The Photomultiplier handbook:
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Oxford
Oxford University Press
2017
|
| Ausgabe: | First edition |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | Includes bibliographical references and index |
| Beschreibung: | xxii, 616 Seiten Diagramme |
Internformat
MARC
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| 008 | 170310s2017 |||| |||| 00||| eng d | ||
| 020 | |z 9780199565092 |9 978-0-19-956509-2 | ||
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| 100 | 1 | |a Wright, A. G. |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a The Photomultiplier handbook |c A. G. Wright |
| 250 | |a First edition | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Oxford |b Oxford University Press |c 2017 | |
| 300 | |a xxii, 616 Seiten |b Diagramme | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 500 | |a Includes bibliographical references and index | ||
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804177367788158976 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | ontents
e xix
Figure credits xxi
1 Why photomultipliers? 1
1 1 Aspects of light detection 2
■I, ■ 111 Introduction 2
ti -, 112 Brief history of PMTs 3
| 113 The statistical case for PMTs 4
fc 114 DC detection with a PMT 7
115 Detection of single photoelectrons 9
* ■ ,r116 Detection of multi-photoelectron signals 10
v: 117 Summary of PMT key attributes 11
1 2 Other light detectors 12
■1 121 Silicon PIN diodes 12
4 ■ 122 APDs 12
123 SiPMs 14
1124 Summary of silicon key attributes 16
f ■■ 125 Visible-light photon counters 17
126 CCDs 17
127 Hybrid photodetectors and APDs 17
V13 Pulse height resolution 18
1 4 Position resolution 21
1 5 fv Signal-to-background considerations 21
2 Photocathodes 24
; 21 Introduction 25
1211 Solid angles 26
;• 2 2 Fundamentals of photosensitivity 27
^ • §; 221 The electromagnetic spectrum 27
I 222 Photoelectric phenomena 28
% Iv ■ 223 Photoelectron energy distribution 29
2 3 Spectral radiation and photometric units 30
f 231 Spectral radiant energy 30
■V 232 Photometric units and standards 30
233 Filter measurements 33
234 Calibration laboratories and absolute radiation standards 35
1235 Trap detectors 35
viii Contents
2 4 Optical properties of end window photocathodes 37
241 Refraction in dielectrics 37
242 Reflection from dielectrics 40
243 Photocathode optical properties 42
244 Techniques for measuring photocathode reflectance 43
245 Limits to reliable measurement 44
246 Determination of transmission and absorptance 45
2 5 Spectral sensitivity of photocathodes 50
251 Three foremost photocathodes 50
252 Photocathode response to scintillator light 52
253 Solar blind photocathodes 54
254 Infrared photocathodes 56
255 High-temperature photocathodes 58
2 6 Photocathode geometries 58
261 Range of end window PMTs 58
262 Range of side window PMTs 60
263 Window materials 61
2 7 Photocathode resistivity 62
2 8 QE temperature dependence 65
281 Laboratory and commercial applications,—30 °C to+60 °C 65
282 Ultra-low temperature performance, —273 °C to —30 °C 67
283 High-temperature operation, +60 °C to +200 °C 68
2 9 Dark count temperature sensitivity 69
2 10 Critical photocathode properties 69
2 10 1 Photocathode uniformity 69
2 10 2 Ionizing radiation 72
2 11 Summary of factors affecting photocathode response 73
3 The optical interface to PMTs 78
3 1 Introduction 79
3 2 Light attenuation and reflection coefficients 80
321 Light attenuation length, y 80
322 Reflectance coefficients, p 81
323 Optical coupling of scintillators 83
3 3 Point light source 84
3 4 Interfacing to small volume scintillators 86
341 Interfacing to scintillators of high Z 88
342 Interfacing to scintillators of low Z 90
