The crime of aggression: a commentary
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a The crime of aggression |b a commentary |c editors Claus Kreß and Stefan Barriga |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | Contents
List of Contributors
Foreword
Christian Wenaweser and Zeid Ra ’ad Zeid Al-Hussein
Acknowledgements
VOLUME 1
Introduction: The Crime of Aggression and the International
Legal Order
Claus Kreß
page xxviii
xxxix
xl
1
PART I HISTORY 19
1 The First World War, Wilhelm II and Article 227: The Origin
of the Idea of ‘Aggression’ in International Criminal Law
Kirsten Sellars 21
1.1 Introduction 21
1.2 The Purposes of a Trial 22
1.3 New Law to Meet Changed Circumstances 24
1.4 British Retreat on Aggression 25
1.5 Responsibility for Treaty Breaches 27
1.6 Discord over an International Trial 29
1.7 The Problem of Sovereign Immunity 31
1.8 The Majority and the Dissenters 33
1.9 The Creation of Article 227 34
1.10 The Trial Plans Take Shape 37
1.11 The Discoveries at Wilhelmstrasse 40
1.12 Conclusion 46
2 The Crimes against Peace Precedent
Carrie McDougall 49
2.1 Introduction 49
2.2 The Allied Invention of Crimes against Peace 50
2.3 The State Act Element of the Crime
2.3.1 What are Wars of Aggression?
2.3.2 Quantifying or Qualifying War
2.3.3 We Know Aggression When We See It
2.3.4 War with the Object of the Occupation or Conquest
of the Territory of Another State or Part Thereof
2.3.5 War Declared in Support of a Third Party’s War of Aggression
2.3.6 War with the Object of Disabling a State’s Capacity to Provide
Assistance to a Third State Victim of a War of Aggression
Initiated by the Aggressor
2.3.7 A War Waged in Individual or Collective Self-Defence is not
a War of Aggression
2.3.8 What is a War in Violation of International Treaties, Agreements
and Assurances?
2.3.9 Invasions and the Status of ‘Acts of Aggression’
2.3.10 The State Act Element of Crimes against Peace: Conclusion
2.4 Individual Criminal Responsibility
2.4.1 Lines in the Sand: The Relevance of Roles and Responsibilities
2.4.2 Principal Perpetrators: A Leadership Crime?
2.4.3 Planning, Preparing, Initiating or Waging Wars of Aggression:
Actus Reus
2.4.4 Planning, Preparing, Initiating or Waging Wars of Aggression:
Mens Rea
2.5 Individual Criminal Responsibility Reinterpreted
2.5.1 Who Can Commit Crimes against Peace?
2.5.2 Planning, Preparing, Initiating or Waging Wars of Aggression
2.5.3 Mens Rea
2.5.4 Individual Conduct: Conclusion
2.6 Conclusion: The Crimes against Peace Precedent
3 The Legacy of the Tokyo Dissents on ‘Crimes against Peace’
Kirsten Sellars
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Dissents on Crimes against Peace
3.3 The 1950 Watershed
3.4 The Cold War Debates
3.5 The Emergence of the Non-Aligned States
3.6 The Goa Effect
3.7 Debates about a Definition
3.8 Objective and Subjective Criteria
3.9 No Revival of Crimes against Peace
3.10 The Self-Determination Exception
3.11 The Tide Ebbs on the Tokyo Dissents
4 The General Assembly’s Definition of the Act of Aggression
Thomas Bruha 142
4.1 Introduction 142
4.2 Historical Background and Genesis of the Definition 143
4.2.1 First World War and League of Nations Era 143
4.2.2 Second World War, Founding of the United Nations
and London Charter 145
4.2.3 Early Work of the General Assembly, 1946-67 147
4.2.4 On the Way to GA Resolution 3314, 1967-74 150
4.2.4.1 A Changing Political Environment 150
4.2.4.2 Organisation of Work: The Consensus Procedure 152
4.3 Analysis of the General Assembly’s Definition of Aggression 154
4.3.1 Function of the Definition of Aggression 154
4.3.2 Description of the Act of Aggression 156
4.3.2.1 The Central Compromise 156
4.3.2.2 The Composite Definition 158
4.3.2.2.1 General Definition 158
4.3.2.2.2 Acts Qualifying as Aggression 160
4.3.2.2.3 The Double Openness of the Definition 165
4.3.3 Legal Consequences of Aggression 166
4.4 Impact of the 1974 Definition of Aggression 168
4.4.1 The Security Council 168
4.4.2 The General Assembly 169
4.4.3 The International Court of Justice 170
4.5 Summary and Conclusions 172
5 The Practice of the Security Council Regarding the Concept
of Aggression
Nicolaos Strapatsas 178
5.1 Introduction 178
5.2 Security Council Referral 180
5.2.1 Security Council Referral under Article 15 ter Without
a Determination of Aggression 180
5.2.2 Security Council Determination of Aggression Without
a Referral under Article 15 bis 181
5.3 The Aggressor State 181
5.3.1 The Security Council Does Not (Properly) Identify the Aggressor 181
5.3.2 Cases of Controversial Statehood 184
