Catedrala romano-catolică "Sfântul Mihail" şi palatul episcopal din Alba Iulia: cercetări arheologice (2000 - 2002)
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| Format: | Book |
| Language: | Romanian |
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Alba Iulia
Ed. Altip
2008
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| Online Access: | Abstract Literaturverzeichnis |
| Item Description: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: The roman catholic cathedral and the bishop's palace of Alba Iulia the 2000 - 2002 archaeological research |
| Physical Description: | 710, XXXII S. zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 9789731171975 |
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THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CATHEDRAL AND THE
BISHOP’S PALACE OF ALBA IULIA
THE 2000-2002 ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH
(ABSTRACT)
Introduction
This volume is the outcome of the archaeological research conducted near the Roman Catholic Cathedral
and the bishop’s palace in Alba lulia/ Gyulafehérvár between 2000 and 2002, in the context of the rehabilitation of
historical buildings and the complete rehabilitation of the piping system and vertical systematization works. The
excavations were intended for prevention and rescue, and their location was determined by the designers’ intentions
and the builders’ actions. The option of a research project was not taken into account because of reasons that we
had to accept as objective given certain circumstances.
The material support for the excavations was exclusively provided by the Teleki László Foundation alongside
with part of the funds needed for archaeological material processing. The Foundation’s endeavours to complete this
project are best represented by these volumes that are equally owed to the same foundation.
I. BACKGROUND IN BRIEF AND THE PROGRESS OF THE RESEARCH
Alba lulia/ Gyulafehérvár has a magical resonance in our historiography, and is so resourceful materially and
spiritually that cannot be compared to anything else. Given the incredibly continuous habitation, so obvious from
Roman times to the present day, the re-use of the Roman castrum until as late as 1700, and the fact that it was
repeatedly a centre of power in a region with changing geographical limits, Alba lulia/Gy u 1 afeh érv ár is undoubtedly
a one-of-a-kind archaeological site. The city has been the very centre of the most significant moments in the history
of this land: At one time the most important place of the Roman province, the centre of a local political structure
and, possibly, of the Transylvanian voivodes, it played a strategic role in the extension of the Flungarian Kingdom
in the area and thus became the seat of Transylvania’s Catholic Bishopric; the political centre of the Principality
and one of the most important military centres of the ֊ this is to highlight only the climactic moments of the area
before the dawn of the modern age.
The first traces of habitation on the city’s territory go as far back as the Neolithic age; however, the city is
known certainly to have been created in the Roman age, when, on the high bank of the Mureş River, in an utterly
inspired venue of choice, the castrum of the 13th Legion Gemina was built. This was to become the most important
Roman fortress in Dacia. The castrum interior, and its most important annexes, were later used by various populations
in various political circumstances until the 18th century.
Afterthe province was abandoned, life went on both inside and outside the fortress; quite a few remains have
been documented, dating back to the post-Roman period, until the 11th century. The first indirect documentary
mention comes from mid-10th century when a gylas (Gyula?), a chieftain, is said to have discovered a Roman
fortress and settled in it. In early 1 lih century (1003) Alba lulia/ Gyulafehérvár is mentioned in relation to the battles
between Stephen I and his uncle, another Gyula, and later between the king and the Pechenegs (1015). In 1083 it is
here that a battle of Saint Ladislas took place. The city became known in history under the Slavic name of Bălgrad,
meaning “the white fortress,” that was later translated into Hungarian and German. The name Alba lulia is adopted
later on.
The strategic location in a very populated, busy area, the still compelling presence of the “white” fortress,
the fact that is was almost traditionally a centre of power, all this, and possibly more ֊ which remains elusive for us
֊ prompted the Hungarian kings to turn Alba lulia into a point of support for extension and organization. It is here
that the most important forms of its administration, as well as clerical organization, were concentrated: the seat of
433
the Transylvanian bishopric, the royal fortress, the centre of the vastest district and, most likely, the official seat of
the first voivodes.
The first constructions related to the Catholic Episcopacy (the creation of which is supposed to have been
patronized by King Stephan I, in 1009) are a much debated subject that we will analyze in depth in the following
chapters. According to the recognized authority on the subject, Radu Heitel, the cathedral (la), a little single-nave
church, was built on the plateau of the current cathedral as early as the 11th century. Because of the way it was re-
created, although it is debatable, it seems certain that the Romanesque cathedral (lb), and the present cathedral
were functioning in the 12th and 13th centuries; moreover, civil constructions, the bishop’s palace, and later that of
the provostship, developed as well. Anyway, according to Rogerius, in 1241 there were several churches and
palaces in the city, which made Mircea Rusu wonder whether, in the first half of the 13 th century, they built both the
bishop’s palace and the Voivodes’ residence.
