Robert D. Benford. “Frame Align
ment, Micromobilization and Movement Participation.” American Sociological Review 51
(1986): 464-81.
Snyder, Jack. From Voting to Violence: Democratization and Nationalist Conflict. New York: W.
W. Norton Company, 2000.
Springe, Inga, Sallija Benfelde, and Miks Salu. “The Unknown Oligarch.” Re.Baltica The Baltic
Center for investigative Journalism. April 11, 2012. Accessed January 3, 2013, www.rebaltica
.Iv/en/investigations/money_from_russia/a/686/the_unknown_oligarch.html.
Steen, Anton. Between Past and Future: Elites, Democracy and the State in Post-Communist
Countries: A Comparison of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.
Steen, Anton. “Accessioning Liberal Compliance? Baltic Elites and Ethnic Politics under
new International Conditions.” International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 13
(2006): 187-207.
Steen, Anton. “Do Elite Beliefs Matter? Elites and Economic Reforms in the Baltic States and
Russia.” Comparative Social Research 23 (2007): 79-102.
Steen, Anton. “National Elites and the Russian Minority Issue. Does EU-NATO Integration
Matter?” European Integration 32, no. 2 (2010): 193-212.
Steen, Anton and Jiiri Ruus. “Change of Regime—Continuity of Elites? The Case of Estonia.”
East European Politics and Societies 16, no. 1 (2002): 223-48.
Stokke, Olav. Aid and Political Conditionality. London: Frank Cass, 1995.
Stranga, Aivars. “Russia and the Security of the Baltic States: 1991-1996.” In The Baltic States
Search for Security. Edited by Atis Lejins and Daina Bleiere, 141-85. Riga: Latvian Institute
of International Affairs, 1996.
Stroschein, Sherrill. Ethnic Struggle, Coexistence, and Democratization in Eastern Europe. New
York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Sherrill Stroschein. “Measuring Ethnic Party Success in Romania, Slovakia, and Ukraine.”
Problems of Post-Communism 48, no. 4 (2001): 59-69.
Tabuns, Aivars. “Identity, Ethnic Relations, Language and Culture.” In How Integrated is Lat-
vian Society? An Audit of Achievements, Failures and Challenges. Edited by Nils Muiznieks,
253-78. Riga: University of Latvia Press, 2010.
Thiele, Carmen. “Minority Rights in Europe: An introduction to a Fragmented Regime.” In Hu-
man Rights in Europe: A Fragmented Regime? Edited by Malte Brosig, 120-36. Frankfurt:
Peter Lang, 2006.
Toggenburg, Gabriel N. “The Race Directive: A New Dimension in the Fight against Ethnic
Discrimination in Europe.” In European Yearbook on Minority Issues, 231-44. The Hague:
Kluwer Law International, 2002.
Toggenburg, Gabriel N., ed. Minority Protection and the Enlarged European Union: The Way
Forward. Budapest: LGI Books, 2004.
Toggenburg, Gabriel N. “Who Is Managing Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in the European
Condominium? The Moments of Entry, Integration, and Preservation.” Journal of Common
Market Studies 43, no. 4 (2005): 717-38.
Toggenburg, Gabriel N. “A Remaining Share or a New Part? The Unions Role vis-a-vis Minori-
ties after the Enlargement Decade.” EUI Working Paper Law No. 2006/15, European Uni-
versity Institute, Italy, 2006.
Toggenburg, Gabriel N. “The European Union s Policies vis-a-vis Minorities: A Play in Four
BIBLIOGRAPHY
369
Parts and an Open End.” MIRICO: Human and Minority Rights in the Life Cycle of Ethnic
Conflicts, Sixth Framework Programme, European Academy, Bolzano Italy, 2008.
Toggenburg, Gabriel N. “A Remaining Share or a New Part? The EU’s Role vis-a-vis Minorities
after the Enlargement Decade.” In The Protection of Minorities in the Wider Europe. Edited
by Marc Weller, Denika Blacklock, and Katherine Nobbs, 95-127. New York: Palgrave Mac-
millan, 2008.
Toots, Anu. "The Role of Values in Citizenship Education: a Comparative Study of Estonian-
and Russian-Speaking Schools in Estonia.” International Journal of Educational Research
39 (2003): 565-76.
Tsilevich, Boriss. "Development of the Language Legislation in the Baltic States.” International
Journal on Multicultural Societies 3 (2001): 137-54.
Tversky, Amos, and Daniel Kahneman. “Prospect Theory.” Econometrica 47 (March 1979):
263-91.
Tversky, Amos, and Daniel Kahneman. “The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of
Choice.” Science 211 (January 1981): 453-58.
Vachudova, Milada A. Europe Undivided: Democracy, Leverage, and Integration after Commu-
nism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Vachudova, Milada A. “Tempered by the EU? Political Parties and Party Systems before and
after Accession.” Journal of European Public Policy 15, no. 6 (September 2008): 861-79.
Vermeersch, Peter. “EU Enlargement and Minority Rights Policies in Central Europe: Explain-
ing Policy Shifts in the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland.” Journal on Ethnopolitics and
Minority Issues in Europe (2003): 1-31.
Vermeersch, Peter. “Minority Policy in Central Europe: Exploring the Impact of the EU's En-
largement Strategy.” Global Review of Ethnopolitics 3, no. 2 (2004): 3-19.
Vertovec, Steven, and Susan Wessendorf. “Migration and Cultural, Religious, and Linguistic
Diversity in Europe.” Centre on Migration Policy and Society, Working Paper No. 18. Uni-
versity of Oxford, 2005. Accessed July 14, 2016, https://www.compas.ox.ac.uk/media/WP
-2005-018-Vertovec-Wessendorf_Religious_Linguistic_Diversity.pdf
Vetik, Raivo. Integration of Estonian Society: Monitoring 2005. Tallinn: Integration Foundation,
2006.
Vetik, Raivo, and Jelena Helemae, eds. The Russian Second Generation in Tallinn and Koht-
la-Jarve: The TIES Study in Estonia. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2011.
Vihalemm, Triin. “Estonian Language Performance, Competence, and Beliefs on Acquisition
Among the Russian-Speaking Inhabitants of Estonia, 1989-1997.” International Journal of
Social Language 139 (1999): 69-85.
Vihalemm, Triin, and Veronika Kalmus. “Cultural Differentiation of the Russian Minority.”
Journal of Baltic Studies 40, no. 1 (2009): 95-119.
Vihalemm, Triin, and Anu Masso. “Identity Dynamics of Russian-Speakers of Estonia and in
the Transition Period.” Journal of Baltic Studies 34, no. 1 (2003): 92-116.
Wallace, Helen. “Europeanization and Globalization: Complementary or Contradictory
Trends ” New Political Economy 5, no. 3 (2000): 369-82.
Waterbury, Myra. "Uncertain Norms, Unintended Consequences: The Effects of European
Union Integration on Kin-State Politics in Eastern Europe.” Ethnopolitics 7, no. 2 (2008):
217-38.
Waterbury, Myra. Between State and Nation. Diaspora Politics and Kin-State Nationalism in
Hungary. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
Weller, Marc, ed. The Rights of Minorities: A Commentary on the European Framework Conven-
tion for the Protection of National Minorities. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
370
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Weller, Marc, Denika Blacklock, and Katherine Nobbs, eds. The Protection of Minorities in the
Wider Europe. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
Winnerstig, Mike, ed. Tools of Destabilization. Russian Soft Power and Non-Military Influence in
the Baltic States. FOI-R-3990-SE, 2014.
Wolczuk, Kataryna. “History, Europe and the ‘National Idea’: the ‘Official’ Narrative of National
Identity in Ukraine.” Nationalities Papers 28, no. 4 (2000): 671-94.
Woll, Cornelia, and Sophie Jacquot. “Using Europe: Strategic Action in Multi-Level Politics.”
Comparative European Politics 8, no. I (2010): 110-26.
Woods, Ngaire. “Making the IMF and the World Bank More Accountable.” International Affairs
77, no. 1 (2001): 83-100.
Zaagman, Rob. Conflict Prevention in the Baltic States: The OSCE High Commissioner on Nation-
al Minorities in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Flensburg: European Centre for Minority
Issues, 1999.
Zepa, Brigita. The Changing Discourse of Minority Identities: Latvia. Riga: Baltic Institute for
Social Sciences, 2006.
Zepa, Brigita, Inese Süpule, Evija Kjave, Liga Krastina, Jolanta Krisäne, and Inguna Tomsone.
Ethnopolitical Tension in Latvia: Looking for the Conflict Solution. Riga: Baltic Institute of
Social Sciences, 2005.
Zürn, Michael, and Jeffrey Checkel. “Getting Socialized to Build Bridges: Constructivism and
Rationalism, Europe and the Nation-State.” International Organization 59, no. 4 (2005):
1045-79.
371
Pages in italic indicate Figures.
Abilps, Dzintars, 119, 172, 173, 176
Abkhazia, 4, 77, 161
accession to the EU for Latvia and Esto-
nia, 63-64, 69, 237; democratizing
influence of, 7, 33; development of
minority policies during, 5, 6, 56-59;
and the FCNM, 55; language issues,
43-44; and membership condi-
tionalities, 33, 60, 166, 233, 251-52,
265-66; puzzles of for Estonia and
Latvia, 8-11; reports required by
EU, 25; role of HCNM, 55, 136; role
of OSCE, 55. See also “conditional
amendments” and accession to the
EU; conditionality of European
institutions; Copenhagen criteria
for EU accession (1993); Estonian
accession to the EU; European secu-
rity guarantees; Latvian accession to
the EU; post-accession to the EU for
Latvia and Estonia; pre-accession to
the EU for Latvia and Estonia
accommodation and minority integra-
tion, 37, 46, 48, 269
acquis conditionality, 60, 64-65
Advisory Committee for FCNM, 54-55,
100, 186, 205, 256; monitoring Esto-
nia, 221, 223, 225, 226; monitoring
Latvia, 214-15, 217, 218, 220
Agarin, Timofey, 49, 258
alien acts in Estonia, 85-110
Aliens Act in Estonia (1993), 26, 40, 85,
86-88, 93, 99-100, 101, 233, 252; on
family reunification, 97-100, 102;
on immigration quotas, 97-100, 101;
lists of draft bills on, 102; references
to external pressures, 251; strategic
frames in pre-accession debates on
Estonia’s aliens policy, 99; use of
external fields to justify policy pref-
erence in passage of, 88
Aliens Act in Estonia (2009), 85-86
All for Latvia! See National Alliance All
for Latvia
Ansip, Andrus, 76, 80, 222, 224
“apartheid,” accusations of, 70, 72, 89,
91, 126
Apvienïbas Têvzemei un Brïvîbai/
LNNK frakcija, TB/LNNK. See TB/
LNNK
372
INDEX
assimilation programs in Estonia and
Latvia, 7, 39, 48, 57, 75, 177, 194
Association For Fatherland and Free-
dom/LNNK faction. See TB/LNNK
Baltic states, 27, 38, 50-51, 69, 71, 73,
264, 271; and FCNM, 55; and OSCE,
60; Russian efforts to reassert control
over, 4, 9, 39, 67, 70, 72, 77-78, 98,
116, 140, 264
Berzins, Andris, 217, 219
Birkavs, Valdis, 118, 121
“bottom-up” approaches, need for, 28, 52
Broek, Hans van den, 131, 177
Bronze Soldier crisis in Estonia, 49, 50,
75, 76, 80, 244, 264; aftermath of,
68, 69, 77, 101, 158, 160, 164, 240;
Russia’s involvement in, 68, 69, 76,
77, 160, 238, 258
Brubaker, Rogers, 14, 16, 17, 20, 22
Brüvers, Olafs, 117-18
case studies, 24-27; comparison of
language and election policies
in Estonia and Latvia, 165-230;
naturalization restrictions and cit-
izenship policies in Latvia, 111-35;
and passage of Aliens Act and
Citizenship Law in Estonia, 85-110;
on stateless children in Estonia and
Latvia, 136-64
Central and Eastern Europe (CEE),
3, 5, 12, 255; Europeanization in,
62-63; expansion of EU into, 260;
Hitler and Stalin carving spheres of
influence in, 38; interplays between
European institutions and kin-states
in, 13; minority rights in, 6, 8, 14-15,
16-17, 19, 131, 263, 268-70
Centre faction, 89, 92, 96, 102, 147, 148,
202, 205, 206. See also Estonian
Centre Party faction
Centre Party, 52, 74, 75, 82-83, 238, 248.