5.3.3 Act of Aggression Committed Against an Unidentified State 185
5.4 The Act of Aggression 186
5.4.1 Acts Referred to by the Security Council Appear in Article 8 bis 186
5.4.2 Acts Referred to by the Security Council are Consistent
with Article 8 bis 188
5.4.3 The Security Council Refers to Acts Potentially Inconsistent
with Article 8 bis 190
5.4.4 The Security Council Does not Refer to Any Specific Acts 191
5.4.5 The Security Council Condemns Successive Acts of Armed
Force as Aggression 193
5.5 Security Council Determination of an Act of Aggression 194
5.5.1 Language Compatible with Article 8 bis without Expressly
Referring to Aggression 194
5.5.2 A Presidential Statement Condemning a Particular Use
of Armed Force 199
5.6 Conclusion 203
6 The International Court of Justice and the Concept of Aggression
Dapo Akande and Antonios Tzanakopoulos 214
6.1 Introduction 214
6.2 A Plethora of Terms (and Concepts) 216
6.3 The ICJ on the Use of Force 218
6.3.1 General 218
6.3.2 Use of Force, Armed Attack and Aggression:
The Gravity Threshold 220
6.3.3 The Parallels between Armed Attack and Aggression 221
6.4 Trying to Make Sense of it All 224
6.5 Conclusion 228
7 The International Law Commission’s Work on Aggression
James Crawford 233
7.1 Introduction 233
7.2 The Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind 234
7.3 The Statute of the International Criminal Court 238
7.4 The Draft Articles on the Responsibility of States 240
7.5 Conclusion 242
8 Negotiations on the Rome Statute, 1995-98
Roger S. Clark 244
8.1 Introduction 244
8.2 The International Law Commission Draft 245
8.3 The 1995 Ad Hoc Committee 247
8.4 The Preparatory Committee, 1996-98 251
8.5 Rome, 15 June-13 July 1998 (To the Brink) 260
8.6 The End Game in Rome, 14-17 July 1998 264
PART II THEORY 271
9 Just War Theory and the Crime of Aggression
Larry May 273
9.1 Introduction 273
9.2 Defining Aggression in the Just War Tradition 273
9.3 The Crime of Aggression 276
9.4 Lessons for Today 278
9.5 Contemporary Just War Theory 281
9.6 Objections and Replies 284
10 The Modem Doctrinal Debate on the Crime of Aggression
Florian Jeflberger 287
10.1 Introduction 287
10.2 ‘Les nouveawc courants. La guerre degression, crime international’ 288
10.3 The ‘Supreme International Crime’: Punishment Ex Post
Facto or Not? 294
10.4 Into Oblivion 297
10.5 But an Ordinary Core Crime 299
10.6 From Pella to May: Some Concluding Observations 300
11 The Specificity of the Crime of Aggression
Astrid Reisinger Cor acini and Pal Wrange 307
11.1 Introduction 307
11.2 Legal Elements 309
11.2.1 Leadership Element 309
11.2.2 An Act of State 312
11.2.2.1 International Jurisdiction over State Acts
Presupposes State Consent 315
11.2.2.2 National Jurisdiction over State Acts
Presupposes State Consent 317
11.2.3 The Target is a State 317
11.2.4 The Crime only Covers the Most Serious Forms
of the Prohibited Acts 321
11.2.5 The Crime of Aggression Refers to the lus Ad Bellum 323
11.2.6 Under the Mandate of the Security Council 324
11.2.7 Alleged Vagueness of the Definition of the Crime 327
11.3 Other Characteristics 329
11.3.1 Practical Consequences: Investigations and Arrests 330
11.3.2 Is the Crime of Aggression More Political? 331
11.3.2.1 The Crime of Aggression Involves Political Acts 331
11.3.2.2 A Crime of Aggression is Conducted as Part
of a Political Struggle
333
11.3.2.3 Proceedings on a Crime of Aggression will Play
a Role in a Political Struggle 333
11.3.3 Will a Prosecution for a Crime of Aggression Interfere
with the Security Council ’s Mandate? 334
11.3.4 May Acts of Aggression be Less or More Morally
Reprehensible than the Commission of the Other
Core Crimes? 336
11.3.5 A Stronger Deterrent Effect? 339
11.3.6 The Relation to World Order 340
11.4 Conclusion 341
12 Aggression and International Human Rights Law
William Schabas 351
12.1 Introduction 351
12.2 The Human Right to Peace 352
12.3 Indifference of Major Non-Governmental Organisations 357
12.4 Ius Ad Bellum and lus In Bello 360
12.5 Concluding Remarks 364
PART III CRIME OF AGGRESSION UNDER CURRENT
INTERNATIONAL LAW 373
13 Interpreting the Crime of Aggression
Leena Grover 375
13.1 Introduction 375
13.2 Guiding Interpretive Principle 376
13.3 Interpretive Arguments 380
13.4 Interpretive Aids 386
13.4.1 Introduction 386
13.4.2 Custom 386
13.4.3 Elements of Crimes 393
13.4.4 1974 GA Resolution 3314 396
13.4.5 Interpretive Understandings 399
13.5 Conclusion 404
14 The State Conduct Element
Claus Kreß 412
14.1 Introduction 412
14.2 Interpretation 418
14.2.1 Basic Structure 422
14.2.2 Use of Force within the Meaning of Article 2(4)