3 5 Light concentrators 90
351 Light concentrators: Theory 90
352 Light concentrators: Winston cone 91
353 Integrating spheres 92
Contents ix
3 6 Scintillators with diffuse reflecting walls 93
3 7 Light output from scintillator slabs 95
371 Escape cones 95
3 8 Light guides 97
381 Hollow guides with specular reflecting walls 98
382 Solid guides based on TIR 98
383 Adiabatic light guides 99
3 9 Light detection efficiency for scintillators 101
391 PMT viewing a large-area face 101
392 PMT viewing small-area face 103
393 Photoelectron yield for scintillation counters 105
394 Monte Carlo simulations 107
3 10 Uniformity of response in large-area detectors 107
3 11 WLS light guides 109
3 12 Optical fibres 110
3 12 1 Application of fibres to scintillating tiles 112
3 12 2 Use of fibres with large-area plastic scintillator slabs 114
3 13 Techniques for enhancing light detection 115
3 13 1 Anti-reflection coatings 115
3 13 2 Sandblasting 115
3 13 3 Theory of light recycling 117
3 13 4 Internal prismatic window 119
3 13 5 External optical enhancement devices 120
3 13 6 WLS coatings 123
4 Statistical processes 128
4 1 Introduction 129
411 Single- and multi-photon light sources 129
4 2 Binomial, Poisson, and normal distributions 131
4 3 Mean and variance 132
4 4 Folding of probability density functions 136
4 5 Moments 139
451 Moments about the origin 139
452 Central moments 140
453 Factorial moments 141
454 Exercise in photon counting 142
4 6 Probability generating functions 145
4 7 Sum of chance integers 147
4 8 Moment generating functions 149
4 9 Folding with probability generating functions 151
4 10 Cascaded processes 153
4 10 1 Generalized two-stage cascading 153
4 10 2 Light detection statistics 154
4 10 3 Multiplier dispersion 155
4 10 4 Pdf at the dynode 157
x Contents
4 11 Shot noise in DC detection 161
4 12 Noise in multi-photon excitation 163
4 13 Continuous SER distributions 166
4 14 Multi-photoelectron pdfs 169
4 15 MPHD for an empirical SER 173
4 16 Arrival time statistics 175
4 16 1 Exponential time signatures 175
4 16 2 First two moments for R fixed 177
4 16 3 First two moments for R randomized 178
4 17 Determination of afterpulse rates 180
4 17 1 Afterpulses: Method I 181
4 17 2 Afterpulses: Method II 182
4 18 Scaling and dead time 183
4 18 1 Interval distribution 184
4 18 2 The p-fold time interval 184
4 19 Dead time 188
4 19 1 Sources of dead time 188
4 19 2 Counting losses attributed to dead time 190
4 19 3 Type I, paralysable counters 190
4 19 4 Type II, non-paralysable counters 191
4 19 5 Dead time and variance 193
4 19 6 Determination of dead time 194
4 19 7 Suppressing correlated signals 197
5 Secondary emission and gain 202
5 1 Introduction 203
5 2 Gain generation with discrete dynodes 204
5 3 Single-photoelectron noise spectra 208
54S econdary-electron emission 210
541 Classical description 210
542 Secondary-electron yield 214
543 Theory and measurement 215
544 Secondary-electron statistics 216
545 Temperature dependence of gain 218
5 5 Sources of undersized signals 219
551 Inelastic scattering 219
552 Gain non-uniformity 222
553 Events initiated by dx 224
554 Other sources of undersized signals 224
5 6 Discrete dynodes 225
561 Venetian blind dynodes and skipping 226
562 Coarse mesh dynodes 229
Contents xi
563 Fine-mesh dynodes 230
564 Metal-channel dynodes 230
565 Linear and circular focussed dynodes 232
566 Box-and-grid dynodes 234
567 Transmission dynodes 234
5 7 Continuous multipliers 237
571 CEMs 237
572 MCPs 239
573 Gain-voltage considerations in MCPs 240
5 8 Multiplier and PMT gain measurement 241
581 Measurement of G: First method 242
582 Measurement of G: Second method 243
583 Measurement of G: Third method 243
584 Measurement of g : First method 245