See also Estonian Centre Party
Ceràns, Kàrlis, 190-91
Checkel, Jeffrey, 18-19
Churkin, Vitaly, 91, 119
Cilevics, Boriss, 180, 192, 218
Citizenship Act in Estonia (1995), 40,
86-87, 103-10, 108, 251
Citizenship and Migration Department
in Estonia, 95, 100
Citizenship Law in Estonia (1938), 86
Citizenship Law in Estonia (1992), 85,
139; amendment relating to stateless
children, 136, 137, 152, 154-57,
155, 156, 158-62; passage of 1998
amendment to simplify process for
citizenship, 147-54; reinstating 1938
citizenship policy, 86
Citizenship Law in Latvia (1919), 40, 112
Citizenship Law in Latvia (1994), 26,
40-41, 104, 111, 112-24, 114-20,
128-32, 130; amendment on 2007,
128; criticisms of from internation-
al community, 120-21, 124; early
debates as kin-state counter-frames,
137-39; efforts to add more restric-
tions to in 2005, 133-34; European
frames used, 233-34; references to
external pressures, 252; referen-
dum in 1998 on amendments for
Citizenship Law (1994), 131; reform
of 1998 amendment on stateless
children in 2013, 124, 136, 154-57,
155, 157-58, 159, 164; reinforcing ex-
clusion of Russian-speakers in 1998
amendment, 128-32; relationship
to language laws and policies, 174;
security framing in citizenship laws,
138. See also “windows system” for
naturalization adopted by Latvia
citizenship policies in Latvia and Esto-
nia, 4-5, 24-27, 39-43, 48-51, 70;
naturalization for stateless children,
136-64; references to external pres-
sures, 251-53. See also dual citizen-
ship; Estonian citizenship policies;
373
INDEX
Latvian citizenship policies
Coalition Party and Rural Union Elec-
tion Coalition, 149, 183, 203
Coalition Party faction, 90, 150, 210
Commissioner for Human Rights (CE),
161, 214, 220, 226
Commission on Language, Culture, and
Science in Latvia, 171,173, 176
Commission on Security and Coopera-
tion in Europe (CSCE), 91-92,120
Commonwealth of Independent States
(CIS), 125, 129, 158
Communist Party in Latvia, 190-91
“conditional amendments” and acces-
sion to the EU, 5, 22-23, 24, 78, 108,
188, 262; in Estonia, 33, 265; in Lat-
via, 10, 25; use of kin-state framing,
34, 137, 154, 199, 265-66, 267
conditionality of European institutions,
3-4, 8, 12, 13, 23, 27, 56, 66, 98, 112,
124, 152-53, 162, 215, 253; of the
CE, 23, 26, 60-61, 226; democratic
conditionality, 60, 61-62, 63; impor-
tance of EU conditionality, 136-37;
lock-in effects of EU conditionality,
10, 109, 134, 155, 164, 213, 229;
membership conditionality, 7, 8,
16, 25, 26, 33, 60-61, 166, 233, 234,
251-52, 266; and minority rights,
58, 63, 64-65, 135, 178, 229; NATO
conditionality, 26, 199, 211; political
conditionality, 17, 65
Constitutional Commission in Estonia,
200, 201, 206
Constitutional Committee (Estonia),
105, 152, 202
Convention on the Reduction of State-
lessness (UN), 138, 141
Convention on the Rights of the Child
(CRC) (UN), 140, 141, 147, 150,
162-63, 266
“Convention Relating to the Status of
Stateless Persons” (UN), 147, 148
Copenhagen criteria for EU accession
(1993), 6, 9, 11, 52, 56, 64-65, 256,
260
Council of Baltic Sea States (CBSS), 71,
203
Council of Europe (CE), 3, 5, 25, 59, 61,
90, 121; Commissioner for Human
Rights, 161, 214, 220, 226; Common
European Framework of Reference
for Languages, 223; conditionality
of, 23, 26, 60-61, 266; “Convention
on Nationality,” 147; and Estonia,
85, 91, 92, 95, 103, 170, 177, 211, 233;
European Charter for Regional or
Minority Languages, 54, 168, 224,
225; European Commission on
Racism and Intolerance, 55; and the
FCNM, 58; Framework Conven-
tion for the Protection of National
Minorities (1995), 54-55; on HCNM
recommendations on stateless chil-
dren, 140; and human rights, 53-54,
55, 90-91, 203, 243; and Latvia, 10,
60-61, 111, 112, 135, 158, 170, 172,
177, 178, 181, 214, 233-34; monitor-
ing minority protections, 53-55, 257,
260; Parliamentary Assembly of the
Council of Europe, 61; and Russia,
67, 71,154, 223; as a stepping stone
to EU membership, 54
counter-framing, 21, 22, 84, 106-7, 263,
264, 266-67, 269; and European
frames, 62, 107,119-20, 128, 166,
180, 215-17, 228-29, 234, 235, 255;
of external fields, 19-20, 27, 84, 171,
197, 231, 262-63, 266; and kin-state
fields, 34, 67, 154, 156, 211, 215-17,
229, 235, 255, 262, 266, 268; and
Russian frames, 110, 119-20, 128,
211, 237, 262; use of by “minority
advocates,” 27, 67, 248; use of by
“nationalizers,” 53, 67, 92, 108, 110,
119, 131, 139, 162, 166, 172, 178, 186,
199, 207, 208, 232-33, 234, 268. See
also strategic framing
374
INDEX
Crimea, Russian annexation of, 4, 77
Cultural Affairs Commission in Estonia,
185,211
Cultural Commission in Estonia, 169,
222
cyberattacks by Russia, 68, 69, 77
democratic conditionality, 60, 61-62, 63
Democratic Party Saimnieks, 81, 127
Demokratiskas partija Saimnieks. See
Democratic Party Saimnieks
demonstrations and protests: i(Bronze
Night” (2007) in Estonia, 50, 68, 69,
75, 77; organized by “Headquarters
for the Defense of Russian-Language
Schools” in Latvia, 75-76; responses
to Alien s Act in Estonia, 50, 87, 89,
91; Russia employing paid protestors,
76; Russian-speakers’ protests in
Latvia, 49-50., 140. See also Bronze
Soldier crisis in Estonia
disabled people and language require-
ments: in Estonia, 39, 40, 63, 103,
113, 147; in Latvia, 122
discrimination, 16, 55, 56, 57, 73, 180,
192, 200, 201, 206, 256; against
minorities, 6, 15, 53, 57, 58-59, 226;
against noncitizens, 7, 104; against
Russian-speakers, 40, 58, 67, 71, 222.
See also Framework Convention for
the Protection of National Minori-
ties (1995)
disloyalty frames, use of in Latvia, 24,
32, 132, 134, 135, 164, 232, 237, 239,
241, 244, 248, 268; not used in Esto-
nia, 240, 249-50
Dobelis, Juris, 176, 179, 192, 197, 215
dual citizenship, 15, 70, 96-97, 105, 107,
148, 150, 156, 158, 161, 162, 164, 188,
189
economic pressures by Russia, 9, 22, 23,
68, 70, 73, 252-53; against Estonia,
69, 76-77, 91; against Latvia, 72,
111, 119, 124, 126-27, 140, 142-43,
163-64, 166, 170, 172-73, 177, 199,
242
education laws in Estonia and Lat-
via, 45-46, 166, 234, 270. See also
Estonian education laws; Latvian
education laws
Eesti Keskerakond. See Estonian Centre
Party
Eesti Keskerakonna fraktsioon, Kesk.
See Estonian Centre Party faction
Eestimaa Ühendatud Rahvapartei frakt-
sioon, EÜR. See Estonian United
Peoples Party faction
Eesti Rahvusliku Soltumatuse Partei
fraktsioon, ERSP. See Estonian Na-
tional Independence Party faction
Eesti Reformierakond. See Estonian
Reform Party
electoral policies in Latvia and Estonia,
4-5, 24-27, 43-44, 48; explaining
differences between Latvia and Es-
tonia in party and electoral systems,
243-50; impact of Russia on, 4-5, 76;
and language, 165-230; references
to external pressures in Estonia and
Latvia, 252-53
Equal Rights (party), 116, 189
Erakond Isamaaliit. See Pro Patria
Union
Estonia, 4, 7, 18, 24-27; agreement with
Russia for temporary residence
permits for retired military, 99-100;
aliens and citizens in, 8, 85-110;
debates on naturalization between
1998 and 2015, 136-37, 139-40, 147-
54; electoral policies in, 39, 43-44,
194; ethnic makeup of, 38; and the
FCNM, 54-55; impact of European
institutions, 131; losing territory
to RSFSR during Soviet period,
71; minority rights in, 6-7, 52-66;
monitoring by ECR1, 55; national-
ism in, 38-46; “nationalizes” and
INDEX
375
ethnic majority parties, 18; nation-
alizing policies in, 48-51, 84; need
for research on, 271; not signing the
ECRML, 54; numbers of persons
naturalized 1992-2015, 42; parties/
electoral coalitions and parliamen-
tary factions in, xiii-xvii, 79-81,
82-83; responsive to conditionality,
229; role of “minority advocates”
(see Estonian “minority advocates”);
Russia meddling in election in 2007
in Estonia, 76; Russian kin-state
activism in, 66-79; and Russian-
speakers, 4, 7, 50, 51-52; security
framing in citizenship laws, 138; se-
curity threats after passage of Aliens
Act (1993), 85; slowness in meeting
conditions for membership in CE,
10; under Soviet occupation, 24,
38-39, 84, 85, 88, 93, 103, 150, 240;
using external fields in policymak-
ing process, 17-19. See also citizen-
ship policies in Latvia and Estonia;
Estonian exclusionary policies;
Estonian language; Estonian citizen-
ship policies; Estonian “nationaliz-
ers”; Estonia and kin-states; specific
Aliens Acts
Estonia and kin-states, 32, 34, 93-95,
104-6, 108-9, 154, 156, 161, 183, 187,
201-3, 215-17, 232, 236, 238, 241;
counter-frames and framing, 154,
205-11; membership frames used
instead, 205-9
Estonia and NATO, 100; ability to
defend sovereignty, 150; appeal to
NATO on Russian cyberattacks, 77;
on language policies in Estonia, 184,
206, 211; reconfirming commitment
to NATO, 82; requiring closure of
OSCE Mission before accession, 208
Estonian accession to the European
Union: on alien residency, 85,
100-102; changes in language poli-
cies during, 254; citizenship policies
and minority rights, 105-6; Estonia
invited first, 24; and language
requirements for candidates, 206;
stateless children issue, 149-50, 152,
154, 159
Estonian Centre Party, 81, 158-59, 186,
244, 245, 249, 250
Estonian Centre Party faction, 158-59,
160,210, 225, 244, 245
Estonian citizenship policies, 103-10;
aliens and citizens in, 85-110; dual
citizenship not allowed in, 70, 96,
107, 150; fear of stateless persons
taking Russian citizenship, 148;
increase in Russian-speakers*
citizenship applications by (2007-
2008), 51; limits on number who
could be awarded citizenship in,
40; passage of 1998 bill to simplify
process for citizenship for stateless
children, 147-54; Soviet occupation
shaping approach to citizenship and
language, 240; using term “unde-
termined citizenship,” 41. See also
Estonian stateless children
Estonian Constitution, 43, 168-69, 206
Estonian education laws, 46, 152, 220.
