Engineering for storage of fruits and vegetables: cold storage, controlled atmosphere storage, modified atmosphere storage
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Amsterdam [u.a.]
Elsevier, Academic Press [u.a.]
2015
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| Beschreibung: | XXX, 859 S. graph. Darst. |
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| 100 | 1 | |a Gopala Rao, Chandra |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Engineering for storage of fruits and vegetables |b cold storage, controlled atmosphere storage, modified atmosphere storage |c Chandra Gopala Rao |
| 264 | 1 | |a Amsterdam [u.a.] |b Elsevier, Academic Press [u.a.] |c 2015 | |
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Titel: Engineering for storage of fruits and vegetables
Autor: Gopala Rao, Chandra
Jahr: 2015
Contents
Preface.xxvii
Part I: Pre Cooling of Fruits and Vegetables and their Storage Requirement.1
Chapter 1: Introduction.3
1.1 Storage Operations.5
1.1.1 Traditional Storage Methods.6
1.2 Modern Storage Methods.7
1.2.1 Storage with Mechanical Refrigeration.7
1.3 Controlled Atmosphere Storage.10
1.4 Modified Atmosphere Packaging.10
References.11
Chapter 2: Postharvest Physiology of Fruits and Vegetables.13
2.1 Postharvest Physiology.13
2.2 Respiration.13
2.3 Internal Factors Affecting Respiration.15
2.4 External Factors Affecting Respiration.16
2.4.1 Temperature.16
2.4.2 Ethylene.16
2.5 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Concentration.18
2.6 Mechanical Stresses.18
2.7 Respiration Rate.19
2.8 Van't Hoff Rule.20
2.9 Calculation of Ql0 Values.21
2.10 Heat of Respiration.23
2.11 Transpiration.26
2.12 Factors Influencing Transpiration.26
2.13 Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient.31
2.14 Desiccation.31
2.15 Determination of Water Vapor Pressure Deficit (VPD).33
2.16 Postharvest Decay.36
2.17 Conclusions.36
2.18 Questions.37
References.37
v
vi Contents
Chapter 3: Estimation of Cooling Times of Foods.39
3.1 Introduction.39
3.2 Fourier Heat Conduction Equation.39
3.2.1 Cooling Times of Foods.40
3.3 Estimation of Cooling Time Based on/and j Factors.40
3.3.1 Determination of/and j Factors for Slabs, Cylinders, and Spheres.42
3.3.2 Determination of Factor/.42
3.3.3 Determination of j-Value.43
3.4 Problems.45
3.5 Questions.47
References.48
Chapter 4: Precooling of Fruits and Vegetables by Ventilation Method.49
4.1 Introduction.49
4.2 Factors Contributing to Spoilage.49
4.3 Selection of a Cooling Method.50
4.4 Ventilation.50
4.5 Estimation of Airflow for Moisture Removal.51
4.6 Airflow Required in Heat Removal.51
4.7 Ventilation Systems.52
4.7.1 Natural Ventilation System.52
4.7.2 Mechanical Ventilation System.52
4.7.3 Extraction System.52
4.8 Forced System.53
4.9 Combined Forced and Extraction System.53
4.10 Natural Ventilation.54
4.10.1 Ventilation by Wind Forces.54
4.10.2 Rate of Ventilation.54
4.10.3 Wind Speed and Direction.55
4.11 Effectiveness of Ventilator Openings.55
4.11.1 Forced Draft Systems of Ventilation.56
4.11.2 Exchange of Air.57
4.11.3 Air Circulation in the Storage.57
4.11.4 Cross-Flow System.57
4.12 Low-Cost Cold Room.57
4.13 Storehouse.57
4.14 Layout of Floor Ducts for Storehouse.58
4.15 Overhead Ventilation Air Distribution System.58
4.16 Package Icing.60
4.16.1 Disadvantages of Top Icing.61
4.17 Ice Bunker.62
4.18 Windrowed Top-Icing.62
4.19 Problems on Cooling Load Calculations.63
4.20 Questions.68
References.68
Contents vii
Chapter 5: Forced-Air Cooling of Fruits and Vegetables.71
5.1 Introduction.71
5.1.1 Portable Forced-Air Cooler.72
5.2 Effects of Containers and Stacking Patterns.73
5.3 Commercial Methods of Forced-Air Cooling.73
5.3.1 Forced-Air Room Cooling.73
5.3.2 Cold Wall Forced-Air Cooling.75
5.3.3 Tunnel-Type Forced-Air Cooling.75
5.3.4 Forced-Air Serpentine Cooling.76
5.3.5 Hydro Air Cooler.77
5.3.6 Air Cooling of Cut Flowers.77
5.4 Product Moisture Loss in Forced-Air Cooling.78
5.5 Produce Cooling Pattern with Forced-Air Cooling.79
5.6 Wet Cooling System and Flow-Through Cooling.81
5.7 Questions.83
References.83
Chapter 6: Hydrocooling of Fruits, Vegetables, and Cut Flowers.85
6.1 Introduction.85
6.2 Heat Load.85
6.2.1 Mass Average Temperature.85
6.3 Hydrocooling Rates.86
6.3.1 Cooling Coefficient.87
6.3.2 Half-Cooling Time.88
6.4 Empirical Methods for Calculating Hydrocooling Rates.88
6.4.1 Half-Cooling Time.91
6.4.2 Application of the Concept of tU2.92
6.4.3 Universal Nomograph.94
6.4.4 Half-warming Time.96
6.4.5 Cooling Time Curve.96
6.5 Hydrocooling Methods.96
6.6 Types of Hydrocoolers.97
6.6.1 Continuous-Flow Immersion Hydrocooler.98
6.6.2 Water Shower Hydrocooler.98
6.6.3 Batch-Type Hydrocooler.99
6.7 Hydrocooler Design Considerations.99
6.8 Hydrocooler Operation and Maintenance.100
6.8.1 Truck Hydrocooling.101
6.9 Warm-Up after Hydrocooling.101
6.10 Refrigerated Storage of Flowers.102
6.11 Dry Storage of Flowers.103
6.11.1 Advantages and Procedure of Dry Storage.104
6.11.2 Disadvantages of Dry Storage.104
6.12 Bud Harvesting.104
6.13 Other Approaches.105
viii Contents
6.14 Nursery Stock and Cut Flowers.105
6.15 Storage Aspects of Few More Horticultural Products.107
6.15.1 Maple Syrup.107
6.15.2 Honey.108
6.15.3 Vegetable Seeds.108
6.16 Questions.109
References.109
Chapter 7: Evaporative Cooling Systems for Fruits and Vegetables.111
7.1 Introduction.Ill
7.2 Thermodynamics of EC.111
7.3 Psychrometry of EC Process.Ill
7.3.1 Heat Balance.112
7.3.2 Efficiency of EC System.112
7.4 Types of EC Systems.113
7.4.1 Fan and Pad Types.113
7.4.2 Mist or Spray-Type EC.116
7.4.3 Limitations of Simple EC Systems.116
7.5 Indirect or Modified EC Systems.117
7.5.1 Modified EC When Outside Air is Hot and Dry.117
7.5.2 Modified EC When Outside Air is Hot and Wet.118
7.6 Energy Cube System.120
7.7 Design of WBT and Airflow for EC Systems.120
7.7.1 Spray or Mist System.121
7.8 Ductwork.121
7.9 Example Problems on EC.122
7.10 Points to Be Noted in EC.125
7.11 Cost of EC Systems.125
7.12 Maintenance of EC Systems.127
7.13 Design of Cascade EC Systems.127
7.13.1 Length of Heat Exchanger.132
7.14 Questions.133
Further Readings.133
Chapter 8: Vacuum Cooling of Fruits and Vegetables.135
8.1 Introduction.135
8.2 Vacuum Cooling Principle.135
8.3 Vacuum Cooling Process.136
8.4 Vacuum-Producing Mechanisms.137
8.4.1 The Steam Ejector.138
8.4.2 Centrifugal System.138
8.4.3 Rotary and Reciprocating.138
8.5 Modeling of Vacuum Cooling Process.139
8.6 Vacuum Cooling Equipment.140
8.7 Design of Vacuum Cooling System.142
Contents ix
8.7.1 Effective Suction Volume (Se(T).142
8.7.2 Pumping Time.143
8.7.3 Refrigeration Capacity.143
8.8 Applications of Vacuum Cooling for Fruit and Vegetables.143
8.9 Hydrovac Cooler.145
8.10 Advantages of Vacuum Cooling.146
8.11 Disadvantages of Vacuum Cooling.147
8.12 Factors Affecting Vacuum Cooling Rate.148
8.13 Factors Affecting Product/Produce Temperature
Distribution.149
8.14 Factors Affecting Vacuum Cooling Loss.149
8.15 Questions.150
References.150
Chapter 9: Handling and Storage of Common Fruits.151
9.1 Introduction.151
9.2 Handling and Harvesting.151
9.3 Storage and Transportation.151
9.3.1 Refrigerated Storage.152
9.3.2 Pears.153
9.3.3 Grapes.154
9.3.4 Plums.156
9.3.5 Sweet Cherries.156
9.3.6 Peaches and Nectarines.157
9.3.7 Apricots.158
9.3.8 Berries.158
9.4 Citrus Fruit.158
9.4.1 Maturity and Quality.158
9.4.2 Harvesting and Packing.159
9.4.3 Lemons.160
9.4.4 Bananas.161
9.5 Subtropical Fruits.161
9.5.1 Avocados.161
9.5.2 Mangoes.162
9.5.3 Pineapples.162
9.5.4 Apples.163
9.5.5 Oranges.163
Further Readings.164
Chapter 10: Handling and Cold Storage of Vegetables.165
10.1 Introduction.165
10.2 Artichokes, Globe (0°C and 95-100% RH).165
10.3 Asparagus (0-2°C and 95-100% RH).165
10.3.1 Beans, Green or Snap (4-7°C and 95% RH).166
10.3.2 Beans, Lima (3-5°C and 95% RH).166
10.3.3 Beets (0°C and 98-100% RH).166
x Contents
10.3.4 Broccoli (0°C and 95-100% RH).166
10.3.5 Brussels Sprouts (0°C and 95-100% RH).167
10.3.6 Cabbage (0°C and 98-100% RH).167
10.3.7 Carrots (0°C and 98-100% RH).167
10.3.8 Cauliflower (0°C and 95% RH).168
10.3.9 Celery (0°C and 98-100% RH).168
10.3.10 Corn, Sweet (0°C and 95-98% RH).169
10.3.11 Cucumbers (10-13°C and 95% RH).169
10.3.12 Eggplants (8-12°C and 90-98% RH).170
10.3.13 Endive and Escarole (0°C and 95-100% RH).170
10.3.14 Garlic, Dry (0°C and 95-98% RH).170
10.3.15 Greens, Leafy (0°C and 95-100% RH).170
10.3.16 Lettuce (0°C and 95-100% RH).170
10.3.17 Melons.171
10.3.18 Mushrooms (0°C and 95% RH).171
10.3.19 Okra (7-10°C and 90-95% RH).172
10.3.20 Onions (0°C and 65-70% RH).172
10.3.21 Parsley (0°C and 95-100% RH).173
10.3.22 Parsnips (0°C and 98-100% RH).173
10.3.23 Peas, Green (0°C and 95-98% RH).173
10.3.24 Peas, Southern (4—5°C and 95% RH).174
10.3.25 Peppers, Dry Chili or Hot.174
10.3.26 Peppers, Sweet (7-13°C and 90-95% RH).174
10.3.27 Potatoes (90-95% RH).174
10.3.28 Pumpkins and Squash.176
10.3.29 Radishes (0°C and 95-100% RH).176
10.3.30 Rhubarb (0°C and 95% RH).177
10.3.31 Rutabagas (0°C and 98-100% RH).177
10.3.32 Spinach (0°C and 95-98% RH).177
10.3.33 Sweet Potatoes (13-16°C, 85-90% RH).177
10.3.34 Tomatoes (Mature green, 13-21°C; Ripe, 10°C; 90-95% RH).178
10.3.35 Turnips (0°C and 95% RH).179
10.3.36 Beer.179
10.3.37 Canned Foods.179
Further Readings.180
Part II: Cold Storage.181
Chapter 11: Moist Air and Applied Psychrometry.183
11.1 Introduction.183
11.2 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures.183
11.2.1 Mole Fractions of Component Gases.185
11.2.2 Molecular Mass of a Binary Mixture.185
11.3 Gibb's Theorem.185
11.4 Psychrometric Properties of Moist Air.188
Contents xi
11.4.1 Specific Humidity.188
11.4.2 Degree of Saturation.189
11.4.3 Relative Humidity.189
11.4.4 Enthalpy of Moist Air.190
11.5 Numerical Examples.190
11.5.1 Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT).195
11.5.2 Cooling by Dehumidification.198
11.5.3 Dehumidifying and Heating.200
11.6 Psychrometric Chart.201
11.6.1 Basic Processes in Conditioning of Air.201
11.6.2 Problems Solved Using the Psychrometric Chart.202
Further Readings.208
Chapter 12: Preliminaries for the Estimation of Cooling Loads.209
12.1 Introduction.209
12.2 Different Heat Sources.209
12.3 Heat Flow Due to Conduction .210
12.4 Sun Load.211
12.5 Heat Load from Produce.212
12.6 Equipment Load.213
12.7 Infiltration Air Load.214
12.8 Miscellaneous Heat Sources.215
12.8.1 Duct Heat Gain.215
12.8.2 Fan Load.216
12.9 Moisture Gain Through Permeable Walls and Ceilings.217
12.10 Fresh Air Load.217
12.11 Design Concept of Air-Conditioning System.218
12.12 Bypass Factor.221
12.12.1 Importance of Bypass Factor.223
12.13 Sensible Heat Process: Heating or Cooling.224
12.14 Latent Heat Process: Humidification or Dehumidification.225
12.15 Total Heat Process.227
12.16 Sensible Heat Factor (SHF).228
12.17 Methods of Drawing the SHF Line on the Psychrometric Chart.229
Further Readings.230
Chapter 13: Air-Conditioning Systems and Estimation of Cooling Load.231
13.1 Introduction.231
13.2 Types of Air-Conditioning Systems for the Cold Storages.231
13.2.1 All Fresh Air.231
13.2.2 Recirculated Air.232
13.2.3 Recirculated Air with Reheat Coil.235
13.2.4 Recirculated Air Used for Heating the Air Coming
out of the Conditioner.238
Further Readings.243
xii Contents
Chapter 14: Evaporators.245
14.1 Introduction.245
14.2 Factors Considered in the Design of Evaporators.245
14.2.1 Heat Transfer.245
14.2.2 Materials.246
14.2.3 Velocity.246
14.3 Classification of Evaporators.246
14.3.1 D-X Chiller.246
14.3.2 D-X Coil-Type Dry Evaporator.247
14.3.3 Design Procedure of D-X Chiller Evaporator.248
14.4 Extended Surface Evaporators.250
Further Readings.252
Chapter 15: Refrigerant Compressors.253
15.1 Thermodynamics of Compression Process.253
15.1.1 Reciprocating Compressors.253
15.1.2 Multistage Compression.254
15.1.3 Capacity Control of Reciprocating Compressors.256
15.1.4 On and Off Control.256
15.1.5 Holding the Valves Open.256
15.1.6 Hot Gas Bypass.257
15.1.7 Using Multiple Units.257
15.2 Centrifugal Compressors.257
15.2.1 Capacity Control of Centrifugal Compressors.258
15.3 Screw Compressors.261
15.4 Rotary Compressors.263
15.5 Pressure-Enthalpy Charts.265
15.6 Worked out Problems.265
References.271
Chapter 16: Condensers.273
16.1 Introduction.273
16.2 Heat Rejection Ratio.273
16.3 Types of Condensers.274
16.3.1 Air-Cooled Condensers.274
16.3.2 Water-Cooled Condensers.274
16.3.3 Evaporative Condensers.275
16.4 Water-Side Coefficient.276
16.4.1 Fouling Factor.276
16.5 Air-Side Coefficient.276
16.6 Condenser Tubes with Integral Fins.277
16.7 Heat Transfer in Condenser.277
16.7.1 Condensing Heat Transfer Coefficient.278
16.7.2 Outside Horizontal Tube.279
16.8 Examples.279
Further Readings.296
Contents xiii
Chapter 17: Expansion Devices.297
17.1 Introduction.297
17.2 Capillary Tube.297
17.3 Automatic (Constant Pressure) Expansion Valve.298
17.4 Thermostatic Expansion Valve.300
Further Readings.302
Chapter 18: Spray Ponds and Cooling Towers.303
18.1 Spray Pond.303
18.2 Cooling Towers.303
18.3 Classification of Cooling Towers.304
18.3.1 Natural Draft Atmospheric Spray Towers.304
18.3.2 Natural Draft Deck-Type Tower.304
18.3.3 Forced and Induced Draft Cooling Towers.305
18.4 Performance of Cooling Towers.307
18.5 Maintenance of Cooling Towers.313
Further Readings.314
Chapter 19: Fans.315
19.1 Introduction.315
19.2 Types of Fans.315
19.2.1 Propeller Fans.315
19.2.2 Centrifugal Fans.315
19.3 Fan Horsepower and Efficiency.316
19.4 Factors Affecting Fan Selection.317
19.5 Centrifugal Fan Laws.317
19.6 Performance Curves.319
19.7 Fan Selection.319
19.8 General Performance.321
19.9 Adoption of Fan to the System.325
19.10 Variable Air Volume Method .327
Further Readings.328
Chapter 20: Transmission and Distribution Systems of Cool Air.329
20.1 Introduction.329
20.2 Room Air Distribution.329
20.3 Types of Supply Air Outlets.330
20.4 Factors Considered in Air Distribution Systems.330
20.4.1 Draft.331
20.5 Consideration for Selection and Location of Outlet.332
20.5.1 Location of Return Air Openings.333
20.6 Air Distribution.334
20.7 Systems for Injecting the Conditioned Air.334
20.7.1 Perforated Ceiling Panels.334
20.7.2 Pan-Type Arrangement.335
20.7.3 Wall System.335
xiv Contents
20.8 Air Distribution Methods.336
20.8.1 Upward Flow System.336
20.8.2 Downward Flow or Overhead System.336
20.8.3 Ejector Air Distribution System.337
Further Readings.338
Chapter 21: Heat and Water Vapor Transfer in Cold Storage.339
21.1 Introduction.339
21.2 Heat Transfer.339
21.3 Surface Conductance.340
21.3.1 Radiation Component.342
21.4 Solar Air Temperature.343
21.5 Air Spaces.344
21.5.1 Effect of Air Space and Insulation.347
21.6 Theory of Water Vapor Diffusion.348
References.354
Chapter 22: Thermal and Vapor Insulation Materials.355
22.1 Introduction.355
22.2 Basic Uses of Insulation Materials.355
22.3 Heat Transfer.355
22.4 Modern Insulating Materials.356
22.5 Characteristics of Insulation Materials.357
22.6 Water Vapor Transportation.358
22.7 Types of Insulation Materials.359
22.7.1 Insulators Made from Natural Materials.359
22.7.2 Urethane.360
22.8 Insulation Applied to Buildings.361
22.9 Floor Insulation.362
22.10 Low Temperature Cold Storages.362
22.11 Protection Against Freezing of the Soil.367
22.12 Roof Insulation.368
22.13 Insulation of Pipes and Vessels.370
22.14 Thickness of Insulation.371
22.15 Gas-Tight Insulation.373
22.16 Application Methods of Insulation Materials.374
22.17 Wall Insulation.377
22.17.1 Prefabricated Construction.378
22.18 Pressure Protection.382
Further Readings.387
Chapter 23: Design of Small-Capacity Cold Storages.389
23.1 Introduction.389
23.2 Comfort Air-Conditioning.389
23.3 Cold Storage.389
23.3.1 Cold Storage Design.390
Contents xv
23.3.2 Types of Loads in Cold Storages.390
23.3.3 Product Load.392
23.4 Design of a Precooling Chamber for Onions.393
23.4.1 Conditions.393
23.4.2 Facilities.393
23.4.3 Calculations.395
23.4.4 Estimation of Heat Load Due to Building Components.395
23.4.5 Calculation of Refrigeration Demand After Onions are Cooled
to Storage Temperature of 0°C (outside ambient average 10°C).397
23.4.6 Recommendation.398
23.5 Design of Cold Store for Apples.398
23.5.1 Thermal Transmission.399
23.5.2 Air Infiltration, Q2.399
23.5.3 Moisture Load, Q3.401
23.5.4 Product Load, Q4.403
23.5.5 Miscellaneous Heat Loads, Qs.404
23.5.6 Design Example.405
23.5.7 Q2.406
23.5.8 Q4 Respiration of the Apples.407
23.6 Design of a Mini Cold Storage.408
23.6.1 Evaporator Design.411
23.6.2 Condenser Design.411
23.6.3 Load Estimation for a Small-Capacity Cold Storage.412
23.6.4 Load Estimation for Cold Storage for Potatoes.416
23.7 Special Cases.422
23.7.1 High Latent Cooling Load Application.422
Further Readings.425
Chapter 24: Dimensions-Layout-Stacking Methods for Cold Storage.427
24.1 Data Needed for Determining the Dimensions of Cold Storage.427
24.2 Relationship Among Length, Width, and Height of a Cold Store.429
24.2.1 Dimensions of Cold Store.430
24.3 General Layout of a Cold Store.430
24.4 Installation of Air-Conditioning Machinery.430
24.4.1 Centralized or Decentralized Installations.431
24.4.2 Compressor Unit.432
24.4.3 Evaporators.432
24.5 Feeding the Evaporators.434
24.5.1 Defrosting.436
24.6 Condensers.436
24.6.1 Estimation of Coolants for the Condenser.436
24.7 Operation of Cold Rooms.437
24.7.1 Renewal of Air.437
24.7.2 Air Circulation.437
24.7.3 Air Changes.438
xvi Contents
24.8 Stacking Methods.439
24.8.1 Block Stacking.439
24.8.2 Equipment for Stacking.440
24.8.3 Mobile Rack System.441
Further Readings.444
Chapter 25: Transportation of Fruits, Vegetables, and Flowers.445
25.1 Introduction.445
25.2 Types of Transportation.446
25.2.1 Open Vehicles.446
25.2.2 USDA Portacooler.448
25.3 Stacking Patterns.448
25.3.1 Hand-Stacked.448
25.3.2 Pallet and Slip Sheet Loads.450
25.3.3 Bracing the Load.452
25.3.4 Other Practices.453
25.4 Guidelines for Best Use of Refrigerated Transport.453
25.4.1 Refrigerated Trucks and Trailers.455
25.4.2 Refrigerated Trailers.455
25.5 Refrigerated Transportation Foundation Temperature Limit.458
25.6 Control Systems in Transport Vehicles.460
25.7 Dry Ice Refrigeration.460
25.8 Liquid Nitrogen or Liquid Carbon Dioxide Spray.461
25.8.1 Refrigeration Using Liquid Gases.461
25.9 Mechanical Refrigeration with Independent
Engine or Electric Motor.463
25.9.1 Mechanical Refrigeration Deriving Power from Vehicle Engine
or Transmission.463
25.9.2 Eutectic Plates with Station Charging.463
25.9.3 Eutectic Plates with Vehicle-Mounted Condensing Unit.463
25.10 Marine Refrigeration.464
25.10.1 Difference Between Marine Container and Refrigerated Ships.464
25.10.2 New Refrigeration Ships.464
25.11 Bottom Air Delivery System.465
25.11.1 Refrigeration Equipment.466
25.11.2 Refrigeration Maintenance and Control in Ships.466
25.12 Refrigerated Railway Cars.467
25.13 Air Transportation.468
References.470
Further Readings.470
Chapter 26: Instrumentation and Climate Management in Cold Storage.471
26.1 Process Control.471
26.2 Automatic Control.471
Contents xvii
26.2.1 Basic Hardware Components.471
26.2.2 Steps in Control Action.472
26.3 Sensing Elements.472
26.3.1 Electric Resistance Element.474
26.3.2 Bulb and Bellow Element.476
26.3.3 Electromagnetic Elements.476
26.4 Pneumatic Actuators.477
26.4.1 Hydraulic Actuators.479
26.5 Pressure and Flow Transducers.481
26.5.1 Flow Transducers.481
26.6 Humidity-Sensitive Elements.485
26.7 Actuating Elements.486
26.8 Computer-Based Control.487
26.8.1 Digital Computers.487
26.8.2 Computer-Based Controller.488
26.8.3 Hardware Configurations.489
26.8.4 Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs).489
26.8.5 Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs).490
26.9 Controls in Refrigeration Equipment.491
26.9.1 High- and Low-Pressure Cutouts.491
26.9.2 Capacity Control of Reciprocating Compressors.491
26.9.3 Stepping Motor.492
26.9.4 Electric Motors.492
26.10 Controlling Room Conditions at Partial Load.493
26.10.1 On/Off Control.493
26.10.2 Bypass Control Using Face and Bass Amps.493
26.10.3 Varying Flow of Water in Chilled-Water (CW) Coil.496
26.10.4 Reheat Control.497
26.10.5 Volume Control.497
26.10.6 Induction System.498
Reference.499
Part III: Controlled Atmosphere for Storage (CAS) Horticulture Produce.501
Chapter 27: Operation, Maintenance, and Energy Conservation in Cold Storages .503
27.1 Refrigerated Storage Plant Operation.503
27.1.1 Checking Temperatures and Humidity.503
27.1.2 Air Circulation.504
27.1.3 Sanitation and Air Purification.504
27.1.4 Removal of Produce from Storage.506
27.2 Energy Conservation.506
27.2.1 Minimization of Solar Gain.506
27.2.2 Building Design Features and Thermal Properties of Construction
Materials.507
27.2.3 Minimizing Infiltration and Ventilation Load.507
xv/// Contents
27.2.4 Use of Natural Ventilation for Cooling.508
27.2.5 Equipment Selection.508
27.3 Plant Maintenance.509
27.3.1 Cooling Tower Maintenance.509
27.3.2 Removing Fouling from Condenser and Chiller Tubes.509
27.3.3 Cleaning of Air Filters.510
27.3.4 Overhauling of Compressors.510
Reference.510
Further Readings.510
Chapter 28: Controlled Atmosphere Storage.511
28.1 Gas Regimes.513
28.2 Normal and Subnormal Regimes.513
28.3 Categories of Storages Operated with Controlled Regimes.515
28.4 Methods to Maintain Desired C02 to 02 Ratio in the Controlled
Atmosphere Chamber.516
28.5 Establishment of Gas Regime Through Physiological
Activity of the Fruit.516
References.518
Chapter 29: Biochemical Considerations of Controlled Atmosphere Storage.519
29.1 Metabolic Effects of a Controlled Atmosphere.519
29.1.1 Retarded Respiration.519
29.1.2 Acid Accumulation.520
29.1.3 Acetaldehyde Formation.521
29.1.4 Increase in Sugars.521
29.1.5 Decrease in Alcohol-Soluble Protein N.521
29.1.6 Pectin Changes.521
29.1.7 Chlorophyll Degradation.521
29.2 Physiological Effects of 02 Concentration.522
29.2.1 Varied Ripening Rate.522
29.2.2 Increased C02 Production at Very Low or Very High 02 Tensions.522
29.2.3 Reduced Decay at Low 02 Levels.522
29.2.4 Fermentation at Low 02 Levels.523
29.3 Temperature and 02-C2H4 Interactions.523
29.4 Physiological Effects of C02 Concentration.523
29.4.1 Altered Climacteric Pattern.523
29.4.2 Off-Flavor Production at High C02.524
29.4.3 Increased pH and Reduced Ascorbic Acid Level.524
29.4.4 Induction of Some Physiological Disorders.524
29.4.5 Slowing Fungal Growth.524
29.5 C2H4-C02 Interaction.525
29.6 Combined Effects of C02,02, and Temperature.525
29.7 Humidity and C2H4 During Storage.525
29.8 Postcontrolled Atmosphere Storage Behavior.526
Contents xix
29.8.1 Lengthy Controlled Atmosphere Storage Treatment.526
29.8.2 Brief Controlled Atmosphere Storage Treatment.526
29.8.3 High C02 Treatments for Short Periods.526
29.8.4 Brief Treatment with Low 02 Level.527
29.9 Carbon Monoxide.527
29.10 Produce Considerations in Controlled Atmosphere Storage.528
29.11 The Devaux Effect.528
Further Readings.528
Chapter 30: Gas Exchange Mechanisms in Controlled Atmosphere Storage.529
30.1 Introduction.529
30.2 Respiration of Fruits and Vegetables.529
30.3 Specificity of Fruit Respiration.539
30.3.1 Oxygen Uptake in Fruit Tissue.540
30.4 Diffusion Theory.540
30.5 Film Theory.542
30.6 Liquid-Solid Mass Transfer.543
30.7 Homogeneous Reactions.544
30.8 Basic Reaction Theory.545
30.8.1 Reaction Thermodynamics.545
30.9 Reaction Rate.547
30.9.1 Measures of Reaction Rate.547
30.9.2 Measurement of Reaction Rate.548
30.10 Reaction Kinetics.550
Further Readings.551
Chapter 31: Mass Balance Principles Applied to Controlled
Atmosphere Chambers.553
31.1 General Mass Balance Equation.554
31.2 Unsteady-State Mass Balance Applied to a Reactor Chamber.556
31.3 Derivation of a Differential Equation Using Unsteady-State Balance.556
31.3.1 Total Mass Balance.557
31.3.2 Mass Balance for One Component (A).558
31.4 Mass Balance Applied to Real Controlled Atmosphere Chambers.558
Further Readings.563
Chapter 32: Gas Generators for Controlled Atmosphere Storage.565
32.1 Low-Cost Methods for Controlled Atmosphere Storage.565
32.1.1 C02 Scrubber.565
32.2 Low-Cost Controlled Atmosphere Storage for Pallet Loads.566
32.3 Ethylene Control.566
32.4 Low-Cost Controlled Atmosphere Plastic Tent for Bananas.567
32.5 High-Cost Methods for Controlled Atmosphere Storage.568
32.6 Controlled Atmosphere Chamber.569
32.7 Gas Generators.571
xx Contents
32.7.1 Scrubbers.571
32.7.2 Methods for Reducing Percentage of 02.571
32.7.3 Catalytic Burner System.573
32.7.4 Ammonia Cracker Burner System.574
32.8 Fuels for Gas Preparation.575
32.9 Types of Generators.575
32.10 Efficiency of Generators.579
32.11 Calculation of Pull-Down Time.580
32.12 Factors Affecting Time of Stabilization.581
32.13 Design Gas Levels.581
32.14 Air Infiltration Rate.581
Further Readings.582
Chapter 33: Equipment for Producing and Regulating Controlled
Atmosphere.583
33.1 Scrubbers.583
33.1.1 Scrubbing C02 with Hydrated Lime.583
33.1.2 Scrubbing C02 with Water.584
33.1.3 Scrubbing C02 with Activated Charcoal and Other
Molecular Sieves.585
33.2 Ethylene Control System.586
33.3 Oxygen Control Systems.587
33.3.1 External Gas Generators.587
33.4 Liquid Nitrogen Atmospheric Generators.588
33.5 Gas Separator Systems.588
33.6 Hollow-Fiber Membrane Systems.589
33.7 Hypobaric Storage.589
33.8 Diffusion Gas Exchanger (Marcellin System).590
33.8.1 Diffusion Walls.591
33.8.2 Construction Details of Diffuser Exchanger.591
33.8.3 Primary Instructions for Using a Diffusion Chamber.592
33.9 Establishment of Gas Regime.592
33.10 Operations Required to Start the Gas Exchanger.593
33.11 Pallet Package System.595
33.12 Atmolysair System.595
33.13 Automated Controlled Atmosphere Control Systems.596
33.13.1 Control Strategy.596
33.13.2 Control Devices.596
33.13.3 PC-Based Systems.597
33.13.4 Commercial System.597
33.14 Instrumentation for Controlled Atmosphere Chambers.597
33.14.1 Temperature.598
33.14.2 Relative Humidity.598
33.14.3 Oxygen Concentration.598
33.14.4 Carbon Dioxide Concentration.598
Further Readings.598
Contents xxi
Chapter 34: Design, Construction, and Operation of Controlled Atmosphere
Storage Chambers.599
34.1 Volume Planning.599
34.2 Hermetic Sealing and Gas Insulation.600
34.2.1 Selection of Gas Impermeable Materials.600
34.2.2 Qualities of Gas Insulation Materials.600
34.2.3 Gas Insulation Materials.600
34.3 Laying the Gas Insulation Materials.602
34.3.1 Doors and Observation Windows.602
34.3.2 Hermetization of Comers.603
34.4 New Methods of Hermetic Sealing: Atmostable Method.603
34.4.1 Hermetic Sealing of Floors.605
34.4.2 Multiple CA Chambers.605
34.5 Tests for Airtightness of Controlled Atmosphere Storage.606
34.6 Determination of Gas Chamber Tightness.606
34.6.1 Marcellin-Dohkoshi Formula.607
34.7 Instruments for Testing the Airtightness of Chambers.609
34.8 Design and Layouts of Commercial Controlled Atmosphere Chambers.610
34.9 Air-Conditioning Equipment for Controlled Atmosphere Chambers.613
34.9.1 Overhead Air Coolers.614
34.9.2 Floor-Type Air Coolers.614
34.9.3 Cool Air Distribution.614
34.9.4 Management of the Drying Effect of Cool Air.615
34.9.5 Designing Cooling Surface Area of Air Coolers.616
34.10 Important Features for Successful Operation of Controlled Atmospheres. 617
34.11 Storage with Normal Gas Mixture.618
34.12 Storage with Subnormal Gas Mixture.619
34.13 N2 Management in the Controlled Atmospheres.619
34.14 C02 Management in Controlled Atmospheres.620
34.15 Observations for Successful Controlled Atmosphere Operation.621
Further Readings.622
Part IV: Modified Atmosphere Storage.623
Chapter 35: An Overview of Modified Atmosphere Storage.625
35.1 Modified Atmosphere.625
35.2 Modified Atmosphere Packaging.625
35.3 Equilibrium Modified Atmosphere Packaging.626
35.4 Packaging Techniques.626
35.5 MAP Gases.626
35.6 Packaging Films.627
35.7 Plastic Films for MAP.627
35.8 Packaging Machinery for MAP.627
35.9 Development of Argon MAP.628
35.10 Films for Argon MAP.629
Further Readings.629
xxii Contents
Chapter 36: MAP Technology.631
36.1 Introduction.631
36.2 Gases Used in MAP.631
36.2.1 Oxygen.632
36.2.2 Carbon Dioxide.632
36.2.3 Nitrogen.633
36.2.4 Carbon Monoxide.633
36.2.5 Argon.633
36.2.6 Other Gases.634
36.3 Methods of Creating MA Conditions.634
36.3.1 Natural or Passive MA.634
36.3.2 Active MAP.634
36.4 Techniques to Replace Air in MAP.634
36.4.1 Gas Flushing.634
36.4.2 Compensated Vacuum.635
36.4.3 Active Packaging.635
36.5 Gas Scavenger and Generator Systems.635
36.6 Factors for Selection of Packaging Material.637
36.7 Flexible Packaging Materials.638
36.8 Polyolefins.638
36.9 Methods for Storing Fruits in Polymeric Packets.640
36.9.1 Bag and Tray Systems.641
36.9.2 Individual Seal Packaging.641
36.10 Modified Humidity Packaging of Fresh Horticultural Produce.642
36.11 Estimation of Surface Area of Polymeric Film for MAP.643
36.12 Development of Vacuum in Polyethylene Packing.645
36.13 Indices of Failure.646
References.647
Chapter 37: Cases and Vapor Applied to MA Processing Operations.649
37.1 Introduction.649
37.1.1 Equations of State for Ideal and Real Gases.649
37.2 Quantity of Gases.649
37.3 P-V-T Relationship for Ideal Gases.650
37.4 Gas Mixture.652
37.5 Partial Volume.652
37.5.1 C02 Supply.654
37.6 Liquid Condensation from Gas Mixtures.655
37.6.1 Verification of Condensation.658
Further Readings.660
Chapter 38: Shelf Life of Foods.661
38.1 Definition.661
38.2 Shelf Life Dating.662
38.3 Factors Controlling Shelf Life.663
Contents xxiii
38.3.1 Product Perishability.663
38.3.2 Bulk Density.663
38.3.3 Package Configuration.664
38.3.4 Surface Area-Volume Ratio.665
38.3.5 Concentration Effects.666
38.4 Distribution Environment.667
38.4.1 Climate.667
38.4.2 Mass Transfer.667
38.4.3 Heat Transfer.667
38.5 Shelf Life Plots.668
38.5.1 Arrhenius Model.668
38.5.2 Linear Model.669
Further Reading.670
Chapter 39: Kinetics of Food Deteriorative Reactions.671
39.1 Introduction.671
39.2 Sensory Quality.671
39.3 Rates of Deteriorative Reactions.673
39.4 Zero-Order Reactions.675
39.5 First-Order Reactions.678
39.6 Second-Order Reactions.680
39.7 nth-Order Reactions.680
39.8 Reactions Where Product Concentration is Rate Limiting.681
39.9 Relation Between k and D.683
39.10 Temperature Dependence of Reaction Rates.684
39.11 Half-Life.685
39.12 The ei0 Value.688
39.12.1 Relationship Between the Qm and EA.688
39.13 The ZValue.690
39.13.1 The Relationship Between Z Value and D.690
Further Readings.697
Chapter 40: Water Activity and Shelf Life.699
40.1 Introduction.699
40.2 Definitions of Water Activity.699
40.3 Sorption Isotherms.702
40.4 Classification of Sorption Isotherms.703
40.5 Measurement of Sorption Isotherm.704
40.6 Mathematical Models of Sorption Isotherms.704
40.6.1 Langmuir Equation.705
40.6.2 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) Equation.705
40.6.3 Oswin Model.706
40.6.4 Smith Model.707
40.6.5 Halsey Model.708
40.6.6 Henderson Model.708
xxiv Contents
40.6.7 Iglesias and Chirife Equation.709
40.6.8 Guggenheim-Anderson-De Boer (GAB) Model.709
40.6.9 Peleg Model.711
40.7 Relationship Among aw, Package Material, and Shelf Life.712
40.8 Determination of Critical Moisture Content.714
References.727
Further Readings.727
Chapter 41: Effect of Logistics Environment on Shelf Life.729
41.1 Shelf Life Plots.730
41.1.1 Arrhenius Plot.730
41.1.2 Linear Plot.731
41.2 The Use of Shelf Life Plots.732
41.3 Zero-Order Reaction Prediction.735
41.4 Practical Shelf Life (PSL).737
41.5 Prediction by First-Order Reaction.739
Further Readings.743
Chapter 42: Shelf Life Testing.745
42.1 Basic Approach to Determine Shelf Life of Food Products.745
42.2 Accelerated SL Testing (ASLT).746
42.3 Temperature Quotient.747
42.4 Effect of g10 on Shelf Life.748
42.5 Hypothetical Shelf Life Plot.750
42.6 ASLT Procedure.751
42.7 Examples of ASLT Procedures.753
42.7.1 Dehydrated Products.753
42.7.2 Canned Foods.753
42.8 Problems in the Use of ASLT Procedures.753
Further Readings.754
Chapter 43: MAP Modeling.755
43.1 Introduction.755
43.2 MAP Modeling.756
43.3 Estimation of Surface Area of Permeable Film.759
43.4 Expression of Film Permeability in Terms of Gas Concentration.760
43.5 Graphical Determination of Suitable Packaging Film.763
Further Readings.765
Chapter 44: Principles of Enzyme Kinetics.767
44.1 Introduction.767
44.2 Michaelis-Menten Kinetics.768
44.3 Determination of Enzyme Kinetic Constants for Batch Data.768
44.4 Lineweaver-Burk Plot.769
44.5 Eadie-Hofstee and Hanes Plots.771
Contents xxv
44.6 Hanes Plot.771
44.7 Langmuir Plot.772
44.8 Noncompetitive Inhibition.Ill
Reference.780
Chapter 45: Enzyme Kinetics Applied to MAP.781
45.1 Introduction.781
45.2 Respiration Model.782
45.2.1 Respiration Rate as a Function of 02 Concentration.782
45.2.2 Respiration Rate as Function of CO, Concentration.782
45.2.3 Testing of Models Using Published Data.783
45.3 Model for Fresh Produce Respiration.783
45.3.1 Respiration Rate as Function of C02 Concentration.783
45.3.2 Testing of Model with Permeable Package.786
45.4 Gas Exchange in the Pack.787
45.4.1 Testing of the Model.789
45.5 Conclusions.791
References.791
Chapter 46: MAP Design with 02 Modeling (Experiments on Tomato Fruit).793
46.1 Introduction.793
46.1.1 Test Particulars.793
46.2 Basic Approach.794
Reference.802
Further Readings.802
Chapter 47: Methods of Storing Fruits in Polymeric Packets with MAP.803
47.1 Storage in Polyethylene Bags.803
47.2 Storage in Boxes with Polythene Lining.803
47.3 Storage in Container with Polythene Lining.806
47.3.1 Packaging and Loading.806
47.4 Storage in Polythene Containers with Permeable Packing.807
47.4.1 Process of Making the Container.808
47.4.2 Precaution While Loading the Container.810
47.4.3 Measurement of Gases.810
47.4.4 Poststorage Operation.810
47.5 Limitations of the Container Method.811
47.6 Experimental Results of MAP with Plastics for Fruits.812
47.7 Consumer Package.813
47.8 Maximizing MAP Performance.813
47.9 Points of Importance for Highest Performance of MAP.814
References.815
Appendixes.817
Subject Index.837 |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Gopala Rao, Chandra |
| author_facet | Gopala Rao, Chandra |
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| id | DE-604.BV042776379 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-10-14T14:11:54Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780128033654 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-028206533 |
| oclc_num | 922605240 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-83 |
| owner_facet | DE-83 |
| physical | XXX, 859 S. graph. Darst. |
| publishDate | 2015 |
| publishDateSearch | 2015 |
| publishDateSort | 2015 |
| publisher | Elsevier, Academic Press [u.a.] |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Gopala Rao, Chandra Verfasser aut Engineering for storage of fruits and vegetables cold storage, controlled atmosphere storage, modified atmosphere storage Chandra Gopala Rao Amsterdam [u.a.] Elsevier, Academic Press [u.a.] 2015 XXX, 859 S. graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Gemüse (DE-588)4020069-3 gnd rswk-swf Lagertechnik (DE-588)4034087-9 gnd rswk-swf Obst (DE-588)4043047-9 gnd rswk-swf Obst (DE-588)4043047-9 s Lagertechnik (DE-588)4034087-9 s DE-604 Gemüse (DE-588)4020069-3 s HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=028206533&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Gopala Rao, Chandra Engineering for storage of fruits and vegetables cold storage, controlled atmosphere storage, modified atmosphere storage Gemüse (DE-588)4020069-3 gnd Lagertechnik (DE-588)4034087-9 gnd Obst (DE-588)4043047-9 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4020069-3 (DE-588)4034087-9 (DE-588)4043047-9 |
| title | Engineering for storage of fruits and vegetables cold storage, controlled atmosphere storage, modified atmosphere storage |
| title_auth | Engineering for storage of fruits and vegetables cold storage, controlled atmosphere storage, modified atmosphere storage |
| title_exact_search | Engineering for storage of fruits and vegetables cold storage, controlled atmosphere storage, modified atmosphere storage |
| title_full | Engineering for storage of fruits and vegetables cold storage, controlled atmosphere storage, modified atmosphere storage Chandra Gopala Rao |
| title_fullStr | Engineering for storage of fruits and vegetables cold storage, controlled atmosphere storage, modified atmosphere storage Chandra Gopala Rao |
| title_full_unstemmed | Engineering for storage of fruits and vegetables cold storage, controlled atmosphere storage, modified atmosphere storage Chandra Gopala Rao |
| title_short | Engineering for storage of fruits and vegetables |
| title_sort | engineering for storage of fruits and vegetables cold storage controlled atmosphere storage modified atmosphere storage |
| title_sub | cold storage, controlled atmosphere storage, modified atmosphere storage |
| topic | Gemüse (DE-588)4020069-3 gnd Lagertechnik (DE-588)4034087-9 gnd Obst (DE-588)4043047-9 gnd |
| topic_facet | Gemüse Lagertechnik Obst |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=028206533&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT gopalaraochandra engineeringforstorageoffruitsandvegetablescoldstoragecontrolledatmospherestoragemodifiedatmospherestorage |