585 Measurement of g : Second method 247
586 Measurement of g : Third method 248
587 Measurement of g : Fourth method 249
5 9 Quick determination of g 249
591 Quick determination of g : First method 251
592 Quick determination of g : Second method 251
5 10 Gain-voltage characteristics 252
5 11 C onclusions 253
6 PMT background 257
6 1 Introduction 258
6 2 Dark counts and dark current 259
621 Subdivision of a dark count distribution 260
6 3 Reconciliation of dark current and dark counts 261
6 4 S/B in DC applications 264
6 5 Light generation within a PMT 265
6 6 Sources of background 266
661 Region A: Undersized pulses 267
662 Regions B and C: Single- and multi-electron
background 267
663 Dependence on temperature 267
664 Ionizing radiation 269
6 7 Gamma background 271
671 Radionuclides within PMTs 274
6 8 Cosmic ray muons 276
681 Cerenkov emission in a PMT window 277
682 PMT orientation 278
6 9 Means for reducing background 279
6 10 Summary 279
xii Contents
7 Measurement of low light flux 282
7 1 The physical nature of light detection 283
711 Noise and background 283
7 2 Measurement modes 284
721 Photon counting 284
722 DC detection 284
723 Shot noise power detection 286
7 3 Detection methods and weighting 288
731 Detection techniques 289
7 4 Difference between two count rates * 291
741 Efficient time allocation 291
7 5 Signal recovery instrumentation 293
751 Boxcar integrators 293
752 Lock-in detection 294
753 Synchronous signal averaging 296
754 Signal recovery simulation 297
755 Subdividing time intervals 298
756 Upper and lower thresholds 300
757 Signal magnitudes: Photon counting 301
758 Signal magnitudes: DC detection 302
759 Excess noise factor 303
7 5 10 Ratemeter operation 304
7 6 PMT selection criteria 306
761 Optimal gain for DC detection 307
762 Optimal HV for photon counting 308
763 MCA plateau characteristic 311
764 Critical PMT parameters 312
765 Discriminator threshold 316
7 7 Methods involving DMMs and electrometers 317
771 Measurements with a DMM 317
772 Electrometers 318
773 Voltage dividers 319
8 Timing with PMTs 321
8 1 Electron motion in electric fields 322
811 Introduction 322
812 Electron motion in a uniform electric field 328
813 Electron motion in non-uniform electric fields 329
814 Laws of motion applied to PMTs 330
815 Spot size 331
8 2 Evolution of fast linear focussed PMTs 333
821 The PMT front end 333
822 Contribution to time dispersion from dynodes 337
Contents xiii
823 Transit-time effects at the PMT back end 339
824 Ultra-fast PMTs 341
8 3 PMT output signal 341
831 Signature of the anode signal 341
832 Simulation of photoelectron time intervals 343
833 Simulation of multiplier noise and jitter 345
834 Oscilloscope traces for NaI(Tl) signals 347
835 Scintillator rise and fall time 350
8 4 Timing 351
841 Single-electron time response 351
842 Transit time, T 353
843 Effect of amplitude fluctuations on jitter 356
844 Effect of charge sensitivity on jitter 357
845 Contribution to jitter from noise 357
8 5 Zero crossing and CF methods 358
851 Charge threshold for triggering 361
852 CF technique 363
8 6 Measurement schematics 365
8 7 Multiple statistical sources 369
871 Single-photoelectron output signatures 369
872 Photoelectron timing variance 370
8 8 Photon arrival statistics 373
8 9 Timing measurements 376
8 10 Timing summary 378
9 Linear performance 383
9 1 Introduction 384
911 Modes of operation 385
912 Rate effect 387
913 Causes of non-linearity 387
914 Dynode materials 387
9 2 Dynamic range 388
921 Achievable dynamic range: Analogue 388
922 Achievable dynamic range: Pulse mode 389
923 Onset of DC non-linearity 391
924 Onset of pulsed non-linearity 392
925 Bootstrap method 394
9 3 Theoretical considerations 394