of the UN Charter 422
14.2.2.1 ‘By a State’ 422
14.2.2.2 Use of Force 424
14.2.3
14.2.2.2.1 Use of Force 424
14.2.2.2.2 Use of Force 424
14.2.2.2.3 De Minimis Threshold for a Use
of Force within the Meaning of
Article 2(4) of the UN Charter? 425
14.2.2.2.4 A Use of Force within the Meaning
of Article 2(4) of the UN Charter and
a Requirement of General Intent? 425
14.2.2.2.5 A First Intensity Requirement: Act of
Aggression for the Purposes of
Article 8 bis of the Rome Statute,
Article 39 of the UN Charter and
Aggression under Customary
International Law 426
14.2.2.3 4 Against the Sovereignty, Territorial Integrity
or Political Independence of Another State, or in
any other Manner Inconsistent with the Charter
of the United Nations’ 429
14.2.2.3.1 Consent 429
14.2.2.3.2 No Exception for Uses of Force with
a ‘Benign Purpose’ 431
14.2.2.4 In International Relations 432
14.2.2.5 The List of Specific Acts 435
14.2.2.5.1 The Non-Exhaustive Character
of the List 435
14.2.2.5.2 The Reference to 1974 GA
Resolution 3314 436
14.2.2.5.3 Armed Forces 437
14.2.2.5.4 Littera (a) 438
14.2.2.5.5 Littera (b) 442
14.2.2.5.6 Littera (c) 443
14.2.2.5.7 Littera (d) 444
14.2.2.5.8 Littera (e) 445
14.2.2.5.9 Littera (f) 445
14.2.2.5.10 Littera (g) 448
14.2.2.5.11 Overlaps between the Different
Descriptions 450
14.2.2.6 ‘Unlisted’ Acts of Aggression 451
Unlawfulness of the Use of Force 453
14.2.3.1 The Core of Lawfulness 454
14.2.3.1.1 Collective Security 454
14.2.3.1.2 Self-Defence 455
14.2.3,2 The Grey Areas of the Current International Law
14.2.3.3
on the Use of Force 457
14.2.3.2.1 Questions regarding State Consent 457
14.2.3.2.2 Ambiguities within the UN Charter’s
Collective Security System 458
14.2.3.2.3 Grey Areas Related to the Right
of Self-Defence 459
14.2.3.2.4 Grey Areas Beyond the Right of Self-
Defence 488
Four Unambiguously Unlawful Forms of the Use
of Force 502
14.2.3.3.1 The Use of Force in Support
of a Secessionist Movement Outside
the Colonial Context 502
14.2.3.3.2 The Use of Force to Restore
Democracy 504
14.2.3.3.3 The Use of Force as a Reprisal or
Countermeasure 504
14.2.3.3.4 The Use of Force in a State
of Necessity 505
14.2.4 The Use of Force must be in Manifest Violation of the
UN Charter by its Character, Gravity and Scale 507
14.2.4.1 Considerations Underlying the Threshold Clause 507
14.2.4.2 The Double Function of the Threshold Clause
and the Interrelation of Its Three Components 510
14.2.4.3 The Quantitative Dimension of the Threshold 513
14.2.4.3.1 The Intensity Thresholds in
Article 8 bis( 1) of the Rome Statute
and Article 51 of the UN Charter 513
14.2.4.3.2 The (Difficult) Delineation Between
Scale and Gravity 520
14.2.4.3.3 An Escalating Use of Force 520
14.2.4.3.4 A ‘Bloodless Invasion’ 522
14.2.4.4 The Qualitative Dimension of the Threshold 523
14.2.4.4.1 The Exclusion of a Use of Force to
Avert a Humanitarian Catastrophe
through the Qualitative Dimension
of the Threshold Clause in Particular 524
14.2.4.4.2 A Departure from Customary
International Criminal Law? 526
14.2.4.4.3 A Few Observations on the Practical
Consequences 536
14.2.5 The Need for a Completed Act of Aggression 538
14.3 Conclusion 541
56$
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Individual Conduct
Roger S. Clark
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Conduct Words Stricto Sensu and Article 25(3)
15.3 The Leadership Clause
15.4 The Mental Element
General Principles of International Criminal Law
RogerS. Clark
16.1 Introduction
16.2 The Preparatory Work
16.3 Conclusions
Entry into Force and Conditions for the Exercise
of Jurisdiction: Cross-Cutting Issues
Stefan Barriga and Niels Blokker
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Negotiations
17.2.1 Entry into Force Procedures and State Consent
17.2.2 The Role of the Security Council
17.3 Entry into Force
17.3.1 Concept of ‘Entry into Force’ and Relevant Provisions
in the Rome Statute
17.3.2 Effects of Entry into Force under Article 121(5)
of the Rome Statute
17.3.2.1 Effect of Entry into Force for States Parties
17.3.2.2 Effect of Entry into Force on the Court
17.3.3 Problems with the First Sentence of Article 121(5)
17.4 Activation
17.4.1 Ratification or Acceptance of the Amendments by
Thirty States Parties
17.4.2 Activation Decision in 2017 or Later
17.5 Two ‘Without Prejudice’ Clauses
17.5.1 Determination of an Act of Aggression by an
Outside Organ
17.5.2 Exercise of Jurisdiction Regarding Other Core Crimes
17.6 Conclusion
Conditions for the Exercise of Jurisdiction Based on Security
Council Referrals
