Trǎind cu morţii: înmormântări în aşezările de la începutul epocii fierului între Balcani, Tisa şi Nistru = Living with the dead : burials in early iron age settlements between the Balkans, Tisza and Dnestr
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Romanian English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Cluj-Napoca
Academia română, Centrul de studii transilvane
2015
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| Schriftenreihe: | Series Minerva. II, Fontes archaeologici
1 |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract Literaturverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | 218 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme |
| ISBN: | 9786068694122 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | CUPRINS
Cuvänt fnainte
I. INTRODUCERE ..................................................................... 11
Problemática ....................................................................11
Epoca §¡ spatiul ...............................................................11
Istoricul cercetärii ............................................................18
II. CATALOGUL DESCOPERIRILOR .........................................................25
1. Alba lulia-Recea, jud. Alba, Romania ........................................25
2. Babadag-Ceiäit// e, jud. Tulcea, Romania ...................................26
3. Baciu-strada Nouä, jud. Cluj, Romania ......................................37
4. Balmazújváros-Tömöri-tanya II, jud. Hajdú-Bihar, Ungaria ...................37
5. Berettyóújfalu-A/agybócs-dú /o, jud. Hajdú-Bihar, Ungaria ..................38
6. Biharkeresztes-Láncos-ma/or, jud. Hajdú-Bihar, Ungaria.......................38
7. Bräila-ßrä///ia, jud. Bräila, Romania .......................................39
8. Bucu-Pochinä, com. Bucu, jud. lalomita, Romänia..............................39
9. Capidava-La Bursuci, com. Topalu, jud. Constaba, Romänia ....................44
10. Debrecen-Józsa, Józsa, jud. Häjdu-Bihar, Ungaria............................45
11. Enisala-Palanca, com. Sarichioi, jud. Tulcea, Romänia .....................46
12. Garvän-Mläjitul Florilor, com. Jijila, jud. Tulcea, Romänia................66
13. Gomolava, Vojvodina, Serbia ................................................68
14. Hajdúdorog-Szá//ás/o/cte/f-/cozép, jud. Hajdú-Bihar, Ungaria................72
15. HIigeni-La sanf, raionul §oldäne§ti, República Moldova.....................72
16. Jijila-Cefäiu/ e, com. Jijila, jud. Tulcea, Romänia .........................81
17. Jurilovca-Orgame, com. Jurilovca, jud. Tulcea, Romänia ....................82
18. Karanovo, provincia Sliven, Bulgaria ......................................88
19. Lazuri-Li/b/ Tag, jud. Satu Mare, Romänia.................................89
20. Lomacinci, raionul Secureni, regiunea Cernäuti, Ucraina ...................89
21. Media§-Cefate, jud. Sibiu, Romänia..........................................89
22. Medzany, districtul Presov, Slovacia .......................................90
23. Neporotovo, raionul Secureni, regiunea Cernäuti, Ucraina ..................90
24. Niculitel-Cornet, com. Niculitei, jud. Tulcea, Romänia.....................93
25. Novi Sad-Klisa, Vojvodina, Serbia .........................................101
26. Novi Sad-ADECO, Vojvodina, Serbia .........................................101
27. Novosel’skoe W-Teraphont, raionul Reni, regiunea Odessa, Ucraina ..........101
28. Nylrmada-Vä/yogvefö, jud. Vásárosnamény, Ungaria...........................104
29. Nyíregyháza - Oros - Mega Üzleti ark, jud. Szabolcs-Szatmär-Bereg, Ungaria .104
30. Nyíregyháza-Roszréfszo/o, jud. Szabolcs-Szatmär-Bereg, Ungaria ............106
31. Orlovka-Kartal II, raionul Reni, regiunea Odessa, Ucraina .................107
32. Ostrovul Corbului, com. Hinova, jud. Mehedinti, Romänia ...................108
33. Pusztataskony-Lectence, jud. Jasz-Nagykun-Szolnok,Ungaria .................110
34. Räkoczifalva-ßagZ-fö/d 8/A, jud. Jäsz-Nagykun-Szolnok, Ungaria.............112
35. Rapoltu Mare-Mägura Uroiului, com. Rapoltu Mare, jud. Hunedoara, Romänia.,112
36. Rasova-Malul Ro§u, jud. Constanta, Romänia..............................113
37. Reci-Te/ek, com. Reci, jud. Covasna, Romänia............................114
38. Revärsarea-Dealul TichHe§ti, Isaccea, jud. Tulcea, Romänia..............114
39. Saharna-Dealul Mänästirii, raionul Rezina, República Moldova ...........115
40. Saharna Mare, raionul Rezina, República Moldova ........................118
41. Satu Nou-Valea lui Voicu, com. Oltina, jud. Constanta, Romänia .........120
42. Sava Conevo, provincia Varna, Bulgaria .................................124
43. Sili§tea-Co/?ac, jud. Bräila, Romänia...................................124
44. Svilengrad, provincia Haskovo, Bulgaria.................................125
45. §imleu Silvaniei-Oöse/vafor, jud. Sälaj, Romänia .......................133
46. Somotor, districtul Trebisov, Slovacia..................................133
47. Suceveni-Sfoborän/ , jud. Galati, Romänia ..............................133
48. Tämäoani-P/ sci//, com. Frumu§¡ta, jud. Galati..........................139
49. Tärtäria-Podiv/ Tärtäriei, com. Säli§te, jud. Alba .....................139
50. Tätärauca Nouä, com. Tätäräuca Nouä, rn. Donduio§eni, Rep. Moldova .....141
51. Teleac, com. Ciugud, jud. Alba, Romänia.................................142
52. T szabö-Galamb-dülö, jud. Jäsz-Nagykun-Szolnok, Ungaria ................144
53. Vlaha-Pad, com. Sävädisla, jud. Cluj, Romänia ..........................145
III. ANALIZA DESCOPERIRILOR........................................................147
Introducere..................................................................147
Deficiente de cercetare si publicare.........................................149