9 4 Advanced linearity investigations 398
941 Single-step method 399
942 Ratiometric method 402
943 Shot noise method 403
9 5 Correcting non-linearity 404
9 6 Non-linearity in inorganic crystals 405
9 7 Summary 407
xiv Contents
Collection and counting efficiency 410
10 1 Introduction 411
10 2 Lost photoelectrons 412
10 2 1 Front end design 412
10 2 2 Optimal operating conditions 413
10 3 Collection and counting efficiency 414
10 3 1 Collection efficiency, F 414
10 3 2 Anode detection efficiency, e 415
10 4 Measurement techniques 415
10 4 1 Attenuation using filters 415
10 4 2 Count rate determination 416
10 5 Determination of F 418
10 5 1 Based on di gain 418
10 5 2 Shot noise 422
10 5 3 The bi-photonic field 424
10 5 4 Calibrated lamp 425
10 5 5 Cerenkov light source 425
10 5 6 Use of a power meter 426
10 5 7 Calibrated silicon photodiodes 427
10 6 Summary and conclusions 428
Signal-induced background 431
11 1 Introduction 432
11 2 Timing instrumentation 432
11 2 1 Amplifier discriminators 432
11 2 2 Configurations for afterpulse measurements 433
11 2 3 Stop—start instrumentation 434
11 3 Prepulses and late pulses 435
11 4 Detector response function 439
11 5 Afterpulses 440
11 5 1 Early measurements 440
11 5 2 Theory of afterpulse generation 442
11 5 3 Contributions to understanding afterpulses 445
11 5 4 Afterpulses in photon counting 447
11 5 5 Exposure of PMTs to helium 448
11 6 Exposure to bright light 449
11 6 1 Settling time: Medium term 449
11 6 2 Settling time: Long term 449
11 7 Summary and conclusions 452
Environmental considerations 455
12 1 Introduction 456
12 1 1 Performance in weak magnetic fields 456
12 1 2 Performance in high magnetic fields 458
Contents xv
12 1 3 The effect of electric fields 458
12 1 4 PMT enclosures, modules, and housings 461
12 1 5 Housings for scintillators 463
12 1 6 Light leaks and electric fields 464
12 2 Operation in harsh environments 465
12 2 1 Shock and vibration 465
12 2 2 Operation at high temperature 467
13 Voltage dividers 471
13 1 Introduction 472
13 2 Gain-voltage relationships 473
13 2 1 Resistive dividers 473
13 2 2 Dividers with zener diodes 475
13 3 Analysis of resistive dividers 477
13 4 Resistive divider operation 482
13 5 Inclusion of zener diodes 484
13 6 Active voltage dividers 488
13 6 1 Fully active N-type analysis 489
13 6 2 Fully active P-type analysis 490
13 6 3 Fully active circuits 493
13 6 4 Gain linearity 495
13 6 5 Partially active circuits 496
13 6 6 Cockcroft-Walton dividers 497
13 7 Voltage dividers for pulsed operation 499
13 7 1 Decoupling capacitors 499
13 7 2 Pin connections 501
13 7 3 Decoupling options 501
13 7 4 Switch-on transients 502
13 8 Methods and circuits 503
13 8 1 Power supply polarity and ripple 503
13 8 2 Wiring options 506
13 8 3 Dynode signals 507
13 8 4 Shorting dynodes 509
13 8 5 Single cable dividers 510
13 8 6 Gain adjustment 511
13 8 7 Equivalent circuit at high frequencies 511
13 8 8 Wiring practice 512
13 9 Gating 515
13 9 1 Electro-optical and mechanical gating 517
13 9 2 HV switching 517
13 9 3 Photocathode gating 518
13 9 4 Dynode gating 518
13 9 5 Focus-electrode gating 521
13 9 6 Circuit realization 522
13 9 7 Pulse generators and shielding 522
xvi Contents
14 Electronics for PMTs 527
14 1 Introduction 528
14 2 Charge output transducers 530
14 3 The role of a preamplifier 531
14 3 1 Interfacing and signal transmission 532
14 3 2 Grounding and shielding 534
14 4 Circuit protection and limiting 534
14 5 Modular electronics 535
14 6 PMT equivalent circuit 538
14 6 1 PMT signal bandwidth 541
14 7 Multiple PMT outputs 543
14 8 Passive circuit analysis 544
14 8 1 Anode DC-coupled R11C network 545
14 8 2 Anode AC-coupled R11C network 547
14 9 Signal-shaping preamplifiers 549