See also education laws in Estonia
and Latvia
Estonian exclusionary policies, 10, 80,
88-89, 90, 92, 94, 110, 139, 238, 264,
271. See also exclusion and exclu-
sionary policies; Russian-speakers,
exclusionary policies against
Estonian language: absence of kin-
state frames in language policy
debates, 167, 183, 187, 227, 229-30,
239, 242, 243, 265-66, 270; defin-
ing in Estonia, 209-11; Estonian
policy to ensure children would
speak Estonian, 152; Estonian sign
language as official language, 222;
language certificates, 185-87; lan-
376
INDEX
guage requirements for candidates,
200-211; and the private sphere, 166,
183-84, 185, ¿87, 223, 229, 253; and
the public sphere, 226; references to
external pressures in Estonia, 252;
as requirement for naturalization,
39-40, 103, 104; response to Europe
and defense of language regulations,
220-27; strategic framing in debates
on, 187, 212, 228; working language
of government, 43, 167, 203, 205,
209-11, 226. See also Estonian
education laws; private sphere and
language regulation in Estonia and
Latvia; public sphere and language
regulation in Estonia and Latvia
Estonian “minority advocates”: on alien
policies and the Aliens Act (1993),
89-91, 92, 94, 94, 99, 101,102,
109; capitalizing on perception of
Russian meddling, 156; and debates
on Citizenship Act (1995), 107-8,
108; efforts to guarantee permits to
permanent residents, 96; on family
reunification, 102; fear of stateless
persons taking Russian citizenship,
148; on inclusionary policies, 24,
79, 86; on language policies, 105,
169, 184, 203-5, 228; on language
proficiency certificates in, 186; on
language requirements for candi-
dates, 200, 202-3, 212; need for se-
curity guarantees from Europe, 164,
233; redefining Russian threat and
shifting to that frame, 237; on reduc-
tion of immigration quotas, 97; on
regulating the private sphere, 187; on
rights of associations to use Russian
language, 225; on stateless children,
147, 151,153, 159, 163, 268; on state-
less Russian-speakers, 98; strategic
frames in debates, 94, 99, 102,108,
153,187, 212, 228; use of European
recommendations and standards,
234; use of kin-state security frames,
232, 236, 238-39, 264; using kin-
state security frames, 244; wanting a
softer version of citizenship laws and
simplified procedures, 139; want-
ing more minorities represented in
parliament, 202
Estonian National Independence Party
faction, 92, 105-6
Estonian “nationalizers”: accusing Rus
sian MPs of neoimperialist attitudes,
202; on aliens policies and the Aliens
Act (1993), 88-89, 90, 92-94, 94,
95, 99,102, 110; charging failure of
European institutions to understand
Estonia’s historical situation, 148; on
citizenship policies and the Citi-
zenship Act (1995), 96, 107-8, 108;
critical of external interference on
Estonian government, 139-40, 161;
criticisms of OSCE, 200, 201; desire
for revenge for Soviet occupation,
100; and ethnic majority parties,
79-80; on exclusionary policies
against Russian kin-state, 104-5;
on family reunification, 102; on
language policies, 183, 185, 202, 207,
223, 225,228; on language profi-
ciency certificates, 186; on language
requirements for political candidates,
212\ on making Estonian working
language of government, 209-11; on
meaning of minority rights, 106; on
power of Language Inspectorate, 222;
on regulating the private sphere, 187;
Russian influence in Europe, 164; on
Russian kin-state activism, 137; see-
ing membership in EU as conformity
with European standards, 227; on
stateless children, 148, ¿53,161,163,
266, 267; strategic frames in debates,
94, 99, ¿02, ¿08, ¿53, ¿87,212, 228;
use of kin-state frames to present
Russian-speakers as disloyal, 109; use
INDEX
377
of occupation frames, 150, 266, 267;
using historical legacies and kin-state
policies to reinterpret European
field, 163; using kin-state activism to
undermine European recommenda-
tions on naturalization reforms, 137
Estonian post-accession to the EU peri-
od, 10, 66, 73-78, 100-102, 109-10,
163, 226-27. See also post-accession
to the EU for Latvia and Estonia
Estonian pre-accession to the EU period,
70-73, 94-100, 99, 187. See also
pre-accession to the EU for Latvia
and Estonia
Estonian Reform Party, 82, 246-47
Estonian stateless children, 147-54, 266;
ethnic Estonians favoring citizen-
ship for all children born in Estonia,
162; HCNM recommendations, 103;
liberalization and reforms of 1998
amendment in 2015,136, 137, 155,
156, 158-62,163; Russian citizenship
policy absolving obligations to, 150;
strategic framing in post-accession
debates on, 163; use of European
frames to justify reforms, 255; use
of kin-state framing in debates over,
187; waiver procedure for citizenship
of, 159-60. See also stateless children
in Estonia and Latvia
Estonian United Peoples Party faction,
185,210
“ethnic cleansing,” 70, 89, 91, 113
ethnic majorities in Estonia and Latvia,
3, 4, 7, 18, 39, 47, 48, 51, 57, 74, 250;
ethnic majority parties, 80-81, 244;
and language, 47, 168; nationalizing
policies privileging, 3, 6-7, 37. See
also minorities in Estonia and Latvia
European and Russian frames, impor-
tance of both, 19, 29, 30, 32-34, 94,
108, 112, 117, 123-24, 127, 128, 181,
199, 231, 235, 250-58, 259, 264-65
European Charter for Regional or Mi-
nority Languages (ECRML), 54, 168,
224,225
European Commission, 222; Admin-
istrative Violations Code of, 181;
on Citizenship Law (1994) and
amendments in Latvia, 125, 126,131,
178; on Estonian membership, 86; on
language policies in Estonia, 43,170,
184, 185, 186, 205; on language poli-
cies in Latvia, 170, 176, 180-81, 191;
on limiting non-Estonians in poli-
tics, 204; recommendations on sign
language and language proficiency,
223; Regular Reports, 26, 95; seeing
amendments to Estonia's Allens Act
(1993) as positive step, 97-98
European Commission on Racism and
Intolerance (ECRI), 55, 61, 100, 205,
214,222,224
European Convention on Human Rights
(ECHR), 16, 178, 180, 184, 185, 196,
225-26
European Court of Human Rights, 16,
191
European frames, 28, 30, 33, 109-10, 231,
232-33, 232-36, 250-58; counter-
framing, 62, 107, 119-20, 128, 166,
180, 215-17, 228-29, 234, 235, 255;
decline in use of, 33, 252, 256; and
kin-state framing, 34, 78, 94, 131,
229, 236, 237, 256-57, 269; and
language laws in Estonia and Latvia,
168-70; and minorities, 5, 27, 96,
159, 166, 167, 178, 187, 217, 234; not
always producing policy changes,
33, 34, 102, 110, 183, 213, 229, 233,
235, 253, 254, 255, 256, 259, 262, 265;
use of in Estonia, 83, 101y 101-2, 102,
105-6, 109, 159, 167, 168-69, 183,
187, 200, 203, 232-36, 251-52, 265,
267; use of in Latvia, 120, 125, 131,
166, 169-70, 177, 213, 217, 233, 255,
267-68. See also European and Rus-
sian frames, importance of both
378
INDEX
European institutions, 52-66, 144, 261;
actively promoting rights of Russian-
speakers in Estonia and Latvia, 84;
in Central and Eastern European
countries, 12-14, 16; charged with
failure to understand historical
situations in Estonia and Latvia,
120, 129, 148, 163, 207, 233; democ-
ratizing influence of, 5, 7, 33, 227,
260, 262; and Estonia, 97-100, 183,
184, 201-3, 205-11, 223-24, 226-27,
260-73; existing literature on the
influence of European institutions
and kin-states, 268-70; external
fields references to in post-accession
debates on stateless children, 156;
impact of European institutions on
exclusionary policies (see exclusion
and exclusionary policies); influence
on policymakers, 26, 163, 170-71,
227-28, 231-59, 273; and kin-states,
13, 213-27, 229, 270; and Latvia, 22-
23, 135, 157, 171-72, 176, 178, 191-93,
194-95, 198-99, 213-27; and mi-
nority rights, 16-17, 34, 52-66, 109;
use of socialization mechanisms, 52,
59-62, 65. See also conditionality
of European institutions; European
minority rights framework; external
(international) socialization; specific
organizations
Europeanization, 7, 52-53, 259; and
kin-state framing, 12, 78-79, 163,
269; mechanisms of, 53, 59-62; and
strategic framing, 12, 37, 62-63
European minority rights framework, 8,
15, 27, 52, 58, 67, 107, 233, 268; ambi-
guities in, 17, 53, 62, 65, 166, 168, 217,
266, 269; weakness of, 4, 11, 33, 62,
64, 65, 163, 263, 268-69
European security guarantees, 9, 63-64,
94, 116, 117, 122, 123, 124, 130, 131,
163-64, 166, 206, 209, 233, 255; kin-
state security and kin-state policy
frames, 34, 109, 112, 135, 144, 195,
199, 234, 235, 237, 265-66, 267
European Union (EU), 61-62, 67, 96.