The first time the city is mentioned may be the one in 1206; still, what generated the term “city”, whether it
is either the generic term referring to the Roman remnants, or the one designating the reality, remains, for the time
being, questionable. Györffy György thinks that, at that time, there was already a fortress in the south-western
corner of the castrum and, as we will see below, more recent archaeological research seems to prove him right.
Petru Iambor is of the same opinion, assuming the existence of a small fortress in the south-western part, whereas
the remaining castrum had been abandoned.
The fact that, in the mid-13th century, there was no strong fortress in Alba Iulia can also be assumed, given tiie
fact that the Tartars seemed not to have gone to too much trouble to conquer it, causing the catastrophic destruction
that Rogerius so amply described. Generally, it is considered that the fortress destroyed by the Tartars was not
rebuilt in the following period ֊ which explains why in 1277 the Saxons’ attack was so easy ֊ but much later, in late
13th and early 14th century. From that time on, the fortress was often mentioned in documents in connection with
various figures and events that took place here; however, we can rarely distinguish details that could be of help for
architectural re-creations.
Since the mid-16th century, Alba Iulia most naturally became the centre of the Transylvanian Principality,
and, after the impropriation, the bishopric’s properties were taken over by the Prince. After this date, written
information becomes more abundant, and, most often, increasingly relevant. From the 17th century complete
descriptions come from chroniclers I. Szalárdi and Wolfgang Bethlen, from whose writing we can assume a series
of works, and, at times, even the detailed evolution of the site. Several 16th -18th century surveys proved providential
for the city’s history: Milanesi’s project in 1586 concerning the buildings in the northern part of the city, the
topographic layout of the city and the surrounding areas by Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli (1687), G. M. Visconti’s
plan (1711) and the plan and view/bird’s eye view by Conrad Ferdinand Weiss in 1736, which are reflections of the
changes suggested for the erection of the Vauban fortress.
In the Principality’s era, General Castaldo, the leader of Ferdinand’s armies in the 1551-1553 period of
Habsburg restoration, had the first fortifications built. Though initially the project had been grand, with soil platforms
for towers in all four corners and, possibly, a pentagonal bastion in the south-western corner, the works were merely
started on the southern side. The presence of some Italian architects leads us to assume that other works were done
to the fortress in the second half of the 16th century, which, however, could not be identified.
The fortress was destroyed several times, some of them catastrophic, between 1600 and 1603, and remained
in ruins until the time of Gabriel Bethlen, who had the fortifications restored and consolidated from the very
beginning of his rule. Initially four bastions were designed, which should have been built under the patronage of the
Prince, Saxon and Seklar terrae and counties, respectively. The works were done in several stages: 1618-1619 and
1625-1626. In 1626 the Prince’s bastion in the south-west, and in 1627 the southeastern one, of the Saxons, were
finished; the others remained only on paper. This Prince’s most important achievement is, nonetheless, the re-
shaping of the bishop’s palace that was extended eastward and changed into a monumental princely palace. The
works continued under his successors, the first half of the 17th century being a period of utter progress for the fortress
and, in particular, the buildings we are especially interested in here. Unfortunately, the glamour did not last long as the
fortress and the buildings were seriously affected by the Turkish attack in 1658, and the ones that followed in 1661 and
1662. Chroniclers were impressed by the massive destruction in a relatively short period of time, following which
the fortress that remained in ruins never recovered, so Prince Mihai Apafi preferred living in Făgăraş.