Descoperiri incerte..........................................................149
Locul depunerii..............................................................150
Tipuri de amenajäri / contexte.............................................. 150
Observatii privind starea de reprezentare a defunctilor......................152
Tipuri de amenajäri vs. starea de reprezentare a indivizilor.................154
Date referitoare la numärul indivizilor depu§i ..............................155
Date privind pozitia §i orientarea defuncfilor...............................157
Observatii privind existenta unor posibile ritualuri ce Tnsoteau depunerea
defunctilor Tn a§ezäri ......................................................160
Manipularea resturilor umane.................................................163
IV. OBSERVAJII ANTROPOLOGICE ......................................................165
Categorii de värstä §i sex ..................................................165
Statura indivizilor..........................................................168
Patologie osoasä §i dentará .................................................168
Date ADN.....................................................................174
V. CONCLUZII......................................................................175
REZUMAT............................................................................185
ABREVIERI..........................................................................193
BIBLIOGRAFIE................................................................... 195
SUMMARY
Author’s note
I. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................11
Problematics ................................................-...............11
Space and Age.................................................................11
State of research ............................................................17
II. CATALOGUE OF FINDS ........................................................... 25
1. Alba lulia-Recea, Alba county, Romania....................................25
2. Babadag-Cetatuie, Tulcea county, Romania..................................26
3. Baciu-strada Noua, Cluj county, Romania ..................................37
4. Balmazujvaros-Tomori-tanya II, Hajdu-Bihar county, Hungary................37
5. Berettyoujfalu-A/agyjbdcs-afu/d, Hajdu-Bihar county, Hungary..............38
6. Biharkeresztes-La/icos-ma/ or, Hajdu-Bihar county, Hungary................38
7. BrSila-Brailiia, Braila county, Romania...................................39
8. Bucu-Pochina, lalomi^a county, Romania.....................................39
9. Capidava-La Bursuci, Constanta county, Romania............................44
10. Debrecen-Jozsa, Jozsa, Hajdu-Bihar county, Hungary.......................45
11. Enisala-Palanca, Tulcea county, Romania..................................46
12. Garvan-Mlajitul Florilor, Tulcea county, Romania.........................66
13. Gomolava, Vojvodina, Serbia ..............................................68
14. Ha]dMorog-Szallasf6ldek-kdzep, Hajdu-Bihar county, Hungary...............72
15. Hligeni-La sant, §oldane§ti district, Republic of Moldova ...............72
16. S ]Wa-Cetaiuie, Tulcea county, Romania...................................81
17. Jurilovca-Orgame, Tulcea county, Romania ................................82
18. Karanovo, Sliven province, Bulgaria .....................................88
19. Lazuri-Lubi Tag, Satu Mare county, Romania ..............................89
20. Lomacinci, Secureni district, Cherniutsi region, Ukraine ................89
21. Media§-Cetate, Sibiu county, Romania.....................................89
22. Medzany, Presov district, Slovakia ......................................90
23. Neporotovo, Secureni district, Cherniutsi region, Ukraine................90
24. Niculitel-Cornet, Tulcea county, Romania.................................93
25. Novi Sad-Klisa, Vojvodina, Serbia .......................................101
26. Novi Sad-ADECO, Vojvodina, Serbia .......................................101
27. Novosel’skoe W-Teraphont, Reni district, Odessa region, Ucraina..........101
28. Nyirmada-Valyogveto, Vasarosnameny county, Hungary.......................104
29. Nyiregyhaza-Oros-Mega Ozletiark, Szabolcs-Szatmar-Bereg county, Hungary ....104
30. Nyiregyhaza-Roszretszolo, Szabolcs-Szatmar-Bereg county, Hungary ........106
31. Orlovka-Kartal II, Reni district, Odessa region, Ucraina ................107
32. Ostrovul Corbului, Mehedinti county, Romania ............................108
33. Pusztataskony-Lecfence, Jasz-Nagykun-Szolnok county,Hungary..............110
34. Rakoczifalva-Bagi-fold 8/A, Jasz-Nagykun-Szolnok county, Hungary ........112
35. Rapoltu Mare-Magura Uroiului, Hunedoara county, Romania...............112
36. Rasova-Malul Ro§u, Constanta county, Romania..........................113
37. Red-Telek, com. Red, Covasna county, Romania..........................114
38. Revarsarea-Dealul Tichilegti, Tulcea county, Romania .................114
39. Saharna-Dealul Manastirii, Rezina district, Republic of Moldova ......115
40. Saharna Mare, Rezina district, Republic of Moldova ...................118
41. Satu Nou-Valea lui Voicu, Constanta county, Romania ..................120
42. Sava Conevo, Varna province, Bulgaria.................................124
43. Sili§tea-Conac, Braila county, Romania................................124
44. Svilengrad, Haskovo province, Bulgaria ...............................125
45. §imleu Silvaniei-Observator, Salaj county, Romania ...................133
46. Somotor, Trebisov district, Slovakia..................................133
47. Suceveni-Stoborani, Galati county, Romania............................133