Agency for Fundamental Rights
(FRA), 58; concerns about Russian
pressures, 79, 154; Council of the EU,
127, 141; directives aimed at prevent-
ing discrimination, 57; and Estonia,
82, 97, 152, 186, 206, 211, 224; Esto-
nia and Latvia point to policies in
other member states to justify their
own, 234-35; EU PHARE program
in Estonia, 45; European Council,
56; Framework for the Integration
of Third-Country Nationals (2005),
57; on HCNM recommendations on
stateless children, 140; incentives to
countries for EU membership, 78;
increasing size of, 255, 260; issues of
language rights and political partici-
pation of minorities outside scope of
EU law, 57-58; and Latvia, 79, 124,
127, 154, 177-78; lock-in effects of
EU conditionality, 10, 109, 134, 155,
164, 213, 229; membership condi-
tionality, 60, 64-66, 166; protections
called for by the EU, 3-4, 5-8, 8-11,
56-59, 210; “National Programme
for Latvian Language Training,” 45;
numbers of members adhering to
third-country nationals’ rights, 58;
“Pact on Stability in Europe” (1994),
56; Partnership and Cooperation
Agreement (PCA) between Russia
and EU (1997), 67; Primary Law, 58;
Racial Equality Directive (2000), 57;
recommendations on Romania and
Slovakia, 272; Russian accusations
about Estonia and Latvia’s treatment
of Russian-speakers, 71; Russia not a
member of, 67; Service Directive on
Equal Treatment between Men and
Women (2004), 57; Stabilization and
Association Agreement (2008) be-
INDEX
379
tween EU and Bosnia-Herzegovina,
272; and strategic framing» 61-66;
Treaty on European Union, 57,
183, 185; use of material and social
reinforcement, 59-61. See also
accession to the European Union for
Latvia and Estonia; conditionality
of European institutions; Copen-
hagen criteria for EU accession
(1993); Estonian accession to the EU;
Estonian post-accession to the EU
period; Estonian pre-accession to
the EU period; European minority
rights framework; post-accession
to the EU for Latvia and Estonia;
Latvian accession to the EU; Latvian
post-accession to the EU period; Lat-
vian pre-accession to the EU period;
pre-accession to the EU for Latvia
and Estonia
exclusion and exclusionary policies:
exclusionary aspects of citizenship
and language, 3, 11, 70, 139; impact
of European institutions on, 8-9, 10,
11, 19,21,22, 58, 60, 86, 94, 112, 117,
213, 232, 269; minority exclusion,
4, 6, 9, 11, 34, 92, 137, 236, 250; and
Russian activism, 34, 70, 78, 87-88,
117, 123, 156, 164, 166, 213, 236, 238,
243, 248, 262, 267-68. See also Esto-
nian exclusionary policies; Latvian
exclusionary policies; Russian-
speakers, exclusionary policies
against
external (international) socialization,
18-19, 52, 59-62, 65, 250, 258
external fields, 17, 18, 19-20, 22-24, 29,
32, 34-35; changes in, 26, 27; and
Citizenship Law in Estonia (1995),
85-110, 86-87, 104; and Estonia’s
1993 Aliens Act, 88, 92-93; framing
and counter-framing of, 262-65;
policymaking and framing of exter-
nal fields, 12, 13, 14, 19, 21, 25, 27, 28,
29-30, 46, 231-59; references to in
debates on aliens policy in Estonia,
95, 101; references to in debates
on window system in Latvia, 125;
references to in naturalization de-
bates in Latvia, 133; references to in
post-accession debates on language
policy, 214; references to in stateless
children debates, 141, 156; references
to on language requirements for
political candidates, 188; references
to on regulating languages in the
private sphere, 171; strategic framing
on citizenship for stateless children
in Estonia, 153
external pressure, 26; and aliens policy
in Estonia, 91-93, 109-10; domestic
politics acting as filter between ex-
ternal pressure and policy outcomes,
258-59; Estonian government
reaction to, 161, 201-3; on Estonian
language requirements, 200, 205-11;
impact of on policymaking, 12-13,
32-34; on Latvia’s language policies,
176-81, 197; on naturalization
procedures for stateless children, 26;
perceptions of use of in Latvia com-
pared to Estonia, 242; Russia and
Europe influencing policymaking
in Estonia and Latvia, 228, 250-58,
251-53, 261-65; and strategic fram-
ing, 86, 231, 251-53; and “windows
system” within Citizenship Law
(1994) in Latvia, 120-24. See also
European and Russian frames, im-
portance of both
Faction Harmony for Latvia, 116-17, 189
family reunification, 26, 35, 97-100, 101,
102, 109, 110, 255
Foreign Ministry of Russia, 220, 224
For Human Rights in a United Latvia
Party faction, 83, 245; on naturaliza-
tion restrictions in Latvia, 133; on
380
INDEX
stateless children in Latvia, 157, 177,
179, 180, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195-96,
214,216-17
formal compliance, studies of, 62, 255
Frakcija Latvijas cejs. See Latvia’s Way
faction
Frakcija Saskana Latvijai, SL. See Fac-
tion Harmony for Latvia
frame analysis methodology. See strate-
gic framing
Framework Convention for the Protec-
tion of National Minorities (1995)
(FCNM), 165, 168, 170, 180, 194, 207;
language requirements for Estonia in
violation of Article 10, 209-10; need
for research on, 271; use of in Latvi-
an legislation on minority languages,
213-14, 217, 218. See also Advisory
Committee for FCNM
Free Democratic Party faction, 105, 139
“genocide” accusations against Latvia,
114, 115, 126, 173
Georgia, 9, 23, 77, 161
Grlnblats, Maris, 133, 134
Hague Recommendations regarding
the Education Rights of National
Minorities (1996), 55, 169-70
hard power, use of by Russia in Estonia
and Latvia, 68, 69
Harmony Centre, 74, 83, 157-58, 216,
217, 218, 219, 220, 245, 248-49
Harmony for Latvia faction. See Faction
Harmony for Latvia
High Commissioner on National Mi-
norities of the OSCE (HCNM), 16,
55-56, 61, 63, 72, 232; on Citizenship
Law (1994) and amendments in
Latvia, 111, 117, 124, 125, 127, 131;
concerns over proficiency require-
ments in employment in Estonia,
223-24; criticisms of, 65, 150-51,
154, 229; and the Estonian Aliens
Act (1993), 85, 91-92, 97, 104, 233; on
Estonia’s citizenship policy in early
1990s, 86, 87, 96; on humanitarian
treatment of noncitizens in Estonia,
93, 103-4, 110; on language policies
and Law in Latvia, 119, 171-72, 174,
178; on language policies in Estonia,
183, 184, 205, 223; against Latvia do-
ing mass expulsion of former Soviet
citizens, 112-13; recommendations
on naturalization policies, 136,
149; recommendations regarding
language legislation in Estonia and
Latvia, 170, 177, 201; on stateless
children, 138, 140-42, 147, 150
human rights, 89, 103, 113, 145, 148, 180,
204, 233, 242, 249; and Copenhagen
criteria for EU accession (1993), 56,
152; and the Council of Europe,
53-54, 55, 90-91, 203, 243; Primary
Law of EU, 58
lives, Toomas, 150, 208
immigration quotas: in Estonia, 87,
97-100, 101, 110; in Latvia, 111,
137-38
Independents faction, 88, 106, 148, 150,
201-2, 208
integration, 79, 114, 162, 179, 254-55;
cultural integration, 39; and the
European community, 56, 57, 89, 117,
121, 122, 127, 191-92, 193, 237, 256,
271; integrationist logic and strategy,
46, 100; language as instrument for,
47-48, 100, 113, 196, 211, 213, 222,
225, 243; minority integration, 4, 8,
46, 48, 57, 63, 117, 151, 172, 219, 249;
of Russian-speakers, 48, 58, 106, 202,
240, 262; and social integration (in-
clusions), 56, 57, 106, 183, 213, 220,
223; vs. assimilation, 57, 177
International Covenant on Civil and Po-
litical Rights (ICCPR), 54, 140, 141,
147, 180, 192, 200; Estonian language
INDEX
381
requirements for candidates in con-
flict with, 201, 206, 207
international socialization, 8, 18-19, 24,
35, 60, 65
Isamaaliidu fraktsioon, IL. See Pro
Patria Union faction
Ivanov, Sergei, 147, 202
Jurkans, Janis, 118, 138, 139, 177, 179,
191-92
Keskerakond. See Centre Party
Kesk faction. See Estonian Centre Party
faction
Keskfraktsioon, Kesk. See Centre faction
kin-state, 6, 8, 12-14, 22, 34, 108, 112,
257; advocating for ethnic kin, 3, 7,
14, 16; claiming to protect minori-
ties, 14, 16; and Europe, 13, 37,
157-58, 260-73; existing literature
and future research, 268-73; impact
of on policymaking, 12, 27; impact
on policymaking, 28-29; national-
ism, 15-16, 67; path and form of pol-
icies in Estonia and Latvia, 260-73;
quadratic nexus, 12, 14-17. See also
Estonia and kin-states; European
institutions; Latvia and kin-states;
minorities in Estonia and Latvia;
“nationalizes,” use of kin-state and
kin-state framing; quadratic nexus;
Russia; Russian kin-state; Russian-
speakers
kin-state activism, 9, 16, 32, 236; and
domestic policies in Estonia and
Latvia, 231-59; and stateless children
issue, 136-64
kin-state frames and framing, 22, 32,
33, 34, 93-94, 172, 267-68; absence
of in language policy debates in
Estonia, 110, 167, 183, 187, 227,
229-30, 239, 242, 243, 265-66, 270;
and “conditional amendments, 34,
137, 154, 199, 256-57, 265-67; and
Europe, 34, 79, 112, 118, 124, 131,
139, 174, 201-3, 215-20, 235, 255,
256, 258, 264, 265-67, 268, 269; im-
pact on policies, 33, 79, 95, 144-47,
181, 229, 256-57, 267; “nationaliz-
ers” use of, 21-22, 154, 156, 235; and
stateless children issue, 108, 136-64;
and strategic framing, 78-80; types
of, 104-5, 236. See also disloyalty
frames, use of in Latvia; kin-state
security and security frames; occu-
pation frames;
kin-state policy frames, 257, 265, 266,
268
kin-state security and security frames,
24-25, 33, 135, 137, 199, 229, 232,
236, 241, 255, 257, 265-66, 268;
and Europeanization, 78-80; and
language issues, 137, 144-47, 190;
“minority advocates” use of, 232,
238, 244, 245, 264; “nationalizes”
use of, 34. See also European security
guarantees; security framing
kin-state security framing, 144-47
Kirsteins, Aleksandrs, 139, 143, 176, 189,
216
Koonderakonna fraktsioon, KE. See
Coalition Party faction
Koonderakonna j a Maarahva Liidu
Uhendus. See Coalition Party and
Rural Union Election Coalition
Kosachev, Konstantin, 73, 220
Krasts, Guntars, 126, 127, 143
Kristovkis, Qirts Valdis, 195-96
Laar, Mart, 93, 210, 96,183, 206
Language Act in Estonia (1995), 44, 168,
200, 203, 204, 221, 222, 224-27, 225,
242-43
Language Inspectorate: in Estonia, 167,
168, 183, 186, 187, 221-24, 225-26; in
Latvia, 172, 191, 220
language issues and policies, 4-5, 14-15,
44-45, 74; case studies, 24-27; edu-
382
INDEX
cation laws (see education laws); and
electoral policies, 165-230; explain-
ing differences between Latvia and
Estonia, 241-43; external pressures
on regulation of language require-
ments, 26; impact of Europe on, 5,
57-58, 168-71; impact of Russia on,
4-5; language of government and
political candidates, 187-213; na-
tional languages as tool and symbol
for national identity, 39; references
to external fields in post-accession
debates on language policy, 214. See
also Estonian language; Latvian lan-
guage; Russian language; Russian-
speakers; “working language” of
governments
language laws in Estonia: amendments
to between 1999 and 2003, 167; 1989,
44, 168; 1992, 45-46; 1995, 183-88;
1997, 167; 2011, 213
language laws in Latvia: 1989, 44, 168;
1992, 44, 168; 1999, 166, 171-82,182,
234, 242
Latvia, 7, 17-19, 24-27, 81; adopting
“Declaration on the Occupation
of Latvia,” 71; border treaty with
Russia (2007), 73; ethnic makeup of,
38; Europeanization and minori-
ty rights, 52-66; and the FCNM,
54-55; impact of European insti-
tutions, 13; independence in 1991,
111; losing territory to RSFSR during
Soviet period, 71; nationalism in,
38-46; nationalizing policies in,
48- 51, 84; not signing the ECRML,
54; numbers of persons naturalized
1992-2015, 42; parties/electoral co-
alitions and parliamentary factions
in, 82-83; rights of noncitizens,
42-43; and Russian-speakers in, 4, 7,
49- 50, 51-52; Russia’s influence in,
4; slowness in meeting conditions for
membership in CE, 10; under Soviet
occupation, 24, 38-39, 84, 157; using
term “noncitizen,” 41
Latvia and kin-states, 32, 126-32,
133-34, 154, 156, 157-58, 164,
171-82, 230, 232; counter-frames
and framing, 137-39, 154, 166,
190-91, 196-99, 213, 215-17, 228-29,
241, 262; kin-state exclusion, 157-58;
kin-state mobilization and disloy-
alty, 213-27; language compromises
through kin-state frames, 171-82;
in Latvian language policy debates,
241-43; “nationalizers” use of kin-
state and kin-state security, 112,
137, 144-45, 196, 213, 229, 248, 257;
Russian kin-state activism in Estonia
and Latvia, 66-79; use of security
and membership frames, 195-96.
