Solar energy:
Gespeichert in:
| Weitere Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
New Jersey
World Scientific
[2016]
|
| Schriftenreihe: | World Scientific series in current energy issues
volume 2 |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Klappentext |
| Beschreibung: | Includes bibliographical references and index |
| Beschreibung: | xviii, 418 pages Illustrationen 24 cm |
| ISBN: | 9789814689496 |
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| 490 | 1 | |a World Scientific series in current energy issues |v volume 2 | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | Contents
R
Foreword to the World Scientific Series on Current Energy Issues xv
1. Introduction to Solar Energy 1
R. Corkish, W. Lipinski and R. J. Patterson
1 What is Solar Energy?................................... 1
2 Advantages and Disadvantages Associated with Solar
Energy Use ................................................... 4
3 History of Solar Energy Use............................. 7
4 Modern Applications of Solar Energy.......................... 10
4.1 Photovoltaics for Large-Scale Electricity Production . . 10
4.2 Photovoltaics for Small Scale on Homes and
Commercial Buildings.................................. 11
4.3 Photovoltaics for Small-Scale Off-grid Applications . . 12
4.4 Concentrating Solar Thermal Electricity............... 13
4.5 Solar Thermochemical Processes........................ 14
4.6 Solar Water Heating................................... 14
4.7 Passive Heating of Buildings and Solar Architecture . . 15
4.8 Evaporative Cooling................................... 16
4.9 Biomass and Biofuels.................................. 16
4.10 Artificial Photosynthesis............................. 17
5 Economics of Solar Energy Use ............................... 17
6 Social and Policy Aspects ................................... 21
7 Summary/Conclusions.......................................... 25
References...................................................... 25
V
VI
Contents
2. Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Cells and Systems 31
Ignacio Rey-Stolle
1 Introduction.................................................. 31
2 Solar Radiation............................................... 32
2.1 Fundamentals............................................. 32
2.2 Basic PV Terminology and Notation for Solar
Radiation................................................ 33
2.3 Components of the Solar Radiation........................ 33
2.4 World Distribution of Solar Radiation.................... 35
2.5 Solar Radiation Collected by PV Systems.................. 35
3 Solar Cells................................................... 36
3.1 Definition............................................... 36
3.2 Basic Solar Cell Equations and Equivalent Circuits . . 37
3.2.1 Simple equivalent circuit for a solar cell
and I-V characteristic............................. 37
3.2.2 General equivalent circuit for a solar cell
and I-V characteristic............................. 38
3.3 The I-V Curve of a Solar Cell............................ 38
3.3.1 General look and key parameters................... 38
3.3.2 Effect of variations in series and parallel resistance
on the I-V curve................................... 39
3.3.3 Effect of variations in irradiance on the
I-V curve.......................................... 40
3.3.4 Effect of variations in temperature................ 41
3.3.5 Standard test conditions for solar cells........... 41
3.4 Overview of Solar Cell Technologies...................... 42
4 PV Modules.................................................... 42
4.1 Fundamentals............................................. 42
4.1.1 Concept and mission................................ 42
4.1.2 Construction....................................... 43
4.2 Characteristic Equation and I-V Curve.................... 44
4.2.1 I-V characteristic of a PV module.................. 44
4.3 Electrical Performance................................... 46
4.3.1 Standard test conditions........................... 46
4.3.2 Factors affecting the electrical power of solar
panels under real operation........................ 47
Contents vii
4.3.3 Modeling the equilibrium cell temperature
in a PV module.................................... 47
4.3.4 Electrical power of solar panels at any irradiance
and temperature................................... 48
4.3.5 Electrical Energy from a PV module................ 48
5 PV Arrays and Systems ................................... 49
5.1 Basic Definitions....................................... 49
5.2 Balance of System Components of PV Systems.............. 49
5.2.1 Power conditioning................................ 49
5.2.2 Storage........................................... 50
5.2.3 Electric components............................... 50
5.2.4 Mounting structures............................... 50
5.3 Types of PV Systems..................................... 51
5.4 Designing a PV System................................... 52
5.4.1 Location.......................................... 52
5.4.2 Orientation and tilt ............................. 52
5.4.3 Sizing............................................ 53
5.5 PV System Performance................................... 54