48. Tamaoani-P/scu/, Galati county, Romania...............................139
49. Tartaria-Podiv/ Tartariei, Alba county, Romania ......................139
50. Tatarauca Noua, Donduio§eni district, Republic of Moldova .............141
51. Teleac, Alba county, Romania...........................................142
52. T szab6-Galamb-dulo, Jasz-Nagykun-Szolnok county, Hungary..............144
53. Vlaha-Pad, Cluj county, Romania .......................................145
III. ANALYSES OF FINDS ........................................................ 147
Introduction...............................................................147
Deficiencies of publication and research...................................149
Uncertain finds............................................................149
Place of deposition .......................................................150
Types of structures / contexts.............................................150
Observations on the state of representation of the dead ...................152
Types of structures v. state of representation ........................... 154
Number of the deposited individuals...................................... 155
Position and alignement of the dead .......................................157
Observations on the existence of possible rituals accompanying the
deposition of the dead inside settlements..................................160
Manipulation of human remains..............................................163
IV. ANTHROPOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ................................................165
Age and sex categories.....................................................165
Stature of the individuals.................................................168
Pathology..................................................................168
DNA analysis...............................................................174
V. CONCLUSIONS..................................................................175
ABSTRACT ........................................................................185
ABBREVIATIONS....................................................................193
BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................195
LIVING WITH THE DEAD.
BURIALS IN EIA SETTLEMENTS BETWEEN THE BALKANS, TISZA AND
DNESTR
- ABSTRACT -
PROBLEMATICS
Burials in settlements are a particular funerary phenomenon, documented worldwide,
in different eras and contexts. Archaeologically speaking, burials consist of skeletons or
parts of human skeletons, in or not anatomical position, deposited in disused habitat
structures (pits, dwellings). Often labelled as “macabre” findings, “atypical” or “irregular”
burials, this is undoubtedly a type of treatment of the human body after death.
As this practice is often documented at the same time with the existence of actual
cemeteries, the hypotheses regarding the status of the individuals deposited in the
settlements are numerous. Setting aside some of the exceptional findings - such as A and B
grave circles from Mycenae, which prove the special social position of the buried individuals
- the human bones found in domestic context were most of the times considered to be the
result of human sacrifices or burials of persons of special status: slaves, war prisoners,
heretics, pariahs, convicts, etc. On the other hand, we need to take into account the
ethnographic sources indicating that human societies practised numerous and complex
funerary rituals, some of them involving manipulations and treatments of the body starting
from the time of death until final deposition.
In this context, we can ponder upon the nature of the social and ritual mechanisms that
led to the separation or dissolution of the usual limits between the living and the dead.
Within this problematic, our project sets out to draw up a list of the cases of burials in
early Hallstattan settlements spread between the Balkans, Dnestr and Tisza Rivers, to analyze
the respective inventory and the identified ritual gestures, compare them with similar situations
from other areas and eras and confront them, in the end, with historical documentation.
SPACE AND AGE
Early Iron Age (ca. 1200/1100 - 800/700 BC) is characterized by the emergence and
dissemination of iron metallurgy. This technology that was born in eastern Anatolia and
neighbouring areas (Armenia and Cilicia) spread rapidly from the end of 2nd millennium BC,
but especially during the so-called Dark Ages in Greece. This period was much tormented in
the Aegean-Anatolian area, as the Sea People rose while the Hittite Empire and the
Mycenaean civilization fell.
In the northern Balkans, at the end of the 2nd millennium and beginning of the 1st
millennium BC, classic cultural manifestations of the Middle and Late Bronze Age (Monteoru,
Noua, Coslogeni, Suciu de Sus, 2uto-Brdo-Garla Mare, Cruceni-Belegis, Zimnicea-Plovdiv etc.)
come to an end and new ones take shape. Despite the emergence of the first iron artefacts, this
is the peak of bronze metallurgy and of the deposition of bronze artefacts in ritual contexts.
The area we’ve selected for the study of this category of findings corresponds to the
dissemination of several early Hallstattan archaeological cultures with grooved pottery
(Bistret-I§alnita, Gava-Holidrady, Chi§inau-Corlateni etc.), but also with stamped and incised
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Sorin-Cristian Ailincái
pottery (Psenicevo, Babadag, Insula Banului, Gornea-Kalakaca, Belozerka, Cozia, Saharna-
Solonceni), which are a variation of the funerary ritual1. Nevertheles, in the entire area, in
various proportions, probably due to the level of the investigations in the settlements,
intramuros graves were also found.