See also disloyalty frames, use of in
Latvia
Latvia and NATO, 143, 175, 191, 192,
195-97, 267
Latvian accession to the European
Union, 6-7, 124; delay in accession,
135; uptick in naturalizations be-
cause of, 41, 42, 134
Latvian Center for Human Rights,
239-40
Latvian citizenship policies, 39-43,
116, 189; Citizenship Law (1994),
26, 117-18,123; debates on natu-
ralization between 1997 and 2013,
136, 137-39; dual citizenship not
allowed in, 70; European institutions
pressure on citizenship law, 22-23;
limiting voting to restored citizens,
40; naturalization restrictions in,
111-35; offering classes for citizen-
ship, 45; parties/electoral coalitions
and parliamentary factions in, xvii-
xxii; population without citizen-
ship, 8; strategic frames in the 1998
amendment debate for the Citizen-
ship Law (1994), 132; use of kin-state
INDEX
383
security and policy frames, 265-66;
using term “noncitizen,” 41
Latvian Constitution, 50, 167, 193-99,
218-20
Latvian education laws, 45-46, 216; add-
ing restrictions to stateless children
amendment of 1998 in 2005, 157;
calls for official status of Russian
language, 133, 142, 177, 219, 225;
European institutions support, 169.
See also education laws in Estonia
and Latvia
Latvian education laws on languages;
mass demonstrations on school
reform (2003-2004) in, 49-50; reg-
ulating rights to minority language
education, 176; and Russian-
speakers, 172, 239, 242
Latvian election laws, 43-44, 167, 189,
191-92, 193-94,195-96
Latvian exclusionary policies, 24, 34, 79,
237, 239, 243, 248, 262, 264, 268, 270;
relating to language and electoral
policies, 166, 177, 230; relating to
naturalization, 113, 114, 115-16, 118,
123, 130-31, 133, 134; relating to
stateless children, 137, 164. See also
exclusion and exclusionary policies;
Russian-speakers, exclusionary
policies against
Latvian language: calls for official status
of Russian language, 76, 157, 167,
214, 218-20, 242; compromise on
language criteria through kin-state
frames, 144-47, 171-82; debate
on naturalization and language
requirements, 130; fears of Russian
becoming second official language in
Latvia, 214; language laws in, 44-45;
language policies in Latvia post-
accession period, 213-27, 221, 270;
language requirements for candi-
dates, 10, 191-93,198, 215; Latvia
taking over two years to pass a
language law, 266; “nationalizers”
on language examinations for
citizenship, 113; private sphere and
language regulation, 172, 175-82,
182, 213-15; and the public sphere,
177, 213-14; references to external
pressures in Latvia, 253; require-
ments that stateless children be
educated in Latvian-language
schools, 157; resistance, member-
ship, and compromises in language
and election laws in Latvia, 188-99;
use of kin-state framing in Latvian
language policy debates, 241-43;
working language of government,
167, 193-99, 213, 215-20, 267. See
also Latvian education laws; private
sphere and language regulation in
Estonia and Latvia; public sphere
and language regulation in Estonia
and Latvia
Latvian “minority advocates”: on citi-
zenship policies, 116, 117-18,123,
132, 197; desire to meet European
expectations for Citizenship Law
(1994), 130, 180; fears of Russian
becoming second official language,
214; on HCNMs recommenda-
tions during citizenship debates,
169; on language policies, 166-67,
173, 177-78, 180, 182, 194, 198,
199, 214, 215-16, 221; on loyalty of
Russian-speakers, 248; on minority
rights conventions and European
recommendations, 166; on natu-
ralization policies, 134; not playing
“Russia card,” 156, 164; on stateless
children, 145, 146, 159; strategic
framing in debates, 123, 132, 146,
182, 198, 221; on strict requirements
for candidates to be able to run
for office, 189-90; use of citizen
initiatives, 236; use of European
recommendations and standards,
384
INDEX
266; use of membership and security
guarantees, 267
Latvian National Independence Move-
ment, 81, 115-16, 139, 189
Latvian Rationalizers,” 264; accusing
government of being “pro-Moscow,”
143; on citizenship policies, 116,
121, 123, 125, 126, 130-31, 132,
139, 169-70; criticisms of HCNM,
179, 229; efforts to make Russian a
second official language, 214; Europe
not understanding impact of Soviet
occupation, 129, 173; fear of Russian
becoming an official language, 169;
introducing restrictive voting, 25;
justifying exclusionary policies, 24,
125, 126, 130-31, 237, 239, 248, 264;
on language policies, 113, 166-67,
172-74, 175-76, 178, 179, 180, 182,
190, 193-94, 195, 196, 198, 215, 221;
on language policies—resisting
liberatlization of, 172-73, 175, 177,
213, 229; limiting right to stand for
in elections, 189, 192; Rationaliz-
ers” and ethnic majority parties,
80; on naturalization restrictions,
111-12, 119-20, 133, 134; question-
ing Russian influence in Europe,
234; response to Russian econom-
ic pressures in Latvia, 163-64;
on Russia’s activism, 166; seeing
Russian-speakers as disloyal, 112;
Soviet citizens not “stateless,” 129;
on stateless children issue, 142,146,
155-56, 157, 158, 159, 159, 163-64,
267; strategic framing in debates,
123, 132, 182, 198,221; on “threat” of
Russian-speakers, 66, 156, 216; use
of disloyalty frame, 133-34, 237, 241,
248; use of kin-states and kin-state
security frames, 112, 137, 144-45,
196, 213, 229, 235, 248, 257, 264; use
of occupation frames, 158, 179, 232,
241, 266, 267; use of post-accession
period to justify status quo, 164; on
“windows system” and naturaliza-
tion, 124
Latvian post-accession to the EU period,
10, 66; kin-state frames used, 257;
language policies, 213-27, 221;
naturalization restrictions, 132-33,
133, 134; and stateless children issue,
154- 57,159; treatment of Russian-
speakers, 25; use of by Rational-
izers” to justify status quo, 164; on
working language of government in
Latvia, 215-17. See also post-
accession to the EU for Latvia and
Estonia
Latvian pre-accession to the EU period,
25, 125,125, 146, 215-17. See also
pre-accession to the EU for Latvia
and Estonia
Latvian stateless children, 116, 141-42,
144-47; Citizenship Law (1994), the
(1998) amendment simplifying pro-
cedures for, 124, 131, 142-44, 145; ef-
forts to grant citizenship to stateless
children at birth, 138, 157; efforts to
undercut the 1998 amendment on,
155- 56; post-accession debates on,
159; pre-accession debates on, 146;
problems with giving citizenship to
stateless children and not parents,
145; reform and liberalization of
1998 amendment in 2013,136, 155,
157-58,159, 164. See also stateless
children in Estonia and Latvia
Latvia’s Christian Democratic Union,
117-18, 147
Latvia’s Earners’ Union faction, 115, 117,
119, 121, 122, 139
Latvia’s Way faction, 118, 128-29, 189,
190-91, 193
Latvia’s Way Party faction, 81; on
language and electoral policies, 173,
176, 189, 193; on naturalization re-
strictions, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, 121,
INDEX
385
128, 130; on stateless children, 139
Latvijas Kristlgo demokratu savieniba.
See Latvia's Christian Democratic
Union
Latvijas Nacionala neatkaribas kustiba.
See Latvian National Independence
Movement
Latvijas Zemnieku savienibas frakcija,
LZS. See Latvia’s Famers’ Union
faction
Lavrov, Sergei, 68, 155
Legal Affairs Commission (Committee)
in Latvia, 117, 158, 195, 197
Lldztieslba. See Equal Rights
Lisbon, Treaty of (2009), 58-59, 64
Lithuania, 6, 43,194, 271-72
Liv (language), 169, 214, 218
local election laws in Estonia: 1993, 43;
1996, 167
local election laws in Latvia: 1994, 43,
167, 188-89, 199
Local Government Election Act in Esto-
nia (1993), 199, 200-203
loyalty oaths, 40, 43, 104, 114. See also
disloyalty frames, use of in Latvia
Lujans, Modris, 143, 176, 196
Lukas, Tonis, 224-25
Luzhov, Yuri, 72, 126
Malk, Raul, 150, 152
material reinforcement used by EU,
59-61
Maulins, Janis, 128-29
mechanisms of Russia’s kin-state activ-
ism, 68-70
media, 57, 75, 77, 166, 227, 243; Russia
launching new television station in
Estonia, 227, 271-72; Russian-
language media, 9, 22, 69, 70, 74, 75,
76, 89, 145, 216, 219, 240
membership conditionality. See condi-
tionality, membership conditionality
membership frames, 124, 130, 179, 234,
235; in Estonia, 183, 184-85, 253; in
Latvia, 191-93; security and mem-
bership frames, 195-96
Members of Parliament (MPs): analysis
of as part of strategic framing pro-
cess, 31; in Estonia, 44, 48, 107, 110,
147, 152, 160, 186, 200, 202, 203-4,
205, 206, 210, 225, 249; in Latvia, 48,
114, 115, 116, 118-19, 120, 121, 126,
128, 130, 139, 142-44, 145, 157, 175,
191-92, 194, 196, 197, 199, 216-17,
219. See also parliamentary analysis
Meri, Lennart, 91-92, 104, 200, 201, 204
Milbergs, Robert, 114-15
military personnel treatment under
Aliens Act (1993) in Estonia, 95,
99-100
military pressure by Russia on Estonia
and Latvia, 70-71, 72-73, 85, 103,
110; Russia linking withdrawal
of troops in Estonia to rights of
Russian-speakers, 87, 91, 94; Russian
linking withdrawal from Latvia to
less strict citizenship law, 111, 113;
withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1994,
104
Ministry of Culture in Estonia, 238
Ministry of Education and Science in
Latvia, 45
Ministry of Education in Estonia, 183,
185
Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Estonia,
240,242-43
Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Latvia,
239, 257-58
Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Russia, 69
Ministry of Integration in Latvia, 49
Ministry of Justice in Latvia, 214-15
minorities in Estonia and Latvia, 4, 7,
51, 245, 250, 254, 260-61, 260-73;
CE and OSCE monitoring minority
protections, 53, 55-56, 257, 260;
existing literature on minority pol-
icies and the influence of European
institutions and kin-states, 268-70;
386
INDEX
minority inclusion, 3-36, 38, 57, 80,
132, 217; minority mobilizations,
16, 37, 49, 51-52, 67, 75, 261, 269;
minority nationalism, 16; minority
protections called for by the EU, 4,
5-8, 52-66; party positions on mi-
norities in Estonia, 246, 247; party
positions on minorities in Latvia,
246, 247; use of strategic framing
and counter-framing of external
fields, 262-65. See also ethnic
majorities in Estonia and Latvia;
quadratic nexus
“minority advocates” in Estonia and
Latvia, 18, 21-22, 31, 38, 237; jus-
tifying language policies, 228; and
Russian-speaking parties, 81-83;
on stateless children, 155; strategic
framing in citizenship laws, 138; use
of European recommendations and
standards, 232-33, 235, 255; use of
kin-state security frames, 232, 238,
244, 245, 264; use of membership
and security guarantees, 237. See
also Estonian “minority advocates”;
Latvian “minority advocates”
minority languages: rights of minorities
to preserve, 220; Russia as an active
kin-state in area of education reform
in minority language schools, 270;
use of in Estonia, 210-11, 223-24,
226, 227; use of in Latvia, 214,
215-16, 217-18; use of in Lithuania,
271-72
minority rights, 53-59, 63-66, 66-79,
166; meaning of minority rights,
52-53, 229
Missions of the OSCE in Estonia and
Latvia, 61, 91, 165, 170, 188, 201; on
closing of the Missions in Estonia,
206, 208, 210
Moderate faction, 202, 206, 207, 208
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939), 38, 73,
88, 114-15, 120, 134, 144
Môôdukate fraktsioon, M. See Moderate