5.5.1 Output power of PV systems........................ 54
5.5.2 Energy rating of PV systems....................... 55
5.5.3 Alternative (simpler) energy rating
of PV systems .................................... 55
6 Uses and World Market of PV Solar Energy..................... 57
6.1 Overview on the Uses of PV Energy....................... 57
6.2 World PV Market......................................... 57
6.2.1 Size and historic evolution of the world
PV market......................................... 57
6.2.2 PV cell production by technology.................. 59
6.2.3 Evolution of costs of PV modules and PV
electricity....................................... 59
7 Material Usage and Environmental Impact
of PV Solar Energy....................................... 61
7.1 The Value Chain of PV Technology........................ 61
7.2 Material Usage of PV Technology......................... 61
7.3 Energy Payback Time of PV Systems....................... 61
7.4 Greenhouse (GHG) Gas Emissions of PV Systems ... 62
viii Contents
7.5 Operational Hazards of PV Systems.................. 63
7.6 PV Module Decommissioning and Recycling................. 64
References................................................. 64
3. Large-Scale Solar Thermal Plants (CSP) 69
Manfred Becker, Robert Pitz-Paal and Wes Stein
1 Introduction................................................. 70
2 Solar Radiation and Concentration............................ 71
3 Receiving and Absorbing Solar Radiation...................... 72
3.1 Energy Balance.......................................... 72
3.2 Selective Surface Theory................................ 73
4 Types of Solar Collectors for Power and Fuels................ 75
4.1 Solar Pond.............................................. 75
4.2 Solar Chimney........................................... 77
4.3 Parabolic Trough........................................ 78
4.3.1 Trough technology................................. 78
4.3.2 Heat transfer field............................... 82
4.4 Linear Fresnel.......................................... 86
4.5 Central Receiver (Power Tower).......................... 87
4.5.1 Heliostats and field layout....................... 87
4.5.2 Receivers......................................... 90
4.6 Dish Concentrators...................................... 91
5 Thermal Storage.............................................. 95
5.1 Two-Tank Molten Salt.................................... 96
5.2 Single Tank Molten Salt ................................ 97
5.3 Alternative Thermal Storage Options..................... 97
5.4 Thermochemical Storage.................................. 99
5.5 Cost Reduction of Thermal Storage Through Higher
Temperatures............................................ 99
6 CSP Systems ................................................ 100
6.1 Rankine Cycle Based . . . ............................. 101
6.2 Brayton Cycle.......................................... 102
6.3 Stirling Cycle ........................................ 104
7 New Commercial Power Stations .............................. 105
7.1 Parabolic Troughs...................................... 105
7.2 Central Receivers (Power Towers)....................... 107
8 Economy and Cost Reductions................................. 112
8.1 CSP in the Market...................................... 112
Contents
IX
8.2 Cost Developments and Cost Reductions................... 115
8.2.1 Cost reduction.................................... 116
8.2.2 Scaling up........................................ 116
8.2.3 Volume production................................ 117
8.2.4 Technology innovations............................ 117
9 Conclusions.................................................. 118
References.................................................. 119
Large-Scale Photovoltaic Power Plants 125
G. Almonacid Puche, P. G. Vidal and E. Munoz-Ceron
1 Introduction................................................. 125
2 Electrical Engineering: Key Points in Large
PV Generators................................................ 127
2.1 Layout of a Large-Scale PV Plant........................ 127
2.2 Inverter Topology....................................... 130
2.3 Capacitive Leakage Current ............................. 131
2.4 Grounding............................................... 132
2.5 Insulation Resistance................................... 134
2.6 Electrical Hazards...................................... 134
3 Grid Connection.............................................. 136
3.1 Grid-Connection Requirements for Large-Scale
PV Plants............................................... 137
3.1.1 Voltage control under normal operating
conditions — Static voltage support............... 137
3.1.2 Dynamic grid support in fault operation........... 137
3.1.3 Active power output.............................. 139
3.1.4 Unintentional islanding .......................... 140
3.2 Power Quality........................................... 141
3.2.1 Voltage fluctuations at the PPC................... 141
3.2.2 Limitation of DC injection ....................... 142
3.2.3 Harmonics ........................................ 142
3.2.4 Limitation of flicker induced by the
PV generator...................................... 143
4 Energy Yields and Efficiencies............................... 143