434
At the end of the 17th century, the state of the fortress could be re-created based on the 1687 survey. The
square-shaped fortification undoubtedly overlapped the Roman one, even using part of its towers. On the southern
side, there are the two bulwarks of the Bethlen period, and two rectangular towers are drawn on the north side. The
main gates were in the middle of the western (St. Michael Gate) and eastern (St. George) sides, and a secondary
entrance is indicated opposite the royal palace, mentioned as such by other sources as well. A. Kovács conducted an
in-depth analysis of the drawing, proving that it contained quite a few errors and approximations, so that, in terms
of details, the information that it provides should be treated with great caution. Generally, however, we must admit
that this was the state of the fortress when surrendered to the Habsburg army in 1687 (the Blaj Treaty), shortly
before the start of the Vauban-style fortification site. The preparation of the new construction implied a survey of
the existing state, and we owe the most detailed map of the fortress to it, namely the plan drafted by G. M. Visconti
in 1711 (fig. 3). The Vauban fortification drafts were approved in 1714 and the actual works begun on November
4th, 1715, in the presence of General Steinville. The medieval fortification was largely destroyed, just as was part of
the city. What has remained of the defensive constructions is the southern side with the two bulwarks, partially
affected by their inclusion in the Vauban system, and the fragments of the western side that coincide with the
Episcopal palace wall. The south-western corner ֊ that is, the correspondent of the south-western complex, the
present Cathedral and the Episcopal palace - survived those times with no major disturbance, and have remained
the most precious buildings of the city so far.
A consequence of such historical presence, Alba Iulia has always drawn the researchers’ attention and has
been the object of many studies concerning the fortress and its constituents, largely based on written sources,
cartographical sources, results of archaeological research and, to a lesser extent, on the research of the face of the
wall. Here are, in brief, the most important titles of the abundant historiography related to the fortress.
People have been preoccupied with Alba Iulia since the 19th century; however, research became systematic
as late as mid-20th century. The first author who thoroughly dealt with this subject was Balogh Jolán, who was
interested in the Renaissance contribution to the development of the city and the buildings inside it. In 1958 and
1959 the main studies on the Roman Catholic cathedral and its evolution were published, signed by Entz Géza and
Virgil Vàtâçianu; they have remained the most important contributions in the field so far. A first “monograph” of
the city, intended for popularization, appeared in 1962, and, several years later, in 1975, an ampler monograph was
published on the evolution of the city and fortress. As to our subject, the main contributions were authored by
Alexandru Popa for the Roman era and Gheorghe Anghel for the medieval and modern ones. Gheorghe Anghe)
followed the subject with several publications beginning in 1975; in his 1986 monograph he provides us with a
synthesis of the data known at that time, also using the information made public by Kovács András in 1984 in his
Ph.D. thesis. At the same time, he was the first author to draw attention to the fact that the medieval fortress may
have developed within the perimeter of the Roman castrum.
Since 1972 (and up to 1994!) we can also trace in literature Radu Heitel’s opinions, developed from his own
archaeological research based on which one can provide general considerations on the evolution of the site from
the Roman era (or even before that) up to the Late Middle Ages. Among his articles, the most thorough, as far as our
subject is concerned, is that from 1985, where brief information is given on the excavations around the Roman
Catholic Cathedral.
One of the most significant contributions was authored by Mircea Rusu in 1979. Analyzing the 1711 plan,
the author proved that the Roman fortification survived until early in the 18th century and was re-used and adapted
to the strategic principles in various eras; however, its main forms were not altered. The castrum was actually
closed down when the Vauban fortress was built. The same author is given credit for making the first attempt to
make a planimetric reconstruction of the facts.
As for the evolution of the Episcopal and princely palace, as well as for the 16th- 17th centuries general
development of the fortress, the most important author is undoubtedly Kovács András. The results of his
investigations, largely based on the analysis of written sources and cartographical sources, can be found in his
Ph.D. thesis (1984), a series of studies and articles and, in particular, in his recent book Late Renaissance in
Transylvania (2003).
Comments on the fortress and the buildings inside it are included in all general history and art history works;
however, one usually deals with the same provided information, whereas new information is possibly limited to
435
more or less unique points of view. Quite a few articles may be added that concern either particular aspects of the
site, or brief historical syntheses, most of which will be quoted in the following chapters.
The Roman castrum is also mentioned in the synthesis works concerning the Roman province of Dacia;
however, it is, paradoxically, very little known. Adalbert Cserni was systematically preoccupied with it in the 191'1
century, and subsequent research left the impression of a complete lack of strategy. Vasile Moga’s work in 1998 and
1999 gathered much information on the castrum, but does not claim it is exhaustive.