faction
Muiznieks, Nils, 161, 219
National Alliance All for Latvia!, 81, 158,
215, 217, 245, 246, 247, 248
nationalism in Estonia and Latvia,
12, 14-15, 20, 38-46, 91, 120, 219,
245, 260-61; kin-state nationalism,
15-16, 67; language as primary
instrument of nation-building, 47;
minority nationalism, 16; national-
izing parties and policies in, 3, 7, 14,
15, 18, 33, 35, 37-38, 39, 46, 48-51,
81, 235, 237, 243-44, 256-57; nation-
alizing state, 12, 15, 16, 17
“nationalizers” in Estonia and Latvia,
18, 21-22, 38, 228, 240-41; arguing
for historical context in debates, 228,
233; discrediting European recom-
mendations, 233, 234; and ethnic
majority parties, 79-81; “frame
maps” for, 31; security framing in
citizenship laws, 138; use of kin-
states and kin-state framing, 21-22,
34, 154, 156, 235; use of occupation
frames, 236; use of strategic framing
and counter-framing of external
fields, 262-65. See also Estonian “na-
tionalizers”; Latvian “nationalizers”
Naturalization Board in Latvia, 175
naturalization in Estonia and Latvia:
contributing to stratification of
societies, 46; Estonia’s Citizenship
Act (1995) raising barriers to, 39-40,
104-6; HCNM recommendations for
policy changes, 63; naturalization for
stateless children, 26, 136-64, 255;
naturalization rates, 41, 42, 134; nat-
uralization restrictions in Latvia, 41,
111-35, 133, 144. See also “windows
system” for naturalization adopted
by Latvia
Naturalizaton Board in Latvia, 45, 134
INDEX
387
nexus framework, 20. See also quadratic
nexus; “triadic nexus”
Niklus, Mart-Olav, 88
noncitizens, 8,42; in Estonia, 24, 40, 42,
54, 82, 87, 93, 96, 97, 104, 110, 148,
244, 250, 2500; in Latvia, 8, 41, 42,
43, 54, 58, 112, 119, 120, 122, 124,
125, 127, 128, 139, 141, 144, 145, 158,
175, 179, 190, 218, 220. See also state-
less problem in Estonia and Latvia
“normalization:” policies in Estonia and
Latvia, 52
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO), 3, 5, 43-44, 67; and the
Baltic states, 4, 5, 23, 77-78, 98; and
conditionalities, 26,199, 211; incen-
tives for NATO membership, 78; and
membership for Estonia and Latvia,
8, 9, 25, 26, 63-64, 68, 69, 165; Rus-
sian attempts to counter Estonia and
Latvia joining, 71-72; US Committee
on NATO, 206. See also Estonia and
NATO; Latvia and NATO
Nutt, Mart, 105-6, 148, 149, 152, 201,
222
occupation frames, 236; use of in Es-
tonia, 204, 240, 249-50, 266; use of
in Latvia, 24, 32, 132, 134, 135, 179,
180, 189, 197, 232, 237, 239, 241, 244,
248, 268
occupation of Estonia and Latvia:
fifty years of Soviet occupation, 24,
38-39, 51, 84, 85, 88, 93, 103, 150,
157; language laws during Soviet
occupation of Latvia, 214; Latvia’s
remembrance of, 172-75, 216, 239;
Soviet occupation shaping Esto-
nia’s approach to citizenship and
language, 240
Organization for Security and Coopera-
tion in Europe (OSCE), 3, 25, 59-60,
140, 152, 175; accused of pursuing
the “Laraganov Doctrine,” 151; on
aliens policy in Estonia, 85, 95; Cen-
tral and Eastern Europe countries
desiring membership in, 5; and Cit-
izenship Law (1994) in Latvia, 117,
127; Council of Foreign Ministers,
155; differing rulings on language
requirements for candidates in Lat-
via and Estonia, 207; guidelines for
education, language, and political
participation, 55-56; involved in
monitoring minority protections
during accession process, 53, 55-56,
257, 260; on language policies in
Estonia, 170, 185, 200, 206, 208; on
language policies in Latvia, 170,
173-74, 178, 181, 191; and legislation
to make Estonian working language
of government, 210; most inclusive
of European organizations, 60;
Office for Democratic Institutions
and Human Rights (ODIHR), 193;
recommendations regarding citizen-
ship for stateless children, 143, 158;
Russia’s use of membership in, 67, 71,
154; use of persuasion for states to
adopt appropriate community rules,
61. See also High Commissioner on
National Minorities of the OSCE;
Missions of the OSCE in Estonia and
Latvia
Oslo Recommendations Regarding the
Linguistic Rights of National Mi-
norities (1998), 55, 170, 178
Ossinovski, Jevgeni, 83, 160, 161, 162
Ozolins, Leopolds, 129, 173-74
parliamentary analysis: changes in
ethnicity of members of parliament
in Estonia and Latvia 1993-2011, 48;
of citizenship policies in Latvia and
naturalization restrictions, 111-35;
comparison of language and election
policies in Estonia and Latvia, 165-
230; list of parties and parliamentary
388
INDEX
factions, xiii-xxii; and passage of
Aliens Act and Citizenship Law in
Estonia, 85-110; on stateless chil-
dren, 136-64. See also Members of
Parliament; political party systems
in Estonia and Latvia
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council
of Europe (PACE), 61, 117
Parliamentary Election Act (1998) in
Estonia, 167, 204
Partijas Latvijas Cels frakcija, LC. See
Latvia’s Way Party faction
Partijas Par cilveka tiesibam vienota
Latvija frakcija, PCTVL. See For
Human Rights in a United Latvia
Party faction
People’s Harmony Party, 83, 118, 125,
138, 143
People’s Party, 81, 176
People’s Party faction, 176, 193, 195
policymaking process, 62-63, 98-99,
255-56, 261; framing of external
fields, 12, 13, 14, 19, 21, 25, 27, 28,
29-30, 46, 254; impact of external
pressures, 12-13, 32-34, 251-53;
influence of kin-state activism on
policymaking, 164; influence of Rus-
sia and Europe on, 26, 29, 250-58,
259, 261-65, 267, 273; limits on
policymaking, 23; operationalizing
of policymakers, 38, 84, 272; permis-
sive conditions for policymakers, 65;
place of policymakers in quadratic
nexus, 17-19; policymakers response
to kin-state frames, 79, 232; Russia
as threat to, 238, 239; strategic fram-
ing influences on policymaking,
110, 136, 231-59. See also “minority
advocates”; “nationalizers”; policy
outcomes
policy outcomes, 4, 8, 22, 65, 84, 249,
263; domestic politics as a filter
between external pressure and
policy outcomes, 258-59; external
pressures on, 5, 12, 14, 19, 20, 27, 37,
53, 84, 232, 250, 256, 258, 261, 268;
and strategic framing, 36, 37, 228,
232, 250, 256. See also policymaking
process
political and civic participation as na-
tionalizing policies, 48-51, 57-58
political candidates in Estonia and
Latvia, 188-99; language require-
ments for, 165,167-68,187-88, 188,
191, 191-93, 197, 200-205, 205-11,
215, 227; removal of language
requirements for, 166, 266; strategic
framing on language requirements
for candidates in Latvia, 198. See also
political party systems in Estonia
and Latvia
political conditionality, 17, 65
political mobilzation strategies, 51-52,
269; in Estonia, 42; in Latvia, 37, 84,
249
political party systems in Estonia and
Latvia, 8, 31, 38, 44, 74, 80, 84,
243- 50; in Estonia, 42, 82, 244; ex-
plaining differences between Latvia
and Estonia, 243-50; in Latvia, 42,
81, 213, 245, 248, 249; list of parties
and parliamentary factions, xiii-
xxii; and minorities, 15, 48, 57, 162,
246,247; and noncitizens, 42; and
Russian-speakers, 44, 48, 49, 50, 82,
244- 45, 248. See also Members of
Parliament; parliamentary analysis;
political candidates in Estonia and
Latvia
post-accession to the European Union
for Latvia and Estonia, 4, 135, 155,
166, 237-41, 254; frames used during
the post-accession period, 235-36,
255-56; references to external fields
in post-accession debates on lan-
guage policy, 214. See also Estonian
post-accession to the EU period; Lat-
vian post-accession to the EU period
INDEX
389
pre-accession to the European Union
for Latvia and Estonia, 140-41; on
regulating language in the private
sphere, 170-71,171; Russian crit-
icism of language policies in, 166,
170; Russian kin-state activism in,
23,68, 236-37; on stateless children,
140-42,141; use of European and
Russian frames for reforms, 253. See
also Estonian pre-accession to the
EU period; Latvian pre-accession to
the EU period
private sphere and language regulation
in Estonia and Latvia, 165-66, 167,
169, 172, 175-82, 180, 185, 203-4,
213-15, 223, 227, 229; power of mem-
bership frames, 253; pre-accession
debates, 170-71, 171; private com-
panies use of language, 178; “public
interest” and language in the private
sphere, 165; regulating the private
sphere, 182, 183-84, 187; strategic
framing, 182,187. See also Estonian
language; Latvian language
process tracing methodology, 32, 37,
262, 268
Pro Patria and Res Publica Union fac-
tion, 82, 244; also known as Union
of Pro Patria and Res Publica, 80
Pro Patria Union, 103, 204, 205
Pro Patria Union faction, 80, 96, 149,
150, 205, 206, 209, 210, 222, 224, 244
protests and protesters. See demonstra-
tions
“public interest” and language in the
private sphere, 165
public sphere and language regulation
in Estonia and Latvia, 7, 177, 180,
213-14. See also Estonian language;
Latvian language
Putin, Vladimir, 72, 73, 74, 82, 220
quadratic nexus, 12, 14-19, 84, 272;
operationalizing of, 20, 54, 261;
relationship between European
institutions, kin-states, and national
minorities in Estonia and Latvia,
260-73; strategic framing within, 19,
262-63
Rasnacs, Dzintars Dzintars, 218-19
Red Army, 9, 39, 50, 71, 85, 114, 236
referendums: amendments for Citizen-
ship Law (1994) in Latvia (1998),
131; efforts to pass constitutional
amendment making Russian second
official language in 2011, 218-20;
giving autonomy to in northeastern
Estonia, 91; on language in Latvia
(1998), 175-76; referendum wars
over language in Latvia, 217-20,
242-43
Reformierakonna fraktsioon, RE. See
Reform Party faction
Reform Party faction, 80, 200, 219, 222,
224, 225, 244
(re)independence (1991) of Estonia and
Latvia, 9, 24
research need on Russian and European
impact on policies, 270-73
residency requirement for citizenship:
in Estonia, 39-40, 87, 95-97, 100,
101-2; and standing for elections in
Latvia, 189
Res Publica faction, 80, 186, 224
Res Publica fraktsioon, RP. See Res
Publica faction
right of return, 98, 102
Romania, 6, 7, 271, 272
Rubins, Andris, 174-75
Rumessen, Vardo, 92, 105-6, 210
Russia: border treaty with Latvia (2007),
73; choosing Russian citizenship in
Estonia and Latvia, 8,148; desire for
OSCE to maintain Mission in Latvia,
191; on Estonian language require-
ments for national elections, 87, 205,
206; on Estonia’s Language Inspec-
390
INDEX
torate, 226; external fields references
to in post-accession debates on state-
less children, 156; fight against Esto-
nian language instruction in Russian
schools, 74; Foreign Policy Concept
(2013), 68; on Latvian language law,
198-99; launching new television
station in Estonia, 227, 271; Minis-
try of Foreign Affairs, 69; number
of Russians outside of borders, 66;
offering security guarantees, 71-72,
98; Partnership and Cooperation
Agreement (PCA) between Russia
and EU (1997), 67; Red Army, 9, 39,
50, 71, 85, 114, 236; Russian Foreign
Policy Review of 2007, 68. See also
Russian-speakers; media
Russia card, use of, 156, 164, 264
Russian and Russian kin-state activism,
23, 24-26, 27, 28-29, 29, 32-33, 68-
78, 135, 137, 156, 164, 231-32, 255,
257, 258-59, 261, 265-66, 270, 271;
during the accession period, 237;
and Aliens Act (1993) in Estonia,
85, 91-93, 104, 110; and Citizenship
Law and amendments in Latvia,
113, 118-19, 120-21, 123, 124, 126,
142-44, 146; and domestic agen-
das, 112, 126-34, 255; feeling can