14 9 1 Charge-sensitive preamplifiers 550
14 9 2 Commercial charge-sensitive amplifiers 552
14 9 3 Pole-zero cancellation 554
14 9 4 Preamplifier calibration 555
14 10 Signal-shaping main amplifiers 555
14 10 1 Signal-shaping theory 555
14 10 2 Detector noise 559
14 10 3 Modular detection equipment 561
14 11 Fast amplifiers 562
14 11 1 Discrete-component amplifiers 562
14 11 2 Amplifiers incorporating microwave transistors 564
14 11 3 Fast bench-top and NIM preamplifiers 566
14 11 4 Voltage-and current-feedback OP-AMPs 566
14 11 5 Transimpedance amplifier circuits using CFAs 569
14 11 6 Logarithmic amplifiers 571
14 12 Pulsed-light sources 572
14 13 Optimizing PMT performance 573
14 14 DSP 574
Appendix A PMT output distributions 581
A l General considerations 581
A 2 Schematics and methods for measuring distributions 583
A 3 Integral pulse height distributions 583
A 4 Differential pulse height distributions 583
A 5 Plateau characteristic 584
A 6 Changing variables 585
A 7 Transformations of an analytic function 588
A 8 Transformation of experimental data 591
Contents xvii
A 9 Single-photoelectron distributions 592
A 10 Probability distributions in high temperature
Nal(Tl) applications 597
A 11 Conclusions 600
Appendix B Light emission by the Cerenkov effect 603
B l Introduction 603
B 2 Threshold conditions for the Compton effect 604
B 3 Formulations for Cerenkov emission 606
B 4 The yield from MIPs 608
Appendix C Abbreviations 611
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Wright, A. G. |
| author_facet | Wright, A. G. |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Wright, A. G. |
| author_variant | a g w ag agw |
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| bvnumber | BV044220367 |
| classification_rvk | UH 6900 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)1001245270 (DE-599)BVBBV044220367 |
| discipline | Physik |
| edition | First edition |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV044220367 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T07:46:57Z |
| institution | BVB |
| language | English |
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| physical | xxii, 616 Seiten Diagramme |
| publishDate | 2017 |
| publishDateSearch | 2017 |
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| publisher | Oxford University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Wright, A. G. Verfasser aut The Photomultiplier handbook A. G. Wright First edition Oxford Oxford University Press 2017 xxii, 616 Seiten Diagramme txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Includes bibliographical references and index Sekundärelektronenvervielfacher (DE-588)4180794-7 gnd rswk-swf Sekundärelektronenvervielfacher (DE-588)4180794-7 s DE-604 HEBIS Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=029626354&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Wright, A. G. The Photomultiplier handbook Sekundärelektronenvervielfacher (DE-588)4180794-7 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4180794-7 |
| title | The Photomultiplier handbook |
| title_auth | The Photomultiplier handbook |
| title_exact_search | The Photomultiplier handbook |
| title_full | The Photomultiplier handbook A. G. Wright |
| title_fullStr | The Photomultiplier handbook A. G. Wright |
| title_full_unstemmed | The Photomultiplier handbook A. G. Wright |
| title_short | The Photomultiplier handbook |
| title_sort | the photomultiplier handbook |
| topic | Sekundärelektronenvervielfacher (DE-588)4180794-7 gnd |
| topic_facet | Sekundärelektronenvervielfacher |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=029626354&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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