4.1 Efficiency and Productivity............................. 143
4.2 Losses in Large-Scale PV Plants......................... 145
4.3 Software Simulation Tools .............................. 148
X
Contents
5 Commissioning. Operation Sz Maintenance...................... 149
5.1 List of Procedures for the Commission of a Large
PV Plant................................................ 150
5.1.1 Visual inspection................................. 150
5.1.2 Testing and initial startup................... 151
5.1.3 System documentation.............................. 152
5.2 Operation and Maintenance of a PV Plant................. 152
6 Promotion Policies — Planning and Regulation................. 155
7 Economie Analysis: Financing and Due Diligence............... 158
7.1 Economie Parameters: Grid Parity, Life-Cycle Cost
(LCC) and Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) .... 158
7.2 Financing............................................... 162
7.3 Technical Due Diligence................................. 162
8 The Future of Large-Scale PV Power Plants................... 163
8.1 European Stand-by Future in Large-Scale PV Power
Plants.................................................. 163
8.2 The Asia Pacific and Middle East and
North Africa (MENA) Countries Boosting
Future in Large PV Plants............................... 164
8.3 North and South American Deployment
of PV Plants............................................ 165
8.4 Africa’s Increasing Development of Large PV
Plant Projects.......................................... 165
Acknowledgments ............................................... 166
References..................................................... 166
5. Biomass 171
Anthony Turhollow
1 Introduction................................................. 171
2 Biomass Products............................................. 172
2.1 Ethanol................................................. 172
2.1.1 Ethanol production in Brazil...................... 172
2.1.2 Ethanol production in the United States....... 174
2.1.3 Second-generation Ethanol production.............. 175
2.2 Biodiesel............................................... 175
2.3 Electricity............................................. 176
2.4 Biochemicals............................................ 177
2.4.1 Nitrogen fertilizer produced from biomass .... 178
2.5 Wood Pellets............................................ 178
Contents
xi
3 Thermal Processes ....................................... 179
3.1 Pyrolysis and Hydropyrolysis......................... 180
3.2 Gasification......................................... 182
3.3 Combustion........................................... 182
4 Biological Processes..................................... 183
4.1 Anaerobic Digestion.................................. 183
4.2 Fermentation......................................... 184
5 Dedicated Energy Crops....................................... 185
5.1 Switchgrass.......................................... 186
5.2 Sorghum.................................................. 187
5.3 Miscanthus............................................... 188
5.4 Sugarcane and Energy Cane................................ 188
5.5 Hybrid Poplar............................................ 189
5.6 Willow................................................... 190
5.7 Eucalyptus............................................... 191
5.8 Oilseeds ............................................ 191
5.9 Algae.................................................... 193
6 Policies Affecting Biofuels.................................. 193
7 Conclusions and Outlook...................................... 195
Acknowledgments ................................................ 196
References...................................................... 196
6. Artificial Photosynthesis 205
Nathan Skillen and Peter K. J. Robertson
1 Introduction................................................. 205
2 Natural Photosynthesis....................................... 207
2.1 Key Features............................................. 208
2.1.1 Energy absorption................................. 208
2.1.2 Electron transfer and ATP generation.............. 210
2.1.3 Carbon fixation................................... 211
3 Artificial Photosynthesis.................................... 213
3.1 Light Harvesting......................................... 213
3.1.1 Photosensitizers ................................. 214
3.1.1.1 Dye sensitized solar cells................ 214
3.1.1.2 Photocatalysts............................ 216
3.2 Electron Separation and Transfer......................... 218
3.2.1 Single oxide photocatalysts....................... 218
3.2.2 Z-scheme photocatalysts........................... 222
xii Contents
3.2.3 Nanobio catalytic assemblies .................... 224
3.2.3.1 Mimicking PS I ...................... 224
3.2.3.2 Mimicking PS II.......................... 226
3.3 Carbon Fixation........................................ 227
3.3.1 Heterogenous catalysts........................... 228
3.3.2 Homogenous catalysts............................ 232
4 Artificial Photosynthesis Institutes ....................... 234
4.1 Swedish Consortium for Artificial Photosynthesis . . . 234