intervene in Baltic based on alleged
discrimination, 66-67; growth and
development of, 27, 33, 66-79, 137,
140, 172-73, 232; impact of on party
and electoral systems in Latvia and
Estonia, 76, 243-50; impact of on
policymaking in Estonia and Latvia,
4, 34, 135, 140, 228, 232, 256-57, 273;
impact on naturalization reform for
stateless children, 136-64; kin-state
frames, 236-41; on language laws
in Latvia, 171, 176-77, 178, 181, 194;
on language policies in Estonia, 184,
270; mechanisms of, 68-70; post-
accession activism, 73-78, 132-33,
237-41, 244; pre-accession activism,
9, 26-27, 70-73, 236-37; seen as a
brake on reform in Estonia and Lat
via, 269; threat to Estonia and Lat-
via, 4, 6, 63, 120, 123, 126, 261, 264;
use of hard and soft power in Estonia
and Latvia, 25, 68-69, 237-38; use
of Russian frames corresponding
to Russian activism, 252. See also
economic pressures by Russia; Eu-
ropean security guarantees; military
pressure by Russia on Estonia and
Latvia; Russian kin-state activism;
Russian-speakers
Russian faction, 95-96, 202
Russian frames. See European and
Russian frames, importance of both;
kin-state frames and framing; Rus-
sian kin-state
Russian kin-state, 9, 35, 66-79, 150, 161,
164, 236-41, 244, 262; and Europe,
5, 13-14, 67, 112, 137, 166, 237; focus
on Russian-speakers, 3, 29, 66, 232,
236, 241; “nationalizes” on dangers
of kin-states and kin-state framing,
21-22
Russian language, 48, 197, 238, 239,
240, 243; calls for official status of
Russian language in Latvia, 133, 142,
157, 167, 177, 214, 218-20, 225, 242;
efforts to exclude from public sphere,
177, 225; efforts to make Russian a
working language, 168, 175, 211, 218;
“Headquarters for the Defense of
Russian Language Schools,” 75-76;
promotion of after Soviet period, 69,
74, 237; promotion of during Soviet
period, 45, 47; and Russification
policies, 38, 115; teaching of in Esto-
nian schools, 45, 226. See also media;
Russian-speakers
Russian-speakers, 46-48; after Aliens
Act (1993) passage in Estonia, 87-88,
92, 95, 96; differences between
INDEX
391
Latvia and Estonia on handling,
49-50, 241-43; disenfranchisement
of in Estonia and Latvia, 3, 7, 37, 39,
47, 84, 103 (see also stateless problem
in Estonia and Latvia); encouraged
by Soviet Union to migrate to the
Baltic states, 38; Estonian fears of,
240; exclusionary efforts against
in Estonia and Latvia, 9, 10, 18, 24,
25, 78, 89, 90, 104-5, 110, 112, 118,
133,156, 177, 230, 236-37, 238; First
Baltic Channel (PBK) (news source
for Russian-speakers), 74; increase in
citizenship applications by (2007-
2008) in Estonia, 51; international-
izing situation for Russian-language
speakers in Estonia and Latvia, 9;
and the Karaganov Doctrine, 151;
lack of participation in civil society
in Estonia and Latvia, 49; language
and electoral policies in Estonia
and Latvia, 44, 165-230, 243-50,
270; Latvia’s fears of, 239, 240, 249;
locations of in Estonia and Latvia,
51-52, 105, 108-9; loyalty questions
about, 24, 48, 88-89, 96, 103, 104,
106, 114, 121, 126, 139, 142, 144, 148,
151, 157, 160, 161, 164, 169, 213, 220,
236, 238, 240, 248, 249, 250 (see also
disloyalty frames, use of in Latvia);
marginalization of, 49-50, 240-41;
mobilization of in Latvia, 230;
naturalization of, 41-42; not seen as
a minority in Latvia, 180; numbers
of in Estonia and Latvia, 46; and po-
litical parties in Estonia and Latvia,
44, 48, 49, 50, 81-83, 244-45, 248;
push to integrate Estonian language
in Russian minority schools, 222-23;
referendum giving autonomy to in
northeastern Estonia, 40; request to
use Russian language as administra-
tive language, 211; Russia intensify-
ing pressure on Latvia on treatment
of, 140; Russia linking withdrawal of
troops in Estonia to rights of
Russian-speakers, 87; Russian
mobilizing of, 85, 87-88, 89, 94,
133-34, 135, 166, 252; Russia’s use
of‘‘soft power” tactics to protect, 25,
68-69, 237-38; securitizing of, 241
(see also security framing); security
frames and reinforcing exclusion
of Russian-speakers in Estonia’s
Citizenship Act (1995), 104-6; seeing
integration programs as assimila-
tionist, 48; seen as “negative others”
by Estonians and Latvians, 38-39;
seen by some as disloyal to Latvia,
134; separation as a reaction in Esto-
nia, 37. See also Russian language
Russification policies, 38, 39, 115, 175,
181, 196, 218, 266, 269; de-
Russification of Latvia, 194
Russkiy Mir Foundation (Russian
World) (NGO), 69, 74, 76
Saeima Election Law (1995) in Latvia,
189, 191-92, 195-96
Saskanas Centrs. See Harmony Centre
Savisaar, Edgar, 52, 75, 82, 248
security framing, 137, 230, 234, 235, 239,
248, 264; in citizenship laws, 141-44,
265-66; in Estonia, 91-93, 205-11;
focus on military threat from Russia,
236, 237; in Latvia, 112, 113, 195-96;
“minority advocates” use of, 237; “na-
tionalizers” use of, 264; and Russia’s
ability to destabilize interethnic re-
lations, 238; and stateless children in
Estonia and Latvia, 156,163. See also
European security guarantees; kin-
state security and security frames
Security Police in Latvia, 75, 220
Siimann, Mart, 149, 183, 203
Slovakia, 6, 7, 271, 272
Social Democratic Party, 80-81, 82-83,
158-59, 160, 161, 244, 248
392
INDEX
social persuasion, 61, 62, 261
soft power, use of by Russia in Estonia
and Latvia, 25, 68-69, 237-38
Soltumatute fraktsioon, S. See Indepen-
dents faction
Sotsiaaldemokraatlik Erakond. See
Social Democratic Party
South Ossetia and Russia, 4, 77, 161
sovereignty, 107, 233; of Estonia, 90, 92,
139-40, 147-48, 150, 151; of Latvia,
83, 116, 121, 122, 179, 193, 249
Soviet Union: independence struggles
against (1988-1991), 47; occupation
of Estonia and Latvia, 24, 38-39, 51,
84, 85, 88, 93, 103, 150, 157; pro-
moting Russian language in Estonia
and Latvia, 45, 47 {see also Russian
language); Russian Soviet Federated
Socialist Republic (RSFSR), 71
Stalin, Joseph, 38, 129, 216
State Language Centre in Latvia, 181,
215, 242
State Language Commission in Latvia,
44, 168
stateless problem in Estonia and Latvia,
7, 41-43, 58, 136-64, 216, 227; Aliens
Act in Estonia, 85-110; Estonia
reducing number of as a strategic
priority, 161; For Human Rights in a
United Latvia Party faction raising
issues of, 83; growth of numbers of,
155; naturalization restrictions in
Latvia, 111-35; question of whether
Soviet citizens be considered state-
less, 107, 129, 139; Russia extending
visa-free travel to stateless, 70; state
actions should not leave people
stateless, 136; stateless children, ex-
ternal fields in pre-accession debates
on, 14i, 156; stateless children and
naturalization, 10, 26, 33, 35, 42-43,
63, 86, 136-64, 267; strict citizen-
ship requirements forcing people to
choose Russian citizenship, 128. See
also Estonian stateless children; Lat-
vian stateless children; noncitizens;
Russian-speakers, disenfranchise-
ment of in Estonia and Latvia
Steen, Anton, 255, 271
Stoel, Max van der, 63, 91, 112-13, 144,
145, 149, 150-52, 173, 174, 177, 179,
201, 223, 234
strategic framing, 19-21, 84, 242-43;
absence of strategic framing in
Estonia in post-accession period,
100-102; as approach to understand
puzzle of Estonia and Latvia and
accession, 12-14; in citizenship laws,
108, 123, 138; and counter-framing of
external actors, 261-62; in debates on
language requirements for political
candidates, 198, 212; differences
in Estonia and Latvia, 23-24, 259;
domestic politics acting as filter
between external pressure and policy
outcomes, 258-59; of the European
field, 178; and Europeanization,
52-53, 61-66; on exclusionary poli-
cies against Russian kin-state, 104-5;
explaining across cases, 231-59;
of external fields allowing policy-
makers to gain compromises, 254;
and external pressure, 86, 231, 264;
frame analysis methodology, 29-30,
31, 32, 79, 262; framing and counter
framing, 21-22, 266-67; framing and
counter-framing delaying “condi-
tional amendments” (see “conditional
amendments” and accession to the
EU by Estonia and Latvia); future re-
search needed, 270-73; and kin-state
framing, 78-80, 131, 255; methodolo-
gy for, 27-32; and minority mobili-
zation, 51-52; model for, 19; not just
a quantitative exercise, 29-30; path
and form of policies in Estonia and
Latvia, 260-73; policymakers in Es-
tonia and Latvia using both Europe
INDEX
393
and Russia to justify policies, 261-65,
267; in post-accession debates on
language policy, 221, 228; in post-
accession debates on restrictions on
naturalization in Latvia, 134; in post-
accession debates on stateless chil-
dren, 159, 163; in pre-accession de-
bates on regulating the private sphere
in Estonia, 187; in pre-accession
debates on stateless children, 146,
153; references to external fields in
post-accession debates on aliens
policy in Estonia, 102; of Russia’s
activism against Latvia, 127; scope
conditions for, 22-24; use of in
Estonia, 88-95, 94, 139-40, 206; use
of in Latvia, 131,182; where domestic
opposition is strong, European and
Russian frames cannot alter policy,
264-65; who is doing the framing
matters, 30-31. See also count-
er-framing; disloyalty frames, use
of in Latvia; European and Russian
frames, importance of both; Europe-
an frames; external fields; kin-state
frames and framing; kin-state
policy frames; kin-state security and
security frames; membership frames;
occupation frames; Russian frames;
security framing
Supreme Council of Estonia, 103, 206,
207
Supreme Council of Latvia, 40, 45
Tabuns, Peteris, 115-16, 127-28, 130,
142, 145, 174, 179, 190, 196, 197
Tarto, Enn, 201-2, 208
Tartu Peace Treaty (1920), 71, 74
Tautas partija. See People’s Party
Tautas partijas frakcija, TP. See People’s
Party faction
Tautas saskai as partija, TSP. See People’s
Harmony Party
TB/LNNK, 189, 217; on language poli-
cies in Latvia, 172, 174, 175-76, 179,
190, 192, 193, 195, 196, 197, 215, 218,
219; on naturalization restrictions
in Latvia, 72, 120, 121,126, 127-28,
130-31, 132, 133-34, 135; position on
ethnic minorities in Latvia, 246; on
stateless children in Latvia, 142, 143,
145, 157, 163
Tomasuns, Andris, 128, 173
Tomusk, Ilmar, 183, 224
Toomsalu, Tiit, 206, 210
“top-down” approaches in Estonia and
Latvia, 35, 52
Treaty of Lisbon (2009), 58-59, 64
Treaty of Tartu (1920), 71, 73
Treaty on European Union, 183, 185
Uhinenud Vene fraktsioon, UV. See
United Russian faction
Ukraine, Russian aggressions in, 9, 161,
164
Ulmanis, Guntis, 120, 128,145
United Nations: Committee on the
Elimination of Racism and Dis-
crimination, 226; Convention on
the Reduction of Statelessness, 138;
Convention on the Rights of the
Child, 140, 141, 147, 148, 150, 158,
162-63, 266; “Convention Relating
to the Status of Stateless Persons,”
147; Declaration of Human Rights,
200; Declaration on the Rights of
Persons Belonging to National,
Ethnic, Religious, and Linguistic
Minorities (1992), 54; Development
Programme, 45; Human Rights
Council, 154-55, 220; International
Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights, 54; “Resolution on Human
Rights and the Arbitrary Depriva-
tion of Nationality” introduced by
Russia, 155; Russian accusations
about Estonia and Latvia’s treatment
of Russian-speakers, 71
394
INDEX
United Russian faction, 147, 148
United Russia Party, 74, 83
Urbanovics, Janis, 193, 216
Vabade Demokraatide fraktsioon, VD.