Niels Blokker and Stefan Barriga
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Negotiations
18.3 Condition 1: Security Council Referral of a ‘Situation’
18.4 Condition 2: Activation 648
18.5 Not a Condition: State Consent 648
18.6 Not a Condition: Security Council Determination of Aggression 651
18.7 Conclusion 651
19 Conditions for the Exercise of Jurisdiction Based on State Referrals
and Proprio Motu Investigations
Stefan Barriga and Niels Blokker 652
19.1 Introduction 652
19.2 Negotiations 653
19.3 Condition 1: State Referral or Proprio Motu Investigation 653
19.4 Condition 2: Activation 654
19.5 Condition 3: Entry into Force of the Amended Statute for the State
of Territoriality or Nationality 655
19.6 Condition 4: Lack of Opt Out by Aggressor State Party 657
19.7 Condition 5: Exception for Non-States Parties 658
19.8 Condition 6: Determination by Security Council or Authorisation
by Pre-Trial Division 659
19.8.1 Determination of an Act of Aggression by the Security
Council 659
19.8.2 Authorisation by the Pre-Trial Division 661
19.9 Issues Arising from the Second Sentence of Article 121(5)
of the Rome Statute 662
19.9.1 Does the 1998 Rome Statute Allow for
a Single-Ratification Regime? 664
19.9.1.1 The Limits of the ‘Ordinary Meaning’
Interpretation 664
19.9.1.2 Interpreting the Second Sentence in Context 665
19.9.1.3 Conclusion: The Rome Statute Allows for
a Single-Ratification Regime 668
19.9.2 Did the 2010 Review Conference Establish a
Single-Ratification Regime? 669
19.9.2.1 Reasons Speaking in Favour of a
Single-Ratification Regime 669
19.9.2.2 Reasons Speaking against a Single-Ratification
Regime 672
19.9.2.3 Conclusion: The 2010 Review Conference
Established a Single-Ratification Regime 673
19.10 Conclusion 673
20 Immunities
Helmut Kreicker 675
20.1 Introduction 675
20.2 Exclusion of Immunities under Article 27 of the Rome Statute 676
20.3 Irrelevance of Immunities in Cases of Security Council Referrals 677
20.4 Immunities and International Crimes 678
20.4.1 General Functional Immunity Derived from State Immunity 679
20.4.1.1 General Scope of the Immunity 679
20.4.1.2 Exceptions to the General Functional Immunity 680
20.4.2 Immunities of Heads of State and Members of Government 684
20.4.3 Diplomatic and Consular Immunities 687
20.4.4 Exemptions for Members of Special Missions 690
20.4.5 Immunities of Officials of International Organisations 692
20.4.6 Immunities for Soldiers 694
20.4.7 Conclusion 696
20.5 Immunities and Judicial Assistance by States to the Court 696
20.6 Conclusion 698
21 The Crime of Aggression, Domestic Prosecutions and Complementarity
Pal Wrange 704
21.1 Introduction 704
21.2 Requirements for the Exercise of Domestic Jurisdiction 706
21.2.1 The Definition of the Crime of Aggression and its Status
as an International Crime 707
21.2.2 Par in Parem Non Habet Imperium 711
21.2.3 Jurisdiction 714
21.2.4 Bars to Jurisdiction 721
21.2.4.1 Immunity 721
21.2.4.2 Act of State Doctrine and Political Questions
Doctrine (Judicial Restraint) 724
21.2.4.3 Statutes of Limitation 728
21.2.4.4 Amnesties 728
21.2.5 Proof and Other Practical Difficulties 729
21.3 Complementarity Issues 730
21.3.1 The General Features of the Complementarity Regime 730
21.3.2 The Meaning of the Words ‘Has Jurisdiction’ 732
21.3.3 ‘Same Conduct’ 734
21.3.4 The Existence of a Genuine Investigation, Prosecution
or Judgment 736
21.3.5 Complementarity Issues at Different Stages of the Proceedings 740
21.3.6 Gravity 741
21.4 Final Reflections 742
22 The Judicial Function of the Pre-Trial Division
Eleni Chaitidou, Franziska Eckelmans and Barbara Roche 752
22.1 Introduction 752
22.2 Drafting History of Article 15 6/s(8) 753
22.3 Article 15 bis(%)in Context 762
22.3.1 The Three Procedural Steps Envisaged in Article 15 763
22.3.1.1 The Prosecutor’s Preliminary Examination 763
22.3.1.2 The First Jurisdictional Filter: The Security Council 767
22.3.1.3 The Second Jurisdictional Filter: The Pre-Trial
Division 772
22.3.2 Ancillary Issues 772
22.3.2.1 Deferral of Investigation or Prosecution: Article 16 772
22.3.2.2 The Interplay Between Investigations into Different
Crimes Based on a Similar Set of Facts 774
22.4 Judicial Functions of the Pre-Trial Division 778
22.4.1 The Implications of the Pre-Trial Division having Judicial
Functions 778
22.4.2 The Pre-Trial Division’s Powers 782
22.4.3 The Composition of the Pre-Trial Division and its
Decision-Making Process 783
22.4.4 The Presiding Judge of a Pre-Trial Division 789
22.4.5 A Single Judge Acting on Behalf of the Pre-Trial Division 791
