The Classical tradition: Greek and Roman influences on Western literature
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804174843980021760 |
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| adam_text | THE
CLASSICAL
TRADITION
GREEK AND ROMAN INFLUENCES ON WESTERN LITERATURE
BY
GILBERT HIGHET
WITH A NEW FOREWORD BY
HAROLD BLOOM
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
New York Oxford
CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . xxxix
Chapter i. INTRODUCTION.................1-21
Our world is a direct spiritual descendant of Greece and Rome I This book describes that descent in literature ... 2
THE FALL OF THE GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION . . . 3~4
Civilization was highly developed in the Roman empire . 3
When that fell, Europe relapsed almost into barbarism . 3
THE DARK AGES ....... 4~H
How did civilization survive through the barbarian invasions ? 4
The languages of the Greco-Roman world . • • S
Greek ........ S
The Roman empire was bilingual .... 5
The division of the empire and its effects ... 5
Greek was forgotten in the west .... 6
Latin ........ 6
Romance languages and dialects .... 6
Church Latin ...... 7
Classical Latin ...... 8
Religion: Christianity enriched by Greco-Roman folk-lore and philosophy ....... 8
Roman law ........ 9
Roman political sense ...... 9
History and myth ....... 10
THE MIDDLE AGES ...... II-I4
Gradual progress in civilization: the growth of education . 11
universities . . . . . . .11
monastic orders . . . . . . .11
travel ........ 12
international Latin v. local dialects . . .12
books and libraries . . . . . .13
Greek still closed . . . . . .13
expansion of western European languages through Latin . 14
THE RENAISSANCE ...... I4-2I
Rapid expansion of culture : new discoveries in literature and art 14 manuscripts of lost books and authors . . .15
works of art ....... 16
Greek ........ 16
the spoken language ...... 16
the written language . . . . . .17
manuscripts . . . . . . .17
Stimulating effect of these discoveries . . . .18
classical scholarship improved . . . .18
Romance languages and English enriched . . .18
XVI
CONTENTS
(Teutonic and Slav languages unaffected) . . . 19
improvement in style . . . . . .19
discovery of literary forms . . . . .20
exploration of classical history and myth . . .20
renewal of the sense of beauty . . . .21
Chapter 2. THE DARK AGES: ENGLISH LITERATURE 22-47
English literature the most considerable in the Dark Ages . 22
Anglo-Saxon poetry ...... 23-35
Secular poetry ....... 22
Beowulf and Homer ...... 22
the conflict ....... 23
the world........ 24
the poetry: classical and Christian influence . . .24
Epic poetry and the fall of the Roman empire . . .27
Christian poetry ....... 28
Caedmon ........ 28
Biblical paraphrases ...... 29
Cynewulf ........ 29
The Dream of the Rood . . . . . 31
Phoenix ........ 32
its Latin sources . . . . . -32
changes made by its English translator . . .32
its importance ....... 34
The advances made by British culture in the Dark Ages . 35
Anglo-Saxon prose ...... 35-47
Two great conflicts:
British church v. Roman church . . . .36
Pelagius ........ 36
Augustine, Theodore, Hadrian . . . .36
Gildas and Aldhelm ...... 37
Bede ........ 37
Alcuin and John Scotus . . . . .38
Christian Anglo-Saxons v. pagan Northmen . . *39
Alfred and his translations . . . . • 39
Gregory’s The Shepherd’s Book . . . .40
Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation . 40
Orosius’ History against the Pagans . . 40
Boethius’ The Consolation of Philosophy . . . 41
Its author ....... 41
Summary of the book . . . . . 41
Reasons for its greatness . . . . .42
individuality . . . . . .42
emotion ....... 43
content ....... 43
educational power . . . . .44
personal example . . . . .45
How Alfred translated it . . . . . 45
CONTENTS xvii
/Elfric ........ 46
translations of the Gospels . . . . .47
Britain’s primacy in the culture of the Dark Ages . . 47
Chapter 3. THE MIDDLE AGES: FRENCH LITERATURE .................................. 48-69
France the centre of medieval literature . . .48
Romances of chivalrous adventure 48-57
Roland ........ 49
Other chivalrous romances . . . . .49
Rise in culture and deepening of classical knowledge . . 50
The Romance of Troy and its sources . . . . 51
‘Dares’ . . . . . . . ■ 51
his purposes . . . . . . 51
his methods ....... 52
‘Dictys’ ........ 52
Why these books were used . . . . -53
Influence of The Romance of Troy . . . -53
The Trojan legend ...... 54
Imitators of the poem . . . . .54
The Romance of Aeneas . . . • • -55
The Romance of Thebes . . . . . .56
The Romance of Alexander . . . . .56
The Lay of Aristotle . . . ■ . -57
Ovid and romantic love ..... 57“62
The conception of romantic love . . . -57
Some of its artistic products . . . . .58
Ovid ........ 59
his authority in French literature . . . -59
his influence on the development of romantic love . - 59
his stories and his poems: . . . . .60
Pyramus and Thisbe . . . . .60
Philomela . . . . . . .61
The Heroides and others . . . . .62
The Art of Love . . . . . .62
The Metamorphoses moralized . . . .62
The Romance of the Rose ...... 62-9
Classical influences on its form . . . . -63
dream ........ 63
battle ........ 64
dialogue ........ 64
didactic tone ....... 65
shapelessness ....... 67
Classical influences on its material . . . .67
illustrative examples . . . . . .67
arguments ....... 68
descriptions ....... 68
xviii CONTENTS
Classical authors known to the poets of the Rose . . 68
Admirers and opponents of the poem . . . .69
Chapter 4. DANTE AND PAGAN ANTIQUITY . 70-80
Dante the synthesis of pagan and medieval Christian culture . 70
The Comedy: meaning of its title: happy ending . . .70
humble style . . . 71
Vergil as the guide of Dante: . . . -72
prophet of Christianity ...... 72
Christian by nature ...... 73
herald of Roman empire . . . . -74
lover of Italy ....... 74
poet: his influence on Dante’s style . . . -75
revealer of the underworld . . . . -77
poet of exile ....... 78
Interpenetration of pagan and Christian worlds in The Comedy . 78
The classical writers from whom Dante drew . . -79
Chapter 5. TOWARDS THE RENAISSANCE: PETRARCH, BOCCACCIO, CHAUCER .... 81-103
The rebirth of Greco-Roman civilization began in Italy, where it died latest ....... 81
Its two initiators were Italians with French connexions . . 81
PETRARCH ........ 8l-8
The contrast between Petrarch and Dante symbolizes the gulf between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance . .81
Petrarch’s dislike of The Comedy . . . .82
His travel and friendships ..... 82
His library and his discovery of lost classical books . 82
Petrarch’s and Dante’s knowledge of the classics . . 84
Petrarch and Dante as Christians . . . -85
Petrarch’s works: ....... 85
Latin ........ 85
Africa ........ 85
Originality and adaptation . . . .85
Eclogues ....... 86
Secret ........ 86
Italian ........ 87
Canzoniere ....... 87
Triumphs ....... 87
Petrarch as poet laureate ...... 88
Boccaccio ....... 89-93
The contrast between Boccaccio and Dante . . .89
The Decameron ....... 89
Boccaccio as a synthesis of classical and modem elements . 90
The Theseid ....... 90
CONTENTS
xix
Filostrato .....