4.2 Joint Centre for Artificial Photosynthesis (JCAP) . . . 234
5 Future Outlook and Challenges............................... 235
References................................................. 236
7. Small-Scale PV Applications in Home and Business 243
/
Estefania Caamano-Martin, Miguel Angel Egido
and Jorge Solorzano
1 Introduction................................................ 243
1.1 PV Applications in the Built Environment............... 244
1.2 Stand-Alone PV Applications ........................... 246
2 Solar Resource Availability................................. 247
2.1 Meteorological Resources and Modeling.................. 247
2.2 On the Positioning of PV Modules....................... 249
2.3 Shading Losses......................................... 252
3 Performance Assessment of Small-Scale PV Systems............ 255
3.1 PV Systems Losses.................................... 260
4 PVs in Buildings ........................................... 262
4.1 Introduction........................................... 262
4.2 Types of PV Systems.................................... 263
4.3 Design and Sizing...................................... 266
4.3.1 PV generator..................................... 267
4.3.2 Inverter......................................... 268
4.3.3 Operation and maintenance........................ 270
4.4 Business Models and International Experiences.......... 270
5 SAPVS....................................................... 274
5.1 Introduction........................................... 274
5.2 Types of SAPVS......................................... 274
5.3 Design and Sizing...................................... 282
5.4 Operation and Management............................... 285
5.5 Business Models and International Experiences.......... 289
Contents xiii
6 Safety and Protections..................................... 291
References................................................... 294
8. Low Temperature Solar Thermal Applications 299
Brian Norton, Hans Martin Henning and Daniel Mugnier
1 Outline of the Chapter..................................... 299
2 Brief History of the Low Temperature Uses of Solar
Thermal Energy............................................ 300
3 Solar Water Heating ....................................... 302
4 Building Heating and Cooling with Solar Energy ............ 307
5 Low Temperature Solar Heating in Industrial
Applications.............................................. 314
6 Use of Solar Energy to Dry Crops........................... 315
7 Solar Air Cooling Conditioning and Refrigeration........... 320
7.1 Passive Cooling of Building........................... 320
7.2 Principles of Active Solar Cooling.................... 322
7.3 Technical Maturity of SAC............................. 326
7.4 Energy Performance of SAC............................. 328
7.5 Economic Viability and Environmental Benefits
of SAC................................................ 330
7.6 Market Status of SAC.................................. 332
7.7 Technical Potentials of SAC........................... 333
7.8 SAC Costs and Economics............................... 334
7.9 Market Opportunities for SAC.......................... 335
8 Economic and Policy Issues Related to Solar Heating and
Cooling Thermal Applications.............................. 337
Acknowledgments ............................................. 338
References................................................... 338
9. Solar Thermochemical Processes 345
Roman Bader and Wojciech Lipinski
1 Introduction............................................... 345
1.1 Overview of Processes................................. 346
1.2 Thermodynamic Limits.................................. 349
2 Thermolysis . ........................................... 354
3 Thermochemical Cycles...................................... 354
3.1 Two-Step Redox Cycles................................. 355
3.1.1 Zinc oxide cycle................................ 357
XIV
Contents
3.1.2 Ferrite cycle..................................... 366
3.1.3 Ceria cycle....................................... 370
3.1.4 Perovskite cycle ................................. 377
3.2 Multi-Step Cycles....................................... 378
4 Conversion of Carbonaceous Feedstocks........................ 379
4.1 Gasification ........................................... 379
4.2 Cracking and Reforming.................................. 382
5 Production of Lime and Cement................................ 385
6 CO2 Capture ................................................. 386
7 Other Processes.............................................. 388
8 Summary and Conclusions.................................... 389
References.................................................. 389
Index 395
About the Contributors 405
World Scientific Series in Current Energy Issues
Volume 2
Solar Energy
Concerns about energy resources and the environmental impact of
energy use will continue to be important globally. World Scientific s
unique series of books on Current Energy Issues is intended, in part,
as an expansion anti update of the material contained in the
Scientific Handbook of Energy.Each volume will focus on related
energy resources or issues and will contain a broader range of topics
with more explanatory text.