22.4.6 Seising the Pre-Trial Division of a Request Pursuant to
Article 15 bis{8) 793
22.5 The Decision of the Pre-Trial Division: Article 15 bis(8) 796
22.5.1 The Applicable Law 796
22.5.2 The Request 797
22.5.3 Representations of Victims in the Article 15 8) Request 801
22.5.4 The Decision of the Pre-Trial Division 803
22.5.5 New Request under Article 15(5) 809
22.5.6 Appeal 809
22.6 Conclusion 811
Victims of the Crime of Aggression
Erin Pobjie 816
23.1 Introduction 816
23.2 Can Individuals be Victims of the Crime of Aggression under
Rule 85(a)? 817
23.2.1 The Notion of ‘Harm’ 818
23.2.2 Distinguishing the Crime of Aggression 820
23.2.2.1 The Protected Interest of the Crime of Aggression
is that of the State 821
23.2.2.2 No Recognition of Individuals as Victims
of Crimes Against Peace 822
23.2.2.3 No Opinio Iuris Recognising Individuals
as Victims of this Crime 822
23.2.2.4 Potential Bases for Recognising Individuals
as Victims of the Crime of Aggression 824
23.2.2.5 Conclusion 826
23.2.3 Does ‘Harm’ Require a Legal Interest to be Affected? 826
23.2.3.1 Ordinary Meaning of‘Harm’ 827
23.2.3.2 Context 827
23.2.3.3 Object and Purpose of the Rome Statute 830
23.2.3.4 Travaux Préparatoires of the Rome Statute 830
23.2.3.5 Conclusions Regarding ‘Harm’ 831
23.2.4 Causal Nexus 832
23.2.5 Personal Interests of Victims 837
23.3 Should Individuals be Recognised as Victims of the Crime
of Aggression? 839
23.4 States as Victims of the Crime of Aggression 847
23.4.1 Can States be Victims of the Crime of Aggression
under Rule 85(b)? 847
23.4.2 Should States be Recognised as Victims under Rule 85(b)? 850
23.5 Conclusion 852
PART IV CRIME OF AGGRESSION AND NATIONAL LAW 861
24 Croatia
Ksenija Turkovic and Maja Munivrana Vajda 863
24.1 Introduction 863
24.2 Definition 865
24.2.1 Leadership Element 865
24.2.2 Individual Conduct 867
24.2.3 Collective Act 869
24.2.4 Mental Element 871
24.2.5 Residual Issues Pertaining to the General Part 873
24.3 Jurisdiction 873
24.4 Cases 876
24.5 Concluding Remarks 876
25 Germany
Elisa Hoven 880
25.1 Introduction 880
25.2 Cases 881
25.3 Interpretation of Section 80 of the German Criminal Code 882
25.3.1 Leadership Element 882
25.3.2 Collective Act 884
25.3.2.1 ‘a war of aggression ...’ 884
25.3.2.2 ‘in which the Federal Republic of Germany
is supposed to participate ’ 886
25.3.2.3 ‘and thereby creates a danger of war for
the Federal Republic of Germany’ 888
25.3.3 Individual Conduct 888
25.3.4 Mental Element 889
25.4 Jurisdiction 890
25.5 Concluding Remarks 891
26 Estonia
Andres Parmas 895
26.1 General Context 895
26.2 Definition 898
26.2.1 Leadership Element 900
26.2.2 Individual Conduct 902
26.2.3 Collective Act 905
26.2.4 Mental Element 908
26.2.5 Residual Issues Pertaining to the General Part 909
26.3 Jurisdiction 910
26.3.1 Territoriality Principle and Flag Principle 911
26.3.2 Personality Principle and Principle of Representation 911
26.3.3 Protective Principle 912
26.3.4 Universal Jurisdiction 912
26.3.5 Other Issues Concerning the Application
of Jurisdiction 914
26.4 Cases 915
26.5 Concluding Remarks 916
27 Russia
Svetlana V. Glotova 923
27.1 The Crime of Aggression in Russian Criminal Law 923
27.1.1 The Legal Framework 923
27.1.2 Individual and Collective Conduct 925
27.1.3 Mental Element 929
27.1.4 Perpetrator 929
27.1.5 Jurisdiction and Trial in Absentia 930
27.1.6 Public Calls to Unleash an Aggressive War 931
27.1.7 Summary 932
27.2 Practice of Investigation: The Georgia Case 932
28 United Kingdom
Roger O Keefe 938
28.1 Introduction 938
28.2 The Current State of the Law 939
28.2.1 Aggression not a Statutory Crime 939
28.2.2 Aggression not a Common Law Crime 939
28.2.2.1 Domestic Legal Background 940
28.2.2.2 R v. Jones (Margaret) 941
28.3 Legal Obstacles to Prosecuting a Statutory Crime of Aggression? 944
28.3.1 Judicial Scrutiny of the Conduct of the UK and of its Executive 945
28.3.1.1 The ‘Theoretical Difficulty’ of Scrutinising the
Conduct of the UK 945
28.3.1.2 The Non-Justiciability of Relevant Exercises
of the Prerogative 948
28.3.2 Judicial Scrutiny of the Conduct of Foreign States 949
28.3.2.1 ‘Buttes’ Non-Justiciability 950
28.3.2.2 The Foreign Act of State Doctrine 952
28.3.3 Judicial Consideration of Unincorporated Treaty Provisions 953
28.4 Judicial Dicta on the Crime of Aggression 954
28.4.1 R v. Jones (Margaret) 955
28.4.2 The Dicta’s Value 956
28.5 Conclusion 957
VOLUME 2
29 The Arab World
Mohamed M. El Zeidy 960
29.1 Introduction 960
29.2 General Context 965
29.3 The 2005 Draft Model Law 967
29.3.1 Drafting History 967
29.3.2 Jurisdiction 971
29.4 Definition 977
29.5 Conclusion 983