STATE OF RESEARCH
Though the first such finds were uncovered since the 50’s, an analysis thereof is rather
new archaeological endeavour in southern and Eastern Europe. The known publications so
far mostly approach individual finds (e.g. Gomolava, Babadag, Niculitel, Jurilovca-Orgame,
Svilengrad, Saharna, Pusztataskony etc.). Syntheses on this topic are scarce and
incomplete regarding the number of finds, area and method of investigation2. Therefore an
interdisciplinary approach over an extended area of various contemporaneous cultural
manifestations may lead to the formation of a solid documentary base for an objective
interpretation of this funerary practice.
CATALOGUE OF THE FINDS
We have catalogued the finds in the area between the Balkans, Dnestr and Tisza from
53 EIA sites (broadly 12th c.-8th c. BC) with 226 contexts for human bones from at least 512
individuals.
From the 53 catalogued sites, most of them (cat. no. 1, 3-6, 10, 14, 19, 21-22, 28-30,
33-35, 37, 45-46, 51-53) were ascribed to Gáva culture, most of the information concerning
burials in settlements coming from rather recent finds in the intra-Carpathian region, up to
Tisza River. Other such finds are concentrated at the Lower Danube, mostly ascribed to
Babadag culture (cat. no. 2, 7-9, 11-12, 16-17, 24, 27, 31, 36, 38, 41, 43); in our opinion, the
site at Támáoani can be ascribed to Belozerka culture3 (cat. no. 48). The finds from Upper and
Middle Dnestr were ascribed both to Saharna-Solonceni culture (cat. no. 15, 39-40) and
Cernoles culture (cat. no. 20, 23, 50); the finds at Ostrovul Corbului, Gomolava and Novi Sad
were included in the areal of Kalakaca culture, and the finds from Sava, Karanovo and
Svilengrad are probably part of Psenicevo culture. A special place among these finds is held
by the settlement from Tartaria, characterized by Basarabi-style decorated pottery.
Most human bones contexts in settlements were found in the area of Saharna-Solonceni
culture, where the site at Hligeni alone provides 86 such contexts. However, this site can now
be deemed an exception. More homogenous distribution is encountered at the Lower Danube
in the sites ascribed to Babadag culture and in the intra-Carpathian region (Graphic 2).
PLACE OF DEPOSITION
Though so far the idea of “funerary spaces” inside settlements4 has circulated, it has
not yet been verified. Thus in most of the investigated sites no dedicated area for this
purpose was noticed, as the human bones are rather evenly spread. Human bones are
found close to dwellings, as well as in storage or waste disposal areas.
1 Vulpe 2008.
2 STrbu 1997; Ailincái 2008; Királly 2012.
3 See Ailincái, Adamescu, Mihail 2014.
4 Perianu 1993, 163; Morintz, Jugánaai 1995, 182.
ABSTRACT
187
TYPES OF STRUCTURES / CONTEXTS
Though data is not always complete or homogeneous, the human remains have been
identified so far in several contexts and various deallocated habitat structures.
Considering the setup, shape, size and possible intial use, we can distinguish several
types: 1. Pits of various shapes and sizes (134 cases); 2. Structures similar to dwellings
(10 cases); 3. Ditches; 4. Stone structures; 5. Deliberate deposition of human bones directly
on the ground; 6. Bones in archaeological layers (Graphic 3).
OBSERVATIONS ON THE STATE OF REPRESENTATION OF THE DEAD
Another observation we can make based on the available data concerns the various
anatomical representation of the identified individuals. This could be due to a complex ritual
of deposition - decomposition - manipulation and sometimes accidental intervention on the
bodies/ bones. In the overall, we can establish several states of representation of the bodies
as a direct consequence of the funerary ritual and of the process of funerary depositions: a.
complete skeletons in anatomical position; b. parts of skeletons in partial anatomical
position; c. skulls; d. lower or upper limbs in anatomical position; e. isolated bones, mostly
fragmented (Graphic 4).
TYPES OF STRUCTURES v. STATE OF REPRESENTATION
If we analyze the types of setups by state of representation of the deposited
individuals, we notice that the pits are the structures where the most complete skeletons (or
almost complete) in anatomical position were found. Pits can thus be considered the
preferred place for initial body deposition, but also for burial of skulls and limbs in anatomical
position. However, many times parts of human skeletons in partial anatomical position,
sometimes associated with complete individuals, were also encountered in pits, as well as
isolated bones, broken in ancient times.
In the dwelling-like features, complete skeletons were found associated sometimes
with parts of skeletons. The two ditches (at Satu Nou and Tartaria) contained both isolated
bones and parts of skeletons and skulls, while in the archaeological layers especially
isolated bones, but also skulls or complete or fragmented skeletons were found.
NUMBER OF THE DEPOSITED INDIVIDUALS
Of a total of at least 512 individuals, almost one third was found in only five structures
(large pits) at Gomolava (cat. no. 13.1-2-110 individuals) and Pusztataskony-Lecfence (cat.
no. 33.1-3 - at least 59 individuals). The finds at Hligeni (cat. no. 15) hold a special place,
since in approx 500 square metres researched area the remains (mostly fragmented) of 148
individuals were unearthed. However these are exceptional finds, since in several sites up to
4 individuals are identified, probably due to survey over small areas and absence or
inapropriate publication. On the other hand, other sites provided abundant information
rearding the deposition of the dead inside settlements, such as the sites at Babadag (more
than 18 individuals), Enisala (26 individuals), JurWovca-Orgame (15 individuals), Niculitel
(more than 17 individuals), Satu Nou (more than 8 individuals), Svilengrad (16 individuals),
Tartaria (more than 7 individuals) sau Tiszabo (more than 6 individuals).