This Solar Energy volume covers a variety of approaches to the use
of solar energy. These include large scale photovoltaic production
of electricity as well as more local applications in the home anti
businesses. Similarly, there is an extensive discussion of large stale
solar thermal electricity production and smaller st ale uses such as
solar water heating, home heating and ctxiling plus crop drying. There
is also discussion of more forward-looking technologies including the
production of fuels using artificial photosynthesis and the pnxluction
of biomass.
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| id | DE-604.BV043731786 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T07:33:40Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9789814689496 |
| language | English |
| lccn | 015031779 |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-029143632 |
| oclc_num | 932701808 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-703 DE-1102 |
| owner_facet | DE-703 DE-1102 |
| physical | xviii, 418 pages Illustrationen 24 cm |
| publishDate | 2016 |
| publishDateSearch | 2016 |
| publishDateSort | 2016 |
| publisher | World Scientific |
| record_format | marc |
| series | World Scientific series in current energy issues |
| series2 | World Scientific series in current energy issues |
| spelling | Crawley, Gerard M. (DE-588)1111790191 edt Solar energy editor Gerard M Crawley, Marcus Enterprise LLC, USA & professor and dean emeritus, University of South Carolina, USA New Jersey World Scientific [2016] xviii, 418 pages Illustrationen 24 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier World Scientific series in current energy issues volume 2 Includes bibliographical references and index Solar energy Fotovoltaik (DE-588)4121476-6 gnd rswk-swf Sonnenenergie (DE-588)4055572-0 gnd rswk-swf Solarthermie (DE-588)7679053-8 gnd rswk-swf Erneuerbare Energien (DE-588)4068598-6 gnd rswk-swf Sonnenenergie (DE-588)4055572-0 s Solarthermie (DE-588)7679053-8 s DE-604 Fotovoltaik (DE-588)4121476-6 s Erneuerbare Energien (DE-588)4068598-6 s World Scientific series in current energy issues volume 2 (DE-604)BV044037154 2 Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=029143632&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=029143632&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Klappentext |
| spellingShingle | Solar energy World Scientific series in current energy issues Solar energy Fotovoltaik (DE-588)4121476-6 gnd Sonnenenergie (DE-588)4055572-0 gnd Solarthermie (DE-588)7679053-8 gnd Erneuerbare Energien (DE-588)4068598-6 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4121476-6 (DE-588)4055572-0 (DE-588)7679053-8 (DE-588)4068598-6 |
| title | Solar energy |
| title_auth | Solar energy |
| title_exact_search | Solar energy |
| title_full | Solar energy editor Gerard M Crawley, Marcus Enterprise LLC, USA & professor and dean emeritus, University of South Carolina, USA |
| title_fullStr | Solar energy editor Gerard M Crawley, Marcus Enterprise LLC, USA & professor and dean emeritus, University of South Carolina, USA |
| title_full_unstemmed | Solar energy editor Gerard M Crawley, Marcus Enterprise LLC, USA & professor and dean emeritus, University of South Carolina, USA |
| title_short | Solar energy |
| title_sort | solar energy |
| topic | Solar energy Fotovoltaik (DE-588)4121476-6 gnd Sonnenenergie (DE-588)4055572-0 gnd Solarthermie (DE-588)7679053-8 gnd Erneuerbare Energien (DE-588)4068598-6 gnd |
| topic_facet | Solar energy Fotovoltaik Sonnenenergie Solarthermie Erneuerbare Energien |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=029143632&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=029143632&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV044037154 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT crawleygerardm solarenergy |