30 Asia
Nina H. B. Jorgensen 993
30.1 Introduction 993
30.2 General Context 998
30.2.1 Tajikistan 998
30.2.2 Kazakhstan 999
30.2.3 Uzbekistan 1000
30.2.4 Mongolia 1001
30.2.5 Vietnam 1001
30.2.6 India 1002
30.2.7 Pakistan 1003
30.2.8 Bangladesh 1004
30.2.9 Sri Lanka 1006
30.2.10 Singapore 1007
30.2.11 Myanmar 1007
30.2,12 Malaysia 1007
30.2.13 Cambodia 1008
30.2.14 Thailand 1009
30.2.15 Philippines 1009
30.2.16 Laos 1010
30.2.17 Indonesia 1011
30.2.18 East Timor 1012
30.2.19 South Korea 1013
30.2.20 Japan 1013
30.2.21 China 1016
30.2.22 Hong Kong 1017
30.2.23 Taiwan 1018
30.2.24 Bhutan 1019
30.3 Definition 1019
30.3.1 Leadership Element 1019
30.3.2 Individual Conduct 1021
30.3.3 Collective Act 1021
30.3.4 Mental Element 1023
30.4 Jurisdiction 1024
30.5 Cases 1026
30.6 Conclusion 1028
(Extended) Synopsis: The Crime of Aggression under Domestic
Criminal Law
Astrid Reisinger Coracini 1038
31.1 Introduction 1038
31.2 The Rome Statute Definition as an Emerging Standard for
Domestic Criminal Law 1040
31.2.1 National Legislation 1040
31.2.1.1 Overview 1040
31.2.1.2 Approaches to Implementation 1041
31.2.1.3 Elements of the Crime of Aggression 1044
31.2.2 The Role of Regional Organisations 1048
31.2.2.1 Political Support 1048
31.2.2.2 The Arab Model Law for Crimes within the
Court’s Jurisdiction 1049
31.2.2.3 Prosecuting the Crime of Aggression at the
Regional Level 1051
31.3 National Definitions Predating the 2010 Resolution on the Crime
of Aggression 1055
31.3.1 Implementing Crimes against Peace under
International Law 1055
31.3.1.1 Protected Legal Interests and Policy Considerations 1055
31.3.1.2 Leadership Element 1057
31.3.1.3 Individual Conduct 1059
31.3.1.4 Collective Act 1060
31.3.2 Extending the Modes of Perpetration 1062
31.3.3 Limiting Individual Criminal Responsibility to Modes
of Perpetration Beyond the Crimes against Peace Formula 1063
31.3.4 Addendum: Criminalising Aspects of Crimes against Peace
to Protect the State 1064
31.4 Penalties 1065
31.5 Jurisdiction 1067
31.6 Case Law 1069
31.7 Evaluation 1071
32 Selected National Laws and Regional Instruments on the Crime
of Aggression 1079
PART V CRIME OF AGGRESSION AND THE FUTURE
WORLD ORDER 1115
A. ACTORS VIEWS 1115
33 Brazil
Marcel Biato and Marcelo Böhlke 1117
33.1 Introduction 1117
33.2 Brazil’s General Stance on the Issue 1118
33.3 Informal Meetings and the Reconvened Eighth Session
of the ASP 1121
33.4 Preparations for the Review Conference 1123
33.5 Concluding Remarks 1129
34 China
Zhou Lulu 1131
34.1 Introduction 1131
34.2 Definition of the Crime of Aggression 1131
34.2.1 The State Act of Aggression 1131
34.2.2 The Threshold Clause 1132
34.3 The Role of the Security Council 1133
34.4 Entry into Force of the Amendments 1137
34.4.1 Entry into Force for a State Party 1137
34.4.2 Activation of the Court’s Jurisdiction 1137
34.5 The Question of Consent by the State Concerned 1138
1138
1138
1139
1140
1143
1143
1144
1147
1147
1149
1149
1151
1152
1154
1156
1158
1158
1159
1161
1163
1164
1164
1165
1168
1169
1171
1174
1174
1175
1175
1176
1178
1178
34.5.1 Consent and Security Council Referrals
34.5.2 Consent for State Referrals and Proprio Motu
Investigations
34.6 Domestic Jurisdiction over the Crime of Aggression
34.7 Conclusion
France
Edwige Belliard
35.1 Introduction
i
35.2 France’s Statement following Adoption of the Resolution on the
Crime of Aggression
35.3 The Conditions for the Amendment’s Entry into Force
35.4 Conclusion
Germany
Susanne Wasum-Rainer
36.1 Introduction: Germany and the Way to Kampala
36.2 Significance of the Crime of Aggression
36.3 Challenges
36.4 The Way Ahead
36.5 Conclusion
India
Narinder Singh
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Consideration by the UN General Assembly
37.3 The UN General Assembly’s Definition of Aggression
37.4 The Definition of the Crime of Aggression
37.5 The Court’s Jurisdiction over the Crime of Aggression
37.6 Triggering the Court’s Jurisdiction
37.7 Role of the Security Council
37.8 Position of the Non-Aligned Movement
37.9 Article 15 bis and 15 ter: Exercise of Jurisdiction
37.10 Conclusion
Iran
Djamchid Momtaz and Esmaeil Baghaei Hamaneh
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Iran’s Long Quest to Hold Aggressors Accountable
38.2.1 Iran’s Sustained Support for Defining Aggression
38.2.2 The Islamic Republic and Aggression
38.3 Iran and the Review Conference
38.3.1 Iran’s Concerns over Manipulation of the Definition
of Aggression
38.3.2 Iran’s Concerns over Conditions for the Court’s
Exercise of Jurisdiction 1182
38.3.3 Iran’s Concerns over the ‘Understandings’ on the Definition 1185