The reconstructed history of the fortress is, therefore, based on written sources and, to a lesser extent, to
archaeological research. Prior to the 16th century, sources were not too abundant, so the balance of knowledge is
strongly in favour of archaeology; unfortunately, it has not developed as it should have. So-called archaeological
excavations have been conducted since as early as the 19th century; they briefly recorded the discovered remains,
and, generally, more recent research has not been published. Two large archaeological excavation sites had decisive
results for the reconstruction of this city’s history: the one around the Roman Catholic Cathedral, and the extra
muros one, at ambulance station; however, their outcome is mentioned in literature only to illustrate sundry theories
of various authors. Both in the communist years and the more recent decades, quite a few archaeological excavation
sites have been conducted in Alba lulia; still, most of them were intended for salvation purposes and had rather
unique results. Hence, a specialized monograph is needed to put such information in order, corroborate written
sources with archaeological ones and, in particular to set the 8th-12th cemeteries in a chronological framework,
which cemeteries seem to be the main new find of the most recent decades. Thus, there is no secret that the
endeavours to archaeologically know Alba lulia have been of minor importance. To this end, an extensive
archaeological research would have been necessaiy, with an articulate schedule and a complex team. This should have
ensured professional approaches of each era, a need that has been constantly signalled by historians ever since 1979.
Amere enumeration of historical data concerning Alba lulia may lead to the deduction that, in order to get to
know the medieval era and partially the modern one, the main role lies with archaeology. Indirectly, this volume is
intended to be a demonstration and, at the same time, a plea for stricter monitoring of the archaeological research
underway on the city territory for a more complex research program, possibly a joint Romanian and Hungarian one,
for the complete publication of the previous excavations at a technical level.
II. PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON THE CITY TERRITORY
The first archaeological investigations in the castrum were conducted by Adalbert Cserni, a naturalist and
archaeologist, founder and first custodian of the Alba lulia Museum, between 1888 and 1913. Some observations
were made on the archaeological ruins during the construction of the Orthodox cathedral in the early 20th century,
but a real archaeological research can be dated only as late as 1953, when Dumitru Protase excavated two trenches
in the near vicinity of the cathedral. Some other observations were made in 1966-1968, mainly by Gheorghe Anghel,
seemingly during ample interior works fragments of the western and eastern castrum walls were recorded, and the
exterior ditch on the western side was identified. Equally, the first data on the line of fortifications around the
palace and cathedral were recorded.
Would be systematic investigations were started in 1980, near the southern gate of the castrum, and are
underway to date under the coordination of Vasile Moga. Other excavations in the last decades were made by Radii
Heitel (north of the cathedral and in the Mint area), Vasile Moga (on the northern side of the castrum, in the Apor
palace area, respectively in the yard of the Theological Roman Catholic Institute), A. A. Rusu (near the Apor
palace), and other archaeologists of the Alba lulia National Museum of Unification.
Around the Roman Catholic Cathedral three archaeological sites were conducted in the context of site
restoration. The first that we are familiar with was between 1898 and 1917, involving extended excavations inside
and outside the church, works coordinated by István Moller and Béla Posta. The vastest archaeological research
took place between 1968 and 1977, within the second rehabilitation site, under the coordination of Radu Heitel (jig.
4). 22 trenches were done inside and outside the cathedral, but the results remained, to a great extent, unknown, as
only two general archaeological reports were published.
The third site, started inside the Roman Catholic Arch ¡episcopate, is rather meant for the rehabilitation of the
two important buildings, the cathedral, and the bishop’s palace. Maintenance interventions and common repairs
436
have been carried out since 1988, but we are not in possession of any details about them; in any case, they were not
performed under archaeological surveillance. In 1997 the refurbishment works of the northern tower ground floor
started; still, ample excavation works were done since 2000. As one may see in the ensuing pages, the archaeologists’
presence at the site was mainly required because of drainage and sewerage works, as well as the rehabilitation of
the Baroque sacristy.
III. THE 2000-2002 ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH
In 2000-2002 archaeological excavations were carried out near the Roman Catholic Cathedral and the
bishop’s palace, in particular at the northern façade of the northern part of it. The trenches were further recorded
from one campaign to the next, until they reached number 32 (S.l-32). Exceptions to this rule are the small-size
excavations inside the north-western tower of the church that were given separate numbers (S.l-4 Tower), {plate
1)·
In the 2000 campaign (June and August) the main working front was the inside of the tower from where the
modem filling was removed and four surveys were completed. A smal excavation was conducted on the southern