See Free Democratic Party faction
Vahtre, Lauri, 149, 150-51, 206-7
Valdmanis, Gundars, 144, 174
Veidemann, Andra, 149-50, 151-52
Vene fraktsioon, V. See Russian faction
Vidins, Juris Galerijs, 127, 175-76, 190
Vike-Freiberga, Vaira, 75, 178, 181, 192
waiver procedure in Estonia, 40, 159-60
“windows system” for naturalization
adopted by Latvia, 41, 111, 119,
120-24, 135; Citizenship Law (1994)
in Latvia 1998 amendment ending,
124-25, 142, 143, 147; references to
in pre-accession debates on window
system, 125; strategic frames in the
1998 amendment debate for the Citi-
zenship Law (1994) in Latvia, 132
“working language” of governments, 26,
35, 60, 165, 188, 227, 262; defin-
ing, 209; efforts to make Russian a
working language, 168, 175, 211, 218;
in Estonia, 43, 167, 203, 205, 208-9,
210, 211, 226; European frames and
kin-state counter-frames on, 215-17;
in Latvia, 167, 193, 194, 198, 213,
215-20, 267
Yeltsin, Boris, 66, 70, 72, 91, 113, 120,
126
Yugoslav republics, ethnic conflicts in,
5, 272
“zero option” and citizenship, 43, 116,
121, 148
Zhironovsky, Vladimir, 70, 149 |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Schulze, Jennie L. |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1164506250 |
| author_facet | Schulze, Jennie L. |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Schulze, Jennie L. |
| author_variant | j l s jl jls |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV045067746 |
| classification_rvk | MS 1200 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1047475709 (DE-599)BVBBV045067746 |
| discipline | Soziologie |
| era | Geschichte 1992-2015 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1992-2015 |
| format | Book |
| fullrecord | <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><collection xmlns="http://www.loc.gov/MARC21/slim"><record><leader>00000nam a2200000 c 4500</leader><controlfield tag="001">BV045067746</controlfield><controlfield tag="003">DE-604</controlfield><controlfield tag="005">20200129</controlfield><controlfield tag="007">t|</controlfield><controlfield tag="008">180629s2018 xx |||| m||| 00||| eng d</controlfield><datafield tag="020" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">9780822965114</subfield><subfield code="9">978-0-8229-6511-4</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(OCoLC)1047475709</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(DE-599)BVBBV045067746</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="040" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-604</subfield><subfield code="b">ger</subfield><subfield code="e">rda</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="041" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">eng</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="049" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-12</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-188</subfield><subfield code="a">DE-19</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="084" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">OST</subfield><subfield code="q">DE-12</subfield><subfield code="2">fid</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="084" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">MS 1200</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-625)123556:</subfield><subfield code="2">rvk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="100" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Schulze, Jennie L.</subfield><subfield code="e">Verfasser</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)1164506250</subfield><subfield code="4">aut</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="245" ind1="1" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Strategic frames</subfield><subfield code="b">Europe, Russia, and minority inclusion in Estonia and Latvia</subfield><subfield code="c">Jennie L. Schulze</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="264" ind1=" " ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Pittsburgh, Pa.</subfield><subfield code="b">University of Pittsburgh Press</subfield><subfield code="c">[2018]</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="300" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">XXII, 394 Seiten</subfield><subfield code="b">Diagramme</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="336" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">txt</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacontent</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="337" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">n</subfield><subfield code="2">rdamedia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="338" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">nc</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacarrier</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="490" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Pitt series in Russian and East European studies</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="610" ind1="2" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Europäische Union</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)5098525-5</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="648" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Geschichte 1992-2015</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Minderheitenpolitik</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4170001-6</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Einflussnahme</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4131701-4</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="651" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Lettland</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4074187-4</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="651" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Estland</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4015587-0</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="651" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Russland</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4076899-5</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Minoritetspolitik</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Politiska förhållanden</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Minorities / Government policy / Estonia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Minorities / Government policy / Latvia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Minorities / Political activity / Estonia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Minorities / Political activity / Latvia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2="2"><subfield code="a">Baltikum</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2="2"><subfield code="a">Estland</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2="2"><subfield code="a">Lettland</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2="2"><subfield code="a">Litauen</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2="2"><subfield code="a">Estonia / Politics and government / 1991-</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="653" ind1=" " ind2="2"><subfield code="a">Latvia / Politics and government / 1991-</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="655" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4113937-9</subfield><subfield code="a">Hochschulschrift</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd-content</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Europäische Union</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)5098525-5</subfield><subfield code="D">b</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Russland</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4076899-5</subfield><subfield code="D">g</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="2"><subfield code="a">Einflussnahme</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4131701-4</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="3"><subfield code="a">Estland</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4015587-0</subfield><subfield code="D">g</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="4"><subfield code="a">Lettland</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4074187-4</subfield><subfield code="D">g</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="5"><subfield code="a">Minderheitenpolitik</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4170001-6</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="6"><subfield code="a">Geschichte 1992-2015</subfield><subfield code="A">z</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="5">DE-604</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment</subfield><subfield code="q">application/pdf</subfield><subfield code="u">http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030459200&sequence=000004&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</subfield><subfield code="3">Inhaltsverzeichnis</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment</subfield><subfield code="q">application/pdf</subfield><subfield code="u">http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030459200&sequence=000005&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</subfield><subfield code="3">Literaturverzeichnis</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment</subfield><subfield code="q">application/pdf</subfield><subfield code="u">http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030459200&sequence=000006&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</subfield><subfield code="3">Register // Gemischte Register</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="940" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="n">oe</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="940" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="q">BSB_NED_20200129</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="942" ind1="1" ind2="1"><subfield code="c">909</subfield><subfield code="e">22/bsb</subfield><subfield code="f">090511</subfield><subfield code="g">4</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="942" ind1="1" ind2="1"><subfield code="c">909</subfield><subfield code="e">22/bsb</subfield><subfield code="f">090512</subfield><subfield code="g">4</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="942" ind1="1" ind2="1"><subfield code="c">909</subfield><subfield code="e">22/bsb</subfield><subfield code="f">09049</subfield><subfield code="g">4</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="943" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-030459200</subfield></datafield></record></collection> |
| genre | (DE-588)4113937-9 Hochschulschrift gnd-content |
| genre_facet | Hochschulschrift |
| geographic | Lettland (DE-588)4074187-4 gnd Estland (DE-588)4015587-0 gnd Russland (DE-588)4076899-5 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Lettland Estland Russland |
| id | DE-604.BV045067746 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2025-01-02T13:10:28Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780822965114 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-030459200 |
| oclc_num | 1047475709 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 DE-188 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM |
| owner_facet | DE-12 DE-188 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM |
| physical | XXII, 394 Seiten Diagramme |
| psigel | BSB_NED_20200129 |
| publishDate | 2018 |
| publishDateSearch | 2018 |
| publishDateSort | 2018 |
| publisher | University of Pittsburgh Press |
| record_format | marc |
| series2 | Pitt series in Russian and East European studies |
| spelling | Schulze, Jennie L. Verfasser (DE-588)1164506250 aut Strategic frames Europe, Russia, and minority inclusion in Estonia and Latvia Jennie L. Schulze Pittsburgh, Pa. University of Pittsburgh Press [2018] XXII, 394 Seiten Diagramme txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Pitt series in Russian and East European studies Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 gnd rswk-swf Geschichte 1992-2015 gnd rswk-swf Minderheitenpolitik (DE-588)4170001-6 gnd rswk-swf Einflussnahme (DE-588)4131701-4 gnd rswk-swf Lettland (DE-588)4074187-4 gnd rswk-swf Estland (DE-588)4015587-0 gnd rswk-swf Russland (DE-588)4076899-5 gnd rswk-swf Minoritetspolitik Politiska förhållanden Minorities / Government policy / Estonia Minorities / Government policy / Latvia Minorities / Political activity / Estonia Minorities / Political activity / Latvia Baltikum Estland Lettland Litauen Estonia / Politics and government / 1991- Latvia / Politics and government / 1991- (DE-588)4113937-9 Hochschulschrift gnd-content Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 b Russland (DE-588)4076899-5 g Einflussnahme (DE-588)4131701-4 s Estland (DE-588)4015587-0 g Lettland (DE-588)4074187-4 g Minderheitenpolitik (DE-588)4170001-6 s Geschichte 1992-2015 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030459200&sequence=000004&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030459200&sequence=000005&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB München - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030459200&sequence=000006&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Register // Gemischte Register |
| spellingShingle | Schulze, Jennie L. Strategic frames Europe, Russia, and minority inclusion in Estonia and Latvia Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 gnd Minderheitenpolitik (DE-588)4170001-6 gnd Einflussnahme (DE-588)4131701-4 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)5098525-5 (DE-588)4170001-6 (DE-588)4131701-4 (DE-588)4074187-4 (DE-588)4015587-0 (DE-588)4076899-5 (DE-588)4113937-9 |
| title | Strategic frames Europe, Russia, and minority inclusion in Estonia and Latvia |
| title_auth | Strategic frames Europe, Russia, and minority inclusion in Estonia and Latvia |
| title_exact_search | Strategic frames Europe, Russia, and minority inclusion in Estonia and Latvia |
| title_full | Strategic frames Europe, Russia, and minority inclusion in Estonia and Latvia Jennie L. Schulze |
| title_fullStr | Strategic frames Europe, Russia, and minority inclusion in Estonia and Latvia Jennie L. Schulze |
| title_full_unstemmed | Strategic frames Europe, Russia, and minority inclusion in Estonia and Latvia Jennie L. Schulze |
| title_short | Strategic frames |
| title_sort | strategic frames europe russia and minority inclusion in estonia and latvia |
| title_sub | Europe, Russia, and minority inclusion in Estonia and Latvia |
| topic | Europäische Union (DE-588)5098525-5 gnd Minderheitenpolitik (DE-588)4170001-6 gnd Einflussnahme (DE-588)4131701-4 gnd |
| topic_facet | Europäische Union Minderheitenpolitik Einflussnahme Lettland Estland Russland Hochschulschrift |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030459200&sequence=000004&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030459200&sequence=000005&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=030459200&sequence=000006&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT schulzejenniel strategicframeseuroperussiaandminorityinclusioninestoniaandlatvia |