38.4 Conclusion 1192
39 Israel
Roy S. Schondorf and Daniel Geron 1198
39.1 Introduction 1198
39.2 Definitional Pitfalls 1199
39.2.1 Legality: Precise, Clear and Customary? 1200
39.2.2 Legitimacy: Grey Areas and Hard Cases? 1203
39.2.3 Relevance: Modem Threats and Non-State Actors? 1206
39.3 Jurisdictional Safeguards 1209
39.3.1 The Requirement of State Consent 1210
39.3.2 The Role of the Security Council 1211
39.4 Conclusion 1212
40 Japan
Ichiro Komatsu 1217
40.1 The Rome Statute and Japan 1217
40.2 The Special Significance of the Review Conference for Japan 1220
40.2.1 Historical Background 1220
40.2.2 Why did Japan Stick to the Notion of ‘Legal Coherence’
to the End? 1222
40.2.2.1 Japan’s Basic Principles in Kampala 1222
40.2.2.2 Legal Coherence when Amending a Treaty:
An End does not Justify a Means 1224
40.3 Legal Coherence in Amending Treaties 1226
40.3.1 The Relevant Amendment Provisions 1226
40.3.1.1 The Polemic over the Applicable Amendment
Procedure: What is the Real Issue? 1226
40.3.1.2 Article 121(4) versus Article 121(5) 1228
40.3.1.3 The So-Called ‘Negative’ and ‘Positive’
Understandings of Article 121 (5) 1228
40.3.2 Problems in the 2010 Resolution on the Crime
of Aggression 1230
40.4 How should States Parties Act in the Light of the 2010 Resolution
on the Crime of Aggression? 1231
41 Republic of Korea (South Korea)
Young Sok Kim 1234
41.1 Introduction 1234
41.2 Significance of the Crime for South Korea and the East
Asia Region
1236
41.3 Challenges and the Way Ahead 1237
41.4 Conclusion 1239
Norway
Rolf Einar Fife 1242
42.1 Introduction 1242
42.2 The First World War and Governing Assumptions in the Aftermath
of the ‘Original Catastrophe’ of the Twentieth Century 1244
42.3 ‘Cosmopolis and Utopia’ after the First World War 1245
42.4 A Perspective of Legal Theory: The Principle of Formal Justice 1247
42.5 The Integration of Social Theory Perspectives into the Theory of
International Law after the First World War 1249
42.6 Inspiration from Systems Theory 1251
42.7 Evidentiary Requirements in the Context of Armed Conflict 1252
42.8 Particular Evidentiary Challenges Relating to International Crimes
in Armed Conflict 1253
42.9 Particular Evidentiary Challenges Pertaining to Crimes against
Peace in such Situations 1255
42.10 Conclusion 1258
43 Russia
Gennady Kuzmin and Igor Panin
43.1 Introduction
43.2 The Role of the UN Security Council
43.3 Legal Discrepancies and Ambiguity
43.4 Conclusion
1264
1264
1265
1267
1269
44 South Africa
Andre Stemmet
44.1 Introduction
44.2 A Century of Conflict and Peacemaking Shapes the South
African Approach
44.2.1 The Historical Background to South Africa’s Participation
in the Negotiations
44.2.2 South Africa’s Approach to and Strategy during the
Negotiations
44.2.2.1 Definition of the Individual’s Conduct and
the State Act of Aggression
44.2.2.2 Activation of ICC Jurisdiction over the Crime of
Aggression
44.2.2.3 The Question of the Entry into Force of the
Amendments
44.2.2.4 The Question of Territoriality
1271
1271
1271
1271
1274
1275
1276
1277
1278
1279
1280
1282
1285
1290
1300
1300
1301
1302
1303
1303
1303
1304
1305
1306
1307
1309
1310
1310
1310
1314
1315
1316
1318
1320
1322
1324
1331
1331
1334
1337
1338
44.2.3 The Search for Consensus
44.2.4 Assessment of the Kampala Compromise
44.3 Conclusion
United Kingdom
Christopher Whomersley
United States
Harold Hongju Koh and Todd F. Buchwald
Egypt
Namira Negm
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Egypt and the Group of Arab States
47.3 Egypt as a Chair of the Non-Aligned Movement
47.4 Egypt and the Group of African States
47.5 Egypt as a Non-State Party
47.6 Egypt and the Special Working Group
47.6.1 Thresholds to Ensure the Leadership Nature
of the Crime
47.6.2 1974 GA Resolution 3314
47.6.3 The Trigger Mechanism
47.6.4 Entry into Force
47.7 Conclusion
Civil Society
Noah Weisbord
48.1 Introduction
48.2 The Idea
48.2.1 Aggression is Not Our Business
48.2.2 The Use of Armed Force by States is a Political Issue,
Not a Legal One
48.2.3 The New Crime will Topple the Court
48.2.4 The New Crime is Too Vague
48.2.5 The Jurisdictional Regime does Not Reach Far Enough
48.2.6 The Jurisdictional Regime Threatens the Independence
of the Court
48.3 The Actors
48.4 The Context
48.4.1 The Physical Context
48.4.2 The Intellectual-Historical Context
48.5 Going Forward
48.5.1 Embracing the Kampala Amendments
48.5.2 Ignoring the Kampala Amendments 1342
48.5.3 Opposing the Kampala Amendments 1343
48.6 Conclusion 1345
B. SCHOLARLY REFLECTIONS 1357
49 ‘ATrap for the Innocent...’