In the majority of the cases, in the setups where the number of individuals can be
determined precisely or at least the minimum number thereof, we noticed the deposition of
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single individuals (101 cases), mostly in anatomical position and seldom the deposition of
parts of a body or deposition of/intervention on isolated bones, skulls or limbs. While we
identified 24 structures containing bones from two individuals, structures with more than 5
individuals are rather rare. In fact, except for the find at Jurilovca-Orgame (that probably
contained more than 15 individuals), ascribed to Babadag culture, the other features (13.1-2;
33.1-3) with higher numbers of individuals were found in the west of the studied area and
were assigned to cultures Kalakaca or Gava.
POSITION AND ALIGNMENT OF THE DEAD
Out of the 238 individuals found in anatomical position, we could extract information
regarding their position only in 114 cases. Most of them were placed flexed (61 cases) on
the right (29) or left side (32). 39 individuals were found in dorsal decubitus and only 14 in
ventral decubitus (Graphic 8).
We ought to underline one aspect regarding burials in settlements: the different ways
of deposition of the dead. Even though it’s not obvious in all instances, we noticed
remarkable care during the deposition process, especially in the case of individuals found in
the flexed position. The majority of them were found at the base of the structure where they
were buried, and at times were accompanied by bronze, clay or stone artefacts or whole or
restorable pottery vessels. Another category of individuals is that found in “abnormal”
position, suggesting they were rather “thrown” than “placed” in pits.
Considering the variety of depositions it’s hard to believe that a certain alignment was
preferred. Nevertheless, out of 112 cases where alignment could be determined, most of the
individuals faced north, especially N-NE (Graphic 9). If we cross-reference the alignment with the
position of the bodies we find that N-NE alignment is predominant with individuals in dorsal
decubitus, flexed on the left side, and with part of the dead flexed on the right side (Graphic 10).
OBSERVATIONS ON THE EXISTENCE OF POSSIBLE RITUALS ACCOMPANYING THE
DEPOSITION OF THE DEAD INSIDE SETTLEMENTS
Even though we cannot be certain that the analyzed structures were especially set up
or reused to shelter human remains, in some cases we noticed possible traces of
preparation of such spaces. Sometimes there was even proof of some rituals that probably
accompanied the depositions. In some instances, the level of deposition is somewhat
“sealed off” with big pieces of burnt clay, stones or pottery fragments.
In close connection to the burials are the set up of the grave and deposition of
offerings. There is no standard inventory. Most often pottery is found in these structures,
usually in pieces (residues or result of deliberate fragmentation?), but in very few cases
whole vessels in direct connection with the body were also uncovered. Other clothing pieces
related to the dead were found at Debrecen (10.2), Hajdudorog-Sza//asfo/de/c-/cozep (14.1)
or Pusztataskony-Ledence (33.2).
We seldom found associations with animal bodies (Satu Nou-Va/ea lui Voicu,
Gomolava, Medzany etc.) or even with cereals (Gomolava).
MANIPULATION OF HUMAN REMAINS
In the current stage of research some data point to deliberate or accidental
interventions on the bodies/ bones in the initial place of deposition or in other contexts. Direct
ABSTRACT
189
access to bodies while sheltering them from animal attacks could have been provided by
erecting a structure above the ground, as noticed at Enisala (11.13) or Jurilovca (17.1).
Ancient breakage and abnormal anatomical position of the bones are signs of massive
interventions on individuals 11.13-1 at 11.15-1 at Enisala. At the same time, the theory of
exposure to open air in pit C16-1 (11.15) instead of inhumation of individual 11.15-1 is
supported by the presence of bitemarks of rodents on the aforemention individual’s bones. In
this case we need to assume the existence of a system that restricted access to such pits,
probably similar to that from EIA settlements from Middle Dnestr, from Neporotiv II5 6 or
Saharna-Dea/u/ Manastirif.
A particular site that is likely to have been exclusively dedicated to such depositions
is the site at Satu Nou-Valea lui Voicu7. Though excavations covered only a small part of
the site, the density of human and animal bodies is much higher than in other EIA sites at
the Lower Danube. We cannot rule out a circuit of inhumation - exhumation - reinhumation
of the dead, either. Probatory in this respect is the site at Pusztataskony-Ledence I
(Eastern Hungary), where three large pits were investigated, especially designed or
redesigned to shelter the remains of several individuals in various stages of
decomposition. In the case of structure 1-550 (cat. no. 33.2), which contained the remains
from 25-40 individuals, most of them in partial anatomical position, the analysis of the soil
on the bones revealed preliminary inhumation in another location but in the same type of
soil, possibly nearby8. The situation documented at Hligeni (cat. no. 15) is very interesting
and complicated. The archaeological survey at this site recorded numerous human bones
(mainly fragments of skulls and mandibles, as well as tubular bones) with cutmarks and
signs of processing (polishing, filing etc.)9.
In conclusion we can talk of a multi-stage process, probably over a longer period of
time, involving the deposition/exposure - decomposition - post-deposition interventions -
secondary depositions of parts of the bodies. This funerary cycle was, in our opinion,
deliberately created in the domestic area (and in sanctuaries, as it is likely the case at Satu
Nou), and the remains were sometimes inhumated after the decay of the bodies and the
absorption of the fluids into the ground. It’s difficult to assume whether all these finds are
parts/stages of the same funerary ritual or are the results of different rituals. In this respect
we can distinguish between at least three categories of finds:
1. primary depositions without signs of subsequent interventions;
2. primary deposistions with signs of subsequent interventions;
3. Secondary depositions (last two categories are in direct connection).
ANTHROPOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
The information resulted from the anthropological studies have undoubtedly
contributed greatly to the interpretation of this unusual funerary conduct. Unfortunately we
hold anthropological data (often incomplete) only on 343 out of the 512 (minimum number of)
5 Krusel nicbka 1998, Fig. 14, 89; Kasuba 2008.
6 Niculita, Nicic 2013.
7 Irimia, Conovici 1993.
8 Kiraly et alii 2013, 307-326.
9 Gol’ceva, Kasuba 1995.
190
Sorin-Cristian Ailincai
identified individuals. Sometimes such information concerns only sex and/or age
determinations, while references to stature, pathology, signs of violence, etc. are rather
scarce at this stage of research.
Out of the 344 individuals on which we hold anthropological information, 89 were
females, 48 males and sex could not be determined in the rest of 206 cases due to tender
age or pronounced fragmentation of the bones (Graphic 11).
Regarding age categories, according to the available information, we can distribute the
individuals in the following age groups: Infans /-//, Juvenis, Adultus, Maturus l-ll and Senilis I-
II. However, most often than not the existing incomplete or too general information did not
allow us to make more detailed of an analysis. Graphic 12 shows a large number of children
(166 individuals, of which: 38 - Infans I, 35 - Infans II, 93 subjects whose age could not be
determined precisely) found inside settlements. However this does not reflect the reality of
the depositions inside settlements, since most of the children (66.87%) were found in the
sites from Hligeni (82), Gomolava (20) and Svilengrad (9). The second most numerous by
age category were the adults (73), followed by mature age individuals (45, of which: 13
Maturus I; 8 Maturus II; 24 could not be precisely determined). Only 4 individuals were
determined to fit in Senilis age group (over 50 years old). If we attempt a comparative
approach of the age and sex of the individuals, we see that both sexes are present in similar
ratios in all age groups (Graphic 13). However, most individuals of indeterminable sex died
at Maturus age. Next by numbers are adults and adolescents.
Each area seems to hold various proportions of sex and age categories. For instance,
at the Lower Danube, in Babadag culture settlements, Maturus individuals represent the
majority, especially females, while children are significantly less represented against the
general situation (Graphic 14). On the other hand, in Gava culture settlements young age
individuals are present in higher percentage (Graphic 15), but the situation is unclear due to
the low number of individuals subject to anthropological analysis.
Data on the stature of the individuals is rather scarce. We hold such information only
for 21 individuals found in the eastern part of the studied areal, in sites such as Babadag,
Bucu, Capidava, Enisala, Saharna and Suceveni. Right from the beginning we notice a
visible difference between males - of average 167.464 cm height - and females - of
average 155.7471 cm height.
Bones and teeth record events in the lifespan of man, including diseases and traumas.
The anthropological analyses made so far, especially on individuals in the Lower Danube
region, provide some insight into the life of the individuals buried in EIA settlements. They
suffered from tooth illnesses (such as cavities), but also from Cribra orbitalia and Cribra
cranii, osteomyelitis, osteoperiostitis, arthrosis, osteoporosis, Schmorl’s nodes.
Of particular interest are the observations regarding healed fractures and signs of
perimortem violence. The individuals showing signs of violent death are mainly from the
adult and mature age category, both men and women. Diseases related to intense physical
activities during their lifetime (Schmorl’s nodes, pronounced osteoarthritis) and infections
(Cribra cranii, osteoperiostitis) indicate that males endured harsher conditions, carried out
intense physical activities, possibly even warrior-like activities that caused a predisposition to
infections and transformations of certain skeleton segments.
ABSTRACT
191
BURIALS INSIDE SETTLEMENTS V. BURIALS IN NECROPOLISES
First we ought to underscore that after excluding several finds that are more related to
the Late Iron Age rather than Early Iron Age (e.g. necropolis from Lapus, cremation
necropolises in Oltenia, Banat and Serbia, from Cruceni-Belegis, Bistret-lsalnita series etc.),
we were able to gather information about no less than 1,250 individuals buried in
necropolises, almost half of them dated to Basarabi period. Undoubtedly these finds are not
representative against the large number of sites, huge areal and analyzed time frame, but if
we compared it to the individuals found within settlements (at least 512 individuals that can
be dated especially to pre-Basarabi period) we’ll grasp the particular importance of burials
inside settlements in the overall funerary conduct in EIA in the Balkans-Carpathians area.
In the overall we can identify several similarities and differences between burials in
necropolises and in settlements. The first obvious difference concerns the funerary ritual.
In settlements, inhumation is predominant, while burials in necropolises are subject to
regional particularities and biritualism. The same difference is visible in the deposition and
alignment of the dead. Most graves in necropolises contained relatively rich funerary
inventories, consisting of both pottery vessels (most of the times) and metal artefacts
(adornments, weapons, harness pieces, worship artefacts, etc.), unlike in settlements,
where such finds are scarce.
Among similarities we point out aspects related to the burial process, such as using
fire in some rituals (possible purification of the place) accompanying the depositions, as
well as the numerous cases of post-deposition interventions on the bodies. Proof of the
prolonged “macabre” connection with the dead is also present in the few necropolises
excavated in the analyzed area. An exception is the case of Folte§ti necropolis, where most
individuals are not in anatomical position due to preliminary manipulation of the bones. Thus
out of 9 researched graves only tomb no. 8 contained a double burial, where one individual
was flexed on the right side in anatomical position. In the rest of the cases the bones were
displaced from their natural position10. This can be considered clear evidence of
reinhumation or final deposition of individuals that had been initially put some place else to
decompose... such as inside settlements.
Aside from some exceptions, anthropologically speaking, there are no major
differences between the individuals buried inside settlements and those in
necropolises. In the overall, all age categories are represented, perhaps excepting the
children, more numerous in settlements. There is also some balance between the sexes in
both series of finds. Bone and dental pathology has revealed in both cases the existence of
common diseases, but signs of violence (ante- and perimortem) occur exclusively among the
dead buried in settlements, which is probably due to de facto situation or represent only a
stage of the research.
***
Under these cirucumstances we ask the natural question: Who were these individuals
and why were they treated differently? As we already mentioned, finds in the studied areal
have been most often construed as the result of human sacrifices, contagions, violent
actions or fertility-dedicated rituals11, or as an overcultural element. Depositions of bodies
10 Laszlo 2006, 105.
11 See STrbu 1994; STrbu 1997; Irimia, Conovici 1993; Tasic 1972; Nekhrizov, Tzvetkova 2012 etc.
192
Sorin-Cristian Ailincâi
inside settlements or in sanctuaries could have been considered gifts to the gods, the same
as the bronze hoards12.
In fact, physical clues that might draw an answer to this question are scarce. Signs of
perimortem violence are not certain indicator of sacrifice. Many of the individuals that
sufferent violent deaths are men (especially at Enisala site) that probably carried out warior-
like activities and their death occurred due to their involvement in a conflict. Other blunt force
traumas on both females and children might also be due to cases of domestic or community
violence or to accidents, etc.
On the other hand, the signs of operations (trepanation), healed fractures, incorrect
bone reduction that sometimes hindered adequate use of the affected limb indicate that at
least some of the individuals had been cared for and aided by the community.
Documentation of such situations over such ample area and long period, establishing a
timeline of the deaths (In many of the multiple deposition cases), the absence in some cases
- as in mass grave no. 2 at Gomolava - of sings of violent death, all exclude, in our opinion,
the generalized explanation of epidemics or massacres.
In fact, in Europe, these situations have had various interpretations. One of the first
and most pertinent analyses is authored by Alain Villes. After studying IA burials in sites in
northern France, the French researcher reviews the possible interpretations: human
sacrifices, burials of convicts, funerary pits, settlement overlapping a necropolis, burials in a
settlement about to be deserterd, or abandonment of cadavers. On this occasion he also
launched the notion of social downgrade burials that is individuals of lower social classes
(such as slaves, prisoners of war, heretics, convicts) were not buried in the actual
cemeteries. This is substantiated by the use of abandoned, sometimes isolated structures,
lack of inventory artefacts, varied position of the bodies, multiple depositions sometimes
associated with animals, etc.13
Another theory regarding the source of the burials comes from Barry Cunliffe, who
studied the pits with special depositions at Danebury. The British researcher construed
burials inside settlements as offerings intended to gain the good will of the chthonian god,
where the pit was only an element in a complex system of beliefs and not just mere space
of deposition14.
The instances of human bodies deposition documented in Europe along various
historic ages are diverse and may have different explanations. At the same time, the data
gathered for EIA populations in the Balkans-Carpathians areal reveal, in our opinion,
the existence of common funerary conduct(s) whose final result was deposition of
the dead in settlements. Such conduct exhibits some similarities (ritual, post-deposition
interventions, some ritual elements, etc.) and even somewhat intersects (see the
necropolis at Foltesti) with the standard ritual of burials in actual cemeteries. According to
the same data, the selection of these individuals does not seem to have relied on
malformations, diseases (to the extent such can be found on the bones), age (possibly
except for children) or sex.
14 Kasuba 2008, 111-112.
13 Villes 1986.
14 Cunliffe 1992, 73. We also find this interpretation - deposition of offerings - at V. Delattre (Delattre et alii
2000; Delattre 2010 etc.)
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Bayerische
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|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Ailincăi, Sorin-Cristian 20./21. Jh |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1047004860 |
| author_facet | Ailincăi, Sorin-Cristian 20./21. Jh |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Ailincăi, Sorin-Cristian 20./21. Jh |
| author_variant | s c a sca |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV043304044 |
| classification_rvk | NF 1590 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)954291937 (DE-599)BSZ454114389 |
| discipline | Geschichte |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Südosteuropa (DE-588)4058449-5 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Südosteuropa |
| id | DE-604.BV043304044 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T07:22:39Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9786068694122 |
| language | Romanian English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-028724839 |
| oclc_num | 954291937 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-188 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-12 DE-29 |
| owner_facet | DE-188 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-12 DE-29 |
| physical | 218 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme |
| publishDate | 2015 |
| publishDateSearch | 2015 |
| publishDateSort | 2015 |
| publisher | Academia română, Centrul de studii transilvane |
| record_format | marc |
| series | Series Minerva. II, Fontes archaeologici |
| series2 | Series Minerva. II, Fontes archaeologici |
| spelling | Ailincăi, Sorin-Cristian 20./21. Jh. Verfasser (DE-588)1047004860 aut Trǎind cu morţii înmormântări în aşezările de la începutul epocii fierului între Balcani, Tisa şi Nistru = Living with the dead : burials in early iron age settlements between the Balkans, Tisza and Dnestr Sorin-Cristian Ailincăi Living with the dead Cluj-Napoca Academia română, Centrul de studii transilvane 2015 218 Seiten Illustrationen, Diagramme txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Series Minerva. II, Fontes archaeologici 1 Englische Zusammenfassung Eisenzeit (DE-588)4014102-0 gnd rswk-swf Ausgrabung (DE-588)4129464-6 gnd rswk-swf Grab (DE-588)4021716-4 gnd rswk-swf Südosteuropa (DE-588)4058449-5 gnd rswk-swf Südosteuropa (DE-588)4058449-5 g Grab (DE-588)4021716-4 s Ausgrabung (DE-588)4129464-6 s Eisenzeit (DE-588)4014102-0 s DE-604 Series Minerva. II, Fontes archaeologici 1 (DE-604)BV043314923 1 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=028724839&sequence=000005&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=028724839&sequence=000006&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=028724839&sequence=000007&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=028724839&sequence=000008&line_number=0004&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Ailincăi, Sorin-Cristian 20./21. Jh Trǎind cu morţii înmormântări în aşezările de la începutul epocii fierului între Balcani, Tisa şi Nistru = Living with the dead : burials in early iron age settlements between the Balkans, Tisza and Dnestr Series Minerva. II, Fontes archaeologici Eisenzeit (DE-588)4014102-0 gnd Ausgrabung (DE-588)4129464-6 gnd Grab (DE-588)4021716-4 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4014102-0 (DE-588)4129464-6 (DE-588)4021716-4 (DE-588)4058449-5 |
| title | Trǎind cu morţii înmormântări în aşezările de la începutul epocii fierului între Balcani, Tisa şi Nistru = Living with the dead : burials in early iron age settlements between the Balkans, Tisza and Dnestr |
| title_alt | Living with the dead |
| title_auth | Trǎind cu morţii înmormântări în aşezările de la începutul epocii fierului între Balcani, Tisa şi Nistru = Living with the dead : burials in early iron age settlements between the Balkans, Tisza and Dnestr |
| title_exact_search | Trǎind cu morţii înmormântări în aşezările de la începutul epocii fierului între Balcani, Tisa şi Nistru = Living with the dead : burials in early iron age settlements between the Balkans, Tisza and Dnestr |
| title_full | Trǎind cu morţii înmormântări în aşezările de la începutul epocii fierului între Balcani, Tisa şi Nistru = Living with the dead : burials in early iron age settlements between the Balkans, Tisza and Dnestr Sorin-Cristian Ailincăi |
| title_fullStr | Trǎind cu morţii înmormântări în aşezările de la începutul epocii fierului între Balcani, Tisa şi Nistru = Living with the dead : burials in early iron age settlements between the Balkans, Tisza and Dnestr Sorin-Cristian Ailincăi |
| title_full_unstemmed | Trǎind cu morţii înmormântări în aşezările de la începutul epocii fierului între Balcani, Tisa şi Nistru = Living with the dead : burials in early iron age settlements between the Balkans, Tisza and Dnestr Sorin-Cristian Ailincăi |
| title_short | Trǎind cu morţii |
| title_sort | traind cu mortii inmormantari in asezarile de la inceputul epocii fierului intre balcani tisa si nistru living with the dead burials in early iron age settlements between the balkans tisza and dnestr |
| title_sub | înmormântări în aşezările de la începutul epocii fierului între Balcani, Tisa şi Nistru = Living with the dead : burials in early iron age settlements between the Balkans, Tisza and Dnestr |
| topic | Eisenzeit (DE-588)4014102-0 gnd Ausgrabung (DE-588)4129464-6 gnd Grab (DE-588)4021716-4 gnd |
| topic_facet | Eisenzeit Ausgrabung Grab Südosteuropa |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=028724839&sequence=000005&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=028724839&sequence=000006&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=028724839&sequence=000007&line_number=0003&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=028724839&sequence=000008&line_number=0004&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV043314923 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT ailincaisorincristian traindcumortiiinmormantariinasezariledelainceputulepociifieruluiintrebalcanitisasinistrulivingwiththedeadburialsinearlyironagesettlementsbetweenthebalkanstiszaanddnestr AT ailincaisorincristian livingwiththedead |
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