Fiammetta .....
Boccaccio’s scholarship and discovery of lost classics His conversion .....
His earlier paganism .... Paganism v. Christianity in modem literature .
go
go
91
gz
92 92
CHAUCER ....... 93-103
English literature re-enters the current of European literature 94 Chaucer’s works inspired by French and Italian originals . 94
Chaucer’s knowledge of the classics . . . • 9S
Mistakes and mystifications . . . . -95
‘Lollius’ ....... 96
‘tragedy’ ....... 97
Authors whom he knew directly:
Ovid ........ 98
Vergil ........ 99
Boethius ....... 99
Statius ....... 100
Claudian ....... 100
Cicero ........ 100
Seneca? ....... 100
Authors whom he knew through excerpts:
Valerius Flaccus ...... 101
Juvenal and others ...... 101
Effect of his scholarship on his mind and his style. The classics in English ....... 102
Chapter 6. THE RENAISSANCE: TRANSLATION
104-26
Translation, imitation, classical influence . Translation
and emulation are the channels for
origin
educational importance intellectual importance linguistic importance expansion of French Latin words verbal elements French words assimilated to derivations Greek words . low Latin words expansion of English Latin and Greek words verbal elements
English words assimilated to derivations expansion of Spanish . other European languages
104
104-13
104
105
106
106
107
107
108
108
109 109 109 109 no no no in
XX
CONTENTS
artistic importance . . . . . .112
imagery . . . . . . .112
verse-forms . . . . . . .112
stylistic devices . . . . . . .112
translations as a stimulus . . . . . 113
Translation in the western European countries . . 113-26
Types of book translated from Greek and Latin :
epic . . . . . . . 114
Ovid . . . . . . . .116
history . . . . . . . .116
philosophy . . . . . . . .118
drama ....... 120
oratory . . . . . . . .122
smaller works . . . . . . .123
The power of translation in the Renaissance . . .126
Chapter 7. THE RENAISSANCE: DRAMA . . 127-43
Debts of modem drama to Greece and Rome . . 127-31
Conception of drama as a fine art . . .127
Realization of drama as a type of literature . . .127
Theatre-building and principles of production . .129
Structure of modem drama . . . . .130
proportions . . . . . . .130
symmetrical division . . . . . . J30
chorus ........ 130
plot ........ 131
verse ........ 131
High standards to emulate . . . . -131
Classical playwrights who survived to influence modem drama 131-3 Seneca the chief of these . . . . . .132
Translations of Latin and Greek plays . . . 133-4
Italy ........ 133
France ........ 133
Spain, Portugal, Germany . . . . . 134
Imitations of classical drama in Latin . . . 134-5
Emulation of classical drama in modern languages . *35-8
Italy : the first play ...... 135
the first comedy . . . . . .136
the first tragedy . . . . . -136
France: the first tragedy . . . . . . 137
the first comedy . . . . ■ i37
England : the first tragedy . . 137
early attempts at comedy . . . . . 137
the first comedy . . . . .138
Spain ........ 138
Other aspects of drama derived from the classics . 138-43
Masques ........ 139
Pastoral drama . . . . . . • 139
CONTENTS xxi
Amyntas and The Faithful Shepherd .... 140
Popular farce ....... 140
Opera ........ 141
Dramatic criticism: the Unities ..... 142
Summary ........ 143
Chapter 8. THE RENAISSANCE: EPIC . . . 144-61
The four chief types of epic poetry in the Renaissance . 144-7
Direct imitations of classical epic . . . .144
The Franciad . . . . . . . 144
Epics on contemporary heroic adventures . . .144
The Sons of Lusus ...... 144
The Poem of Araucania . . . . .144
Romantic epics of medieval chivalry . . . .145
The Madness of Roland . . . . .145
The Faerie Queene ...... 146
The Liberation of Jerusalem . . . . .146
The Liberation of Italy from the Goths . . .146
Christian religious epics . . . . . .146
Paradise Lost . . . . . . .147
Paradise Regained . . . . . .147
Classical influences on these poems . . . 147-61
Subjects ........ 147
Structure ........ 147
Supernatural elements ...... 147
in contemporary epics . . . . . .148
in chivalrous epics . . . . . .148
in Christian epics . . . . . .149
The noble background . . . . . *151
continuity of history . . . . . -151
comparisons of heroic deeds . . . . 151
nature . . . . . . .152
scenery . . . . . . . .152
Adaptations of classical episodes . . .152
evocations of dead and unborn . . . . 153
heroic adventures . . . . . -153
crowd-scenes . . . . . . .154
Homeric similes . . . . . 155
characters ...... 155
invocations of the Muses . . . . . 155
Quotations and imitations . . . . .156
use and misuse of this device . . . . .156
Latinized and hellenized words and phrases . . .158
Milton’s language . . . . . .159
words used in their etymological sense . . .159
latinisms in syntax . . . . . .160
criticism of this device . . . . .160
The richness of Renaissance epic . . . . .161
xxu
CONTENTS
Chapter 9. THE RENAISSANCE: PASTORAL AND
ROMANCE..........................................162-77
Introduction ........ 162
Pastoral in Greece and Rome . . . . .162
Theocritus ....... 162
Vergil and Arcadia . . . . . .163
Romance in Greece under the Roman empire .163
Description of the Greek romances . . . .163
The three best known in the Renaissance . . .164
Pastoral and romance as wish-fulfilment literature . . /165
Modem parallels . . . . . . .166
Pastoral and romance in the Renaissance . . . 166-70
Boccaccio’s Admetus ...... 167
Sannazaro’s Arcadia . . . . . .167
Montemayor’s Diana . . . . . .168
Paganism in the pastoral romances . . . .169
Sidney’s Arcadia . . . . . . .169
D’Urfé’s Astraea . . . . . . .170
Other expressions of the pastoral ideal . . . 170-6
bucolic poems ....... 171
pastoral autobiography . . . . . .172
pastoral satire . . . . . . 173
pastoral elegy . . . . . . . 173
pastoral drama . . . . . . .174
pastoral opera . . . . . . . 175
Arcadian societies . . . . . . .176
Continuity of the tradition . . . . . .176
Chapter 10. RABELAIS AND MONTAIGNE . . 178-93
RABELAIS ....... 178-85
The difficulty of appreciating Rabelais arises from conflicts in him ........ 178
The Renaissance was an age of conflicts . . 179
Catholicism v. Protestantism . . . . . 179
liberal Catholics v. conservative Catholics . . .180
middle class v. aristocracy . . . .180
science v. traditional philosophy and theology and v. superstition . . . . . . .180
individuality v. authority . . . . .181
Rabelais’s life . . . . . . .181
His book a childish series of giant-adventures containing his
wish-fulfilments . . . . . .182
Its classical learning and its medieval dirt . . .183
Classical elements in it:
names of characters and peoples .... 183
themes ........ 183
the authors whom he knew . . . . .184
How his energy dominated his conflicts . . .185
CONTENTS xxiii
MONTAIGNE ....... *85-93
Montaigne was a deeply read and widely experienced man 185
His unusual classical education . . . . 186
His career and retirement . . . . 187
His Essays ....... 187
His reading ...... 187
principles governing it . 187
his favourite authors ..... 188
complete list of authors he knew 188
His use of his reading ..... 190
Methods of employing classical literature in the Essays 190
apophthegms ...... 190
illustrations ...... 190
arguments ...... I9I
How he invented the modem essay I9I
philosophical treatises ..... I9I
collections of apophthegms .... 192
(psychological character-sketches) . 192
the subjective element ..... 192
Autobiography, liberty, and humanism as expressions of the
Renaissance spirit ..... • 192
Chapter ii. SHAKESPEARE’S CLASSICS 194-218
Introduction ....... . *94
Shakespeare’s chief subjects: contemporary Europe, British
history, classical myth and history »94
English, Italian, and Greco-Roman elements in his characters
and their speech ...... »95
His neglect of medieval thought .... . 196
His knowledge of Rome and his knowledge of Greece 197-203
The spirit of his tragedies Roman rather than Greek . I98
His use of Greek and Latin imagery • I98
Small Latin and less Greek in language . I99
Quotations and imitations ..... • 200
parallel passages as a proof of the dependence of one author on
another ....... . 201
transmission of ideas by osmosis • 202
The classical authors whom Shakespeare knew well 203-15
Ovid ....... . 203
quotations ...... • 204
imitations ...... . 205
references ...... . 207
mythology ...... . 207
Seneca ....... • 207
tragic fatalism ...... • 207
Stoical resignation and extravagant passion . . 207
stock characters ...... . 208
XXIV
CONTENTS
repartee and other devices imitations
Plutarch ....
stimulus of history use of Plutarch’s facts . transmutation of Plutarch’s prose Plautus ....
use of Plautus’ plots and characters neglect of Plautus’ language Other classical authors
quotations in school-books Vergil Caesar Livy Lucan Pliny Juvenal
Greek and Latin culture was an essential
thought and a powerful challenge to his spirit
part of Shakespeare’s
. 208
. 208
. 210
. 210
. 211
. 212
. 214 . 214
. 215
216-18 . 216
. 216
. 217
. 217 . 217
. 217
217
218
Chapter 12. THE RENAISSANCE AND AFTERWARDS:
LYRIC POETRY.............................................219-54
Songs are made naturally by every people, to go with music and dancing ........ 219
Lyric poetry is a highly developed dance-song . . .219
Classical influence on modem lyric poetry is limited to elaborate and reflective poems ...... 220
The classical models for modem lyrics . . . 221-9
Pindar ......... 221
life ........ 221
poems ........ 221
difficulties in understanding them .... 222
structure ........ 222
thought ........ 224
Horace ........ 225
poetry and models ...... 225
contrast with Pindar ...... 226
‘classical’ v. ‘romantic’ ...... 227
Anacreon and his imitators ...... 228
The Greek Anthology ...... 229
Catullus ........ 229
What modem lyric poetry took from classical lyric poetry 229-30
The name ode ....... 230
The challenge of Pindar and responses to it . . 230-44
Ronsard . . . . . . . .231
his teachers and friends . . . . .231
revolutionary acts of the Pléiade . . . .231
its principles ....... 232
CONTENTS
his ‘invention’ of the ode his emulation of Pindar
subjects ....
style and mythology . poetic structure
his abandonment of the competition . results of his attempt .
Chiabrera ..... his career and work his subjects and style The ode in English
Southern ....
Milton ..... Jonson ..... Definition of the modern ode .
Cowley ..... Musical odes .... Ceremonial odes
reasons for their failure Dryden and Gray
Horace ..... Spain ..... Garcilaso de la Vega .
Herrera ....
Luis de León ....
Italy ..... Bernardo Tasso
Attempts to re-create Horatian metres France ..... Peletier ....
Ronsard .... England ..... Jonson and his ‘sons’.
Marvell .... Milton ....
Pope, Collins, Watts .
Lyrical poetry in the revolutionary era The Pindaric ode .... Goethe, Schiller, Hölderlin Hugo .....
Shelley ..... Wordsworth ....
Horatian odes blended with Pindaric elements Keats .....
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries Swinburne and Hopkins .
Modem free verse
xxv
. 23a
■ 233
• 233
• 233
• 234
• 235
• 235
■ 235
• 235
. 236
. 236
• 237
■ 237
. 238
• 239
• 239
. 240
242 . 242
• 243 244-50
• 244
- 244
• 244
• 245
• 245
• 245
. 246
• 247
• 247
• 247
. 248
. 248
. 248
• 249
- 249
250-3 . 250
• 251
. 251
. 251
. 251 . 252
. 252
• 254
• 254
• 254
XXVI
CONTENTS
Chapter 13. TRANSITION .... 255-60
The period from the Renaissance to our own day falls into two parts: the baroque age and the modem era . . .255
The modern era: five important changes which made it . .255
their effects in literature :
increase in quantity ...... 256
shift to popular standards ..... 256
specialization as a reaction ..... 256
increase in vigour ..... 257
spread of education, involving spread of classical knowledge. 257 The end of the Renaissance and the counter-wave . . 257
repression and gloom ...... 258
disasters to culture ...... 258
chief peaks of the reaction ..... 259
Chapter 14. THE BATTLE OF THE BOOKS . 261-88
Introduction . . . . . . . .261
Importance of the Battle . . . . . .261
Its locale ........ 261
The chief arguments used by the modems . 262-74
1. Christian works are better than pagan works . . 262
Dante, Milton, Tasso ..... 263
Classical education and the churches . . . 263
2. Science progresses, therefore art progresses . . 264
Emotional basis of this argument .... 264
Its truth in science ...... 265
Its falsity in art and the problems of life . . . 265
Forgotten crafts ...... 266
The dwarf on the giant’s shoulders . . . 267
The world growing older ..... 267
Spengler’s theory of the relative ages of civilizations . 267
Interruptions and setbacks in progress . . . 268
3. Nature does not change ..... 269
The material of art is constant, but the conditions of production change
4. The classics are silly or vulgar
Silliness
the supernatural
myths style thought Vulgarity
low actions and language primitive manners comic relief
Preconceptions behind these arguments Infallibility of contemporary taste
269 269 . 270
. 270
. 271
. 271
. 271
. 272
. 272
. 272
- 273
274-7 . 274
CONTENTS xxvii
Nationalism in language ...... 275
Opposition to traditional authority .... 276
Naturalism v. convention ..... 276
Translations ». originals ; Latin v. Greek . . . 277
Chronological survey of the Battle . . . 277-87
Phase 1 : France ....... 278
The French Academy (1635) ..... 278
Desmarets de Saint-Sorlin (1657-) .... 278
Fontenelle (1683) ....... 279
Perrault (1687-97) ...... 280
History of the War (1688) . . . . . .281
Huet and Boileau (1692-4) ..... 281
Reconciliation (1694) ...... 281
Phase 2 : England ....... 282
St. Ëvremond (1661-1703) ..... 282
Temple (1690) ....... 282
Wotton (1694) ....... 283
Boyle’s Letters of Phalaris (1695). .... 283
Bentley’s Dissertation (1697) ..... 284
Bentley’s Milton ...... 284
Swift’s Tale of a Tub and Battle of the Books (1704) . . 285
Pope’s Dunciad (1742) ...... 286
Phase 3: France ....... 287
Mme Dacier (1699) ...... 287
Houdar de la Motte (1714) ..... 287
Mme Dacier (1714) ...... 287
Reconciliation (1716) ...... 287
Results of the Battle ...... 287—8
Chapter 15. A NOTE ON BAROQUE . . . 289-92
Meaning of the word ‘baroque’ ..... 289
The essence of baroque art is tension between passion and control 289 examples from life ...... 289
examples from art . . . . . . . 290
The greatest baroque artists ..... 290
Classical influences on their work . . . . .291
themes ........ 291
forms ........ 291
moral and aesthetic restraint . . . . .291
its exaggeration in classicism ..... 292
spiritual unity of the western world .... 292
Chapter 16. BAROQUE TRAGEDY . . . 293-302
Classical and anti-classical forces acting on baroque tragedy 293—7 highly educated authors ...... 293
Corneille ....... 293
Racine ........ 294
Milton ........ 294
Dryden ........ 295
xxviii CONTENTS
Johnson .... • 29s
Addison .... • 295
Metastasio • 295
audiences less cultured • 295
social conditions favouring tragedy- . 296
urbanization . 296
cult of grandeur 296
connexion of baroque tragedy and opera . • 297
The failure of baroque tragedy 297-302
limitation of its audience . • 297
narrow range of subjects ■ 297
classical learning . 298
limitation of its resources . 298
avoidance of ‘low’ words . 299
poverty of images . 300
restricted metre . . 300
limited range of emotions . 301
extreme symmetry . 301
artificial rules . 301
Conclusion .... . 302
Chapter 17. SATIRE 303-21
Satire was a Roman invention • 303
Roman verse satirists • 303
Roman prose satirists • 303
Greek influences on Roman and modem satire • 304
Lucian .... • 304
Definition of satire • 305
Satirical writing in the Middle Ages • 305
Modem satire created by the rediscovery of Roman satire . 306
Prose satire not directly influenced by classical models . • 307
Abraham a Sancta Clara . . 308
Verse satire based on Roman satire 308-21
The Renaissance . 309-13
Italian satirists . • 309
Brant’s The Ship of Fools • 310
English satirists . • 3t°
French satirists . • 311
The Menippean Satire and D’Aubigné • 3U
Régnier ■ 312
The baroque age . 313-21
Boileau .... • 314
Dryden: his originality • 314
mock epic • 314
character-sketches • 314
Pope .... • 315
Johnson .... • 315
Parini .... • 315
CONTENTS xxix
Limitations of the ‘classical’ verse satirists in the baroque age:
metre . . . . . . . .316
vocabulary . . . . . . . .318
subject-matter ....... 320
Situations responsible for these limitations :
attempt to emulate classical standards through refinement of language . ...... 321
the aristocratic and authoritarian social order . . .321
Chapter 18. BAROQUE PROSE .... 322-54
The baroque era was the age of prose .... 322
Its prose was modelled on classical, chiefly Latin, prose . 322
style ....... 322-35
Two different schools . . . . . .322
Cicero ........ 323
Seneca and Tacitus . . . . . -323
Modem imitators of Seneca and Tacitus . . .324
the loose manner and the curt manner . . . 325
political implications of Senecan and Tacitean style . 326
Modern imitators of Cicero . . . . .327
What they got from the classics . . . . -327
illustrative parallels ...... 328
indirect allusions ...... 329
stimulus ...... 329
stylistic devices . . . . . . 330
sonority ....... 330
richness . . . . . 331
symmetry ....... 332
division ....... 332
antithesis ....... 333
climax ....... 333
tricolon .... 334
FICTION ....... 335-44
Fénelon’s career and his book ..... 336
Telemachus ....... 336
its sources in romance, epic, tragedy, and other fields . 337
its educational and critical purpose . . . -338
its successors ....... 339
Richardson’s Pamela ...... 340
classical influences on it at second-hand . . .341
Telemachus ....... 341
Arcadia ....... 341
Fielding’s Joseph Andrews and Tom Jones . . . 341
his claim that they were epics ..... 342
classical comic epics ...... 343
romances ....... 343
the truth of his claim ...... 343
XXX
CONTENTS
The classical ancestry of the modem novel . . . 344
history ....... 344-54
Gibbon’s The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . . 344
Its international character ..... 345
Its predecessors ....... 345
Bossuet’s Discourse on Universal History . . 345
Montesquieu’s Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and of their Decadence . . . 345
Scope and skill of Gibbon’s work .... 346
Structure ........ 346
Style ........ 347
Faults ........ 348
more Roman than Greek ..... 348
failure to give reasons for the fall of Rome . . . 349
bias against Christianity . . . . . 352
its motive ....... 352
its result—falsification of history . . -353
Chapter 19. THE TIME OF REVOLUTION . 355-436
I. INTRODUCTION ...... 355-67
Thought and literature changed in the second half of the eighteenth century ....... 355
The name ‘romantic’ is inappropriate for the new era, and partly false ........ 355
It was an age of protest, in which Greek and Roman ideals were vital ......... 356
Why is it sometimes called‘anti-classical’? . . -356
The revolutionary age abandoned hackneyed and unimaginative classical allusions . . . . . 356
It rejected certain classical ideals .... 357
It opened up new fields of thought and experience . -358
But it also penetrated deeper into the meaning of the classics . 359
It was a period of expansion and exploration . . -359
The explosion of the baroque pearl . . . .359
It resembled the Renaissance and was complementary to it . 359
The Renaissance explored Latin, the revolutionary era Greek . 360
What did Greece mean to the men of the revolutionary age ? 360-7
Beauty and nobility . . . . . .360
Freedom ........ 361
literary ........ 361
moral ........ 361
political ........ 361
religious: i.e. freedom from Christianity . . . 362
Nature ........ 363
in literature . . . . . . .364
in conduct ....... 364
CONTENTS
XXXI
Escape and fulfilment ...... 365
physical ........ 365
psychical ........ 366
aesthetic ........ 366
2. GERMANY ....... 367-9O
The sixteenth-century Renaissance did not affect Germany . 367
Nor did the ideals of the baroque age in literature stir her . 368
The German Renaissance began in the mid-eighteenth century 369 Winckelmann ....... 369
His English predecessors ...... 369
His History of Art among the Ancients .... 370
Lessing ........ 371
Laocoon ........ 371
the legend ....... 371
the group ....... 372
why it was admired ...... 372
Other works ....... 374
Voss ......... 37s
Enthusiasm for Greek in Germany: Herder and Goethe . 375
Difficulty of assimilating Greek influences . . -376
Schiller ........ 376
The Gods of Greece . . . . . . 376
Hölderlin ........ 377
parallel to Keats . . . . . .378
Goethe ........ 379
His love for Greek ...... 379
His escape to Rome . . .380
Iphigenia ........ 380
Roman Elegies ....... 380
Xenia ........ 382
Hermann and Dorothea: a Homeric idyll .382
Wood’s Essay on the Original Genius of Homer . . 383
Wolf’s Introduction to Homer . . -383
his arguments and their conclusions . . -384
their effect on scholars and writers . -385
Goethe’s varying reactions to them . . .386
Faust II ....... 386
What does Helen of Troy symbolize? . . 387
physical beauty . . . . . .387
aesthetic experience . . . . . . 387
Greek culture . . . . . -387
its difficulty and loftiness . . . . .388
its transience for modem men . . . .388
Euphorion and the revolutionary poets . . .388
Faust the German and Helen the Greek . . .389
3. FRANCE AND THE UNITED STATES .... 390-407
Classical influences were a leadingfactorinthe French Revolution 390-9
XXXI1
CONTENTS
Their expression in art : David . . . . . 39*
in music: Gluck ....... 393
in political morality : Rousseau ..... 392
the idealized Sparta ...... 394
the inspiration of Plutarch ..... 395
in political symbolism ...... 396
in oratory and statesmanship ..... 397
Parallel expressions in the American revolution . . 399-401
institutions, illustrations, mottoes .... 399
names of places ....... 399
President Jefferson as a humanist .... 400
French literature of the revolution .... 401-5
André Chénier . . . . . . .401
his brother Marie-Joseph . . . . .401
his poetry ....... 402
Chateaubriand ....... 403
The Martyrs ....... 403
The Genius of Christianity ..... 404
The heir of the revolution : Victor Hugo . . 405-7
his revolution in the poetic vocabulary .... 405
his love and scorn of Vergil ..... 406
his revulsion from the discipline of the classics . . 407
4. ENGLAND ....... 408-23
What did Greek and Roman civilization and literature mean for the English poets of the revolutionary age ? .
Wordsworth might seem to be alien from classical influence as a child of nature ......
as a poet who rarely imitated other poets
as inventor of a new pastoral .....
But for Wordsworth the classics meant spiritual nobility
Roman history .......
Stoic philosophy .......
Platonism ........
control of emotion ......
Byron’s attitude to Greece and Rome was equivocal
he knew much classical literature ....
but bad teaching prevented him from accepting its full power He preferred the countries themselves, and their ideals .
Keats compared to Shakespeare .....
How he got his classical knowledge ....
Latin books; translations; dictionaries; other authors . the Elgin Marbles and Greek vases ....
The gaps in his knowledge as they affected his poetry
For Keats Greek poetry and art meant beauty
Shelley compared to Milton .....
His wide knowledge of Greek and Latin ....
408
408
408
408
409 409
409
410
411
412
412
413 413 415 415 415
415
416
417
417
418 418
CONTENTS
xxxiii
His favourites .....
Homer ......
Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides
Plato ......
Theocritus and other bucolic poets Aristophanes .....
Lucan ......
Lucretius ......
Vergil ......
sculpture and architecture For Shelley the Greek spirit meant freedom The challenge and companionship of the Greek poets
419
419
419
419
420
421 421
421
422
422
423 423
5. ITALY ....... 423-34
The revolutionary poets of Italy were pessimists . . . 424
Alfieri ....... 424-7
his early life and his self-education .... 424
his later life ....... 425
his tragedies ....... 425
their classical form ...... 426
their revolutionary content ..... 426
Foscolo ....... 427-9
his revolutionary career ...... 427
his disillusionment ...... 427
The Last Letters of Iacopo Ortis .... 428
his sense of the past ...... 428
On Tombs ....... 428
form ........ 429
thought ....... 429
Leopardi ....... 429-34
his unhappy youth ...... 429
his classical scholarship ...... 430
his ‘forgeries’ of classical poems ..... 430
his hope of a national revolution: early lyrics . . . 431
his disillusionment: later lyrics . . . . .431
his desphir: Short Works on Morals .... 432
his debts to classical art and thought . . . 433
Leopardi and Lucretius ...... 433
6. conclusion .... 434-6
The revolutionary era and the Renaissance . . . 434
Other forces in this era ...... 434
Other authors . . . . . . *435
Rich variety of the period . . . . . .435
Chapter 20. PARNASSUS AND ANTICHRIST . 437-65
Many nineteenth-century writers hated the world in which they lived ........ 437
They turned away to the world of Greece and Rome . . 438
XXXIV
CONTENTS
because it was beautiful : Parnassus . . . .438
because it was not Christian : Antichrist . . -438
Parnassus : its ideals ...... 439~53
emotional control ....... 440
Poe ........ 440
Arnold ........ 441
Leconte de Lisle and others . . . . .441
severity of form ....... 442
Heredia ........ 442
Carducci ........ 443
Gautier ........ 443
art for art’s sake ....... 443
origin of the doctrine ..... 444
its dangers ....... 44s
Huysmans, Swinburne, Wilde .... 445
deep classical reading of most nineteenth-century writers . 446
aspects of their escape ...... 447
physical beauty of Greece and Rome .... 447
widespread imaginative interest in history . . . 447
moral baseness of contemporary life . . . .449
use of impersonal classical figures to express personal problems ........ 449
Tennyson’s Ulysses, Lucretius, and others . . . 449
Arnold’s Empedocles on Etna . . . .450
evocative character of certain mythical figures . -4SI
Swinburne’s and Arnold’s tragedies . . • 4S1
Browning’s Balaustion s Adventure . . . -452
Parnassus means more than a mere escape to the past . 4s 3
Antichrist : the chief arguments against Christianity . 453-6*
Christianity is oriental and barbarous .... 454
Renan ........ 454
France ........ 454
Wilde ........ 455
Christianity means repression . . . -455
Carducci ......;. 455
Leconte de Lisle . . . . . .456
Ménard ....... 456
Swinburne ....... 457
Louÿs ........ 457
Christianity is timid and feeble . . . . *459
Nietzsche ....... 459
Flaubert ....... 461
Christian counter-propaganda in popular novels . 462-5
The Last Days of Pompeii ...... 462
Hypatia ........ 462
Ben-Hur ........ 463
Quo Vadis? ........ 463
CONTENTS
Marius the Epicurean The conflict resolved
464
465
Chapter 21. A CENTURY OF SCHOLARSHIP . 466-500
During the last hundred years classical knowledge has increased in intension but decreased in extension .... 466
Reasons for the increase:
use of methods of experimental science . use of methods of applied science systematization .... mass-production .... specialization .... international co-operation
Three fields in which classical scholarship affected liter
HISTORY .....
Niebuhr .....
Mommsen: why did he never finish his History of Rome?
Fustel de Coulanges ....
Meyer ......
TRANSLATION .....
Arnold and Newman on translating Homer Homer’s language .... parallel with the English Bible
Lang ......
(Arnold’s Balder Dead and Sohrab and Rustum)
Tennyson .....
Butler .....
Lawrence .....
Failure of translations by professional scholars
EDUCATION .....
Examples of bad teaching of the classics .
Decline in general knowledge of the classics
Reasons for the decline: .
advance of science, industrialism, commerce universal education bad teaching—its types and results laziness ..... the cult of discipline etherialization .... the scientific approach: Housman bad translations
bad writing .... ugly books .... Quellenforschung fragmentation of the subject
The failure of classical teaching and the responsibility scholar .......
ture:
467-72
468
468
469
470
470
471
472-9
472 474
477
478
479-90
479 481 484
484
485
487
487
488
489 490-500
490
492 492-9
493 493
493
494
494
495 495 498 498
498
499 • 499
of the
499-500
XXXVI
CONTENTS
Chapter 22. THE SYMBOLIST POETS AND JAMES
JOYCE.................................501-19
Symbolism ........ 501
The chief symbolist poets who use classical material :
Mallarmé, Valéry, Pound, Eliot . . . . .501
Joyce and the two books in which he uses Greek legends . 501
The impressionist technique of the symbolists . . . 502
How these writers try to use classical forms . . 504-7
Joyce’s Ulysses and the Odyssey ..... 504
How they use classical legends .... 307-16
symbolic figures ....... 507
the Faun ....... 507
Herodias ........ 508
the young Fate ....... 508
Narcissus. ....... 509
the Pythian priestess ...... 509
Daedalus ....... 509
myths . . . . . . . .510
descent into the world of death . . . .510
Homer’s Odyssey . . . . . .310
Vergil’s Aeneid . . . . . -511
The Harrowing of Hell . . . . . 511
Dante’s Comedy . . . . . 511
Pound’s Cantos . . . . . -511
Joyce’s Ulysses ...... 511
Eliot’s favourite legends . . . . . 513
Sweeney as Theseus . . . . . . 513
Sweeney as Agamemnon . . . . 513
Philomela . . . . . . .514
Tiresias . . . . . . .514
the Sibyl ....... 515
Their classical background of imagery and allusion . .516
Summary: ....... 517-19
Their debt to Greco-Roman literature is difficult to estimate 517 their poetry is elusive . . . . . 517
Pound’s Papyrus . . . . . . 517
their knowledge of the classics is non-intellectual . .518
they love Greco-Roman poetry and myth as stimulus and as consolation ....... 518
Chapter 23. THE REINTERPRETATION OF THE
MYTHS........................................... 520-40
PHILOSOPHICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERPRETATIONS . 5*°-5
Myths as historical facts ...... 520
gods as heroic men (Euhemeros) .... 320
gods as devils ....... 521
gods as tribes, animals, steps in civilization . . .521
CONTENTS xxxvii
Myths as symbols of philosophical truths . . . 52a
Myths as symbols of natural processes .... 522
the journey of the sun ...... 522
resurrection and reproduction . . . . -523
psychical drives ....... 523
Freud ........ 523
Jung ........ 523
LITERARY TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE MYTHS . . 525-4O
André Gide........ 525
influence of Wilde on him . . . . • S2S
German playwrights ...... 526
O’Neill................................................526
Jeffers and Anouilh ...... 527
de Bosis ........ 527
Camus ........ 527
Spitteler ........ 528
Prometheus and Epimetheus ..... 528
Olympian Spring . . . . . .529
allegorical meanings ...... 529
Greek and Swiss elements ..... 530
Spitteler as an artist and as a voice of nature . . 530
The modern French playwrights . . . -S31
why they use Greek myths ..... 532
authority and simplicity ..... 532
modem significance ...... 532
sources of humour and poetry .... 532
classical form of the plays . . . . -533
changes in the plots ...... 533
unexpected truths . . . . . -534
new motives ....... 535
modem language ...... 537
new symbols ....... 538
the supernatural ...... 539
eloquence ....... 539
The permanence of the myths ..... 540
Chapter 24. CONCLUSION .... 541-9
The continuous stream of classical influence on modem literature ... ..... 541
Other authors and other expressions of this influence . .541
Greco-Roman philosophical thought . . . .541
indirect stimulus of the classics ..... 542
Wagner ........ 542
Whitman ....... 542
Tolstoy ........ 542
the story of education ...... 542
Currents outside Greco-Roman influence .... 543
xxxviii CONTENTS
This continuity is often underestimated or ignored . . 544
languages are not dead if they are still read . . . 544
historical events are not dead if they still produce results . 544
literature as an eternal present ..... 545
The continuity of western literature: what Greece and Rome
taught us. . . . . . . . 545
legends ........ 546
language and philosophy ...... 546
literary patterns and the ideals of humanism . . . 546
history and political ideals ..... 546
the psychological meaning of the myths . . . 546
Christianity v. Greco-Roman paganism .... 546
Materialism v. thought and art ..... 547
Civilization is not the accumulation of wealth, but the good life
of the mind ...... 547“9
BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY........................55°
NOTES
Chapter i : Introduction .....
,, 2: The Dark Ages: English Literature
,, 3 : The Middle Ages: French Literature
„ 4: Dante and Pagan Antiquity .
,, 5 : Towards the Renaissance
,, 6: The Renaissance: Translation
„ 7: The Renaissance: Drama
„ 8: The Renaissance: Epic
,, 9: The Renaissance: Pastoral and Romance .
,, to: Rabelais and Montaigne
„ 11: Shakespeare’s Classics
,, 12 : The Renaissance and Afterwards: Lyric Poetry
„ 13: Transition .....
„ 14: The Battle of the Books
„ 15 : A Note on Baroque ....
„ 16: Baroque Tragedy ....
„ 17: Satire ......
„ 18: Baroque Prose ....
,, 19: The Time of Revolution
,, 20: Parnassus and Antichrist
„ 21: A Century of Scholarship
„ 22: The Symbolist Poets and James Joyce
„ 23 : The Reinterpretation of the Myths
„ 24: Conclusion .....
556
562
573
583
587
593 598 601 611 614 617 627 638 640 646
648
649 654 661 683 690 695 701 7°S
INDEX
707
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Highet, Gilbert 1906-1978 |
| author_GND | (DE-588)126631573 (DE-588)119176602 |
| author_facet | Highet, Gilbert 1906-1978 |
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| author_sort | Highet, Gilbert 1906-1978 |
| author_variant | g h gh |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV042658646 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)915149103 (DE-599)BVBBV042658646 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Europa (DE-588)4015701-5 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Europa |
| id | DE-604.BV042658646 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T07:06:50Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0195002067 9780199377695 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-028090935 |
| oclc_num | 915149103 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-Y3 DE-Y2 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM |
| owner_facet | DE-Y3 DE-Y2 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM |
| physical | XL, 763 S. 21 cm |
| publishDate | 2015 |
| publishDateSearch | 2015 |
| publishDateSort | 2015 |
| publisher | Oxford University Press |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Highet, Gilbert 1906-1978 Verfasser (DE-588)126631573 aut The Classical tradition Greek and Roman influences on Western literature by Gilbert Highet. With a new foreword by Harold Bloom New York, NY [u.a.] Oxford University Press 2015 XL, 763 S. 21 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Comparative literature / Classical and modern Comparative literature / Modern and classical Rezeption (DE-588)4049716-1 gnd rswk-swf Griechisch (DE-588)4113791-7 gnd rswk-swf Vergleichende Literaturwissenschaft (DE-588)4062843-7 gnd rswk-swf Literatur (DE-588)4035964-5 gnd rswk-swf Latein (DE-588)4114364-4 gnd rswk-swf Antike (DE-588)4068754-5 gnd rswk-swf Altertum (DE-588)4001480-0 gnd rswk-swf Europa (DE-588)4015701-5 gnd rswk-swf Antike (DE-588)4068754-5 s Literatur (DE-588)4035964-5 s Rezeption (DE-588)4049716-1 s DE-604 Vergleichende Literaturwissenschaft (DE-588)4062843-7 s Latein (DE-588)4114364-4 s Europa (DE-588)4015701-5 g 1\p DE-604 Griechisch (DE-588)4113791-7 s 2\p DE-604 Altertum (DE-588)4001480-0 s 3\p DE-604 Bloom, Harold 1930-2019 Sonstige (DE-588)119176602 oth KUBIKAT Anreicherung application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=028090935&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk 2\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk 3\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk |
| spellingShingle | Highet, Gilbert 1906-1978 The Classical tradition Greek and Roman influences on Western literature Comparative literature / Classical and modern Comparative literature / Modern and classical Rezeption (DE-588)4049716-1 gnd Griechisch (DE-588)4113791-7 gnd Vergleichende Literaturwissenschaft (DE-588)4062843-7 gnd Literatur (DE-588)4035964-5 gnd Latein (DE-588)4114364-4 gnd Antike (DE-588)4068754-5 gnd Altertum (DE-588)4001480-0 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4049716-1 (DE-588)4113791-7 (DE-588)4062843-7 (DE-588)4035964-5 (DE-588)4114364-4 (DE-588)4068754-5 (DE-588)4001480-0 (DE-588)4015701-5 |
| title | The Classical tradition Greek and Roman influences on Western literature |
| title_auth | The Classical tradition Greek and Roman influences on Western literature |
| title_exact_search | The Classical tradition Greek and Roman influences on Western literature |
| title_full | The Classical tradition Greek and Roman influences on Western literature by Gilbert Highet. With a new foreword by Harold Bloom |
| title_fullStr | The Classical tradition Greek and Roman influences on Western literature by Gilbert Highet. With a new foreword by Harold Bloom |
| title_full_unstemmed | The Classical tradition Greek and Roman influences on Western literature by Gilbert Highet. With a new foreword by Harold Bloom |
| title_short | The Classical tradition |
| title_sort | the classical tradition greek and roman influences on western literature |
| title_sub | Greek and Roman influences on Western literature |
| topic | Comparative literature / Classical and modern Comparative literature / Modern and classical Rezeption (DE-588)4049716-1 gnd Griechisch (DE-588)4113791-7 gnd Vergleichende Literaturwissenschaft (DE-588)4062843-7 gnd Literatur (DE-588)4035964-5 gnd Latein (DE-588)4114364-4 gnd Antike (DE-588)4068754-5 gnd Altertum (DE-588)4001480-0 gnd |
| topic_facet | Comparative literature / Classical and modern Comparative literature / Modern and classical Rezeption Griechisch Vergleichende Literaturwissenschaft Literatur Latein Antike Altertum Europa |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=028090935&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT highetgilbert theclassicaltraditiongreekandromaninfluencesonwesternliterature AT bloomharold theclassicaltraditiongreekandromaninfluencesonwesternliterature |