Martti Koskenniemi 1359
49.1 Introduction 1359
49.2 Indeterminacy: Not of Single Words but of a Conceptual World 1360
49.2.1 The Lawful Character of Some War 1362
49.2.2 Regulating the Use of Force: The Basic Difficulty 1365
49.2.3 Other Determinants and ‘Manifest Violation of the Charter’ 1368
49.3 Indeterminacy: Not of Language but of the World 1370
49.4 The Weakness of Rules in the International World 1375
49.5 Epilogue. Understanding Bad and Good Men: The Irreducible
Politics of it All 1379
50 Unjust War and the Crime of Aggression
Jeff McMahan 1386
51 What is the Specific Evil of Aggression?
Frédéric Mégret 1398
51.1 Introduction 1398
51.2 Aggression as a Crime against the State 1402
51.2.1 The Rise of Humanitarian Sensitivity 1404
51.2.2 Aggression and the Sovereignty-Self-Determination-
Democracy Conundrum 1408
51.2.3 The Importance of International Public Order 1411
51.3 Aggression as Crime against Peace 1414
51.3.1 Is Aggression Really the ‘Mother of All Crimes’? 1416
51.3.2 The Humanitarian ‘Laundering’ of the Violence of War 1420
51.3.3 The Deference of International Human Rights Law 1424
51.4 Aggression as a Crime against Human Rights 1428
51.4.1 Recapturing the Human Rights High Ground 1429
51.4.2 (Re)Conceptualising the Parallel Application of the Laws
of War and Human Rights Law 1434
51.4.3 Whose Rights, Which Rights? 1439
51.5 Conclusion 1444
52 The Crime of Bootstrapping
Jens David Ohlin 1454
52.1 Introduction 1454
52.2 Causing the Conditions of One’s Own Defence 1455
52.3 Applying the Actio Libera in Causa Principle to War 1458
52.4 Jus in Bello Aggrandisement 1462
52.5 Operational Obstacles to Prosecuting Aggression 1466
52.6 Conclusion 1474
53 Amending the Crime of Aggression under the Rome Statute
David Scheffer 1480
53.1 Introduction 1480
53.2 Modem Realities of Aggression 1482
53.3 Fixing the 2010 Resolution on the Crime of Aggression 1485
53.3.1 Revising the Definition of ‘Crime of Aggression’ 1485
53.3.2 Revising the Definition of ‘Act of Aggression’ 1486
53.3.3 Adding Cyber Measures as an Act of Aggression 1488
53.3.4 Resolving the Dispute over Article 121(5) 1488
53.3.5 Aggression on State Party Territory by Nationals
of Non-States Parties Aligned with Non-State Entities 1491
53.3.6 Security Council Determination of an Act of Aggression 1491
53.3.7 Security Council Determination that no Act of Aggression
has Occurred 1492
53.3.8 Clarifying the Security Council’s Referral Power 1493
53.3.9 Individual Criminal Responsibility for the Crime
of Aggression 1494
53.3.10 Technical Revisions of Amendments to the Elements
of Crimes 1495
53.3.11 Clarifying the Meaning of Understanding 7 1495
53.4 Conclusion 1496
Epilogue. The Long Journey to Kampala: A Personal Memoir
Benjamin B. Ferencz 1501
1. A Brief Biographical Sketch 1501
2. The Biggest Murder Trial 1503
3. The Mentality of Mass Murderers 1504
4. Reparations to Victims 1506
5. The Search for World Peace 1507
6. The Road to Rome 1509
7. What Really Happened at Kampala 1510
8. Aggression as a Crime against Humanity 1511
9. Priority of National Courts 1515
10. Concluding Thoughts 1516
Index
1520
|
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| title | The crime of aggression a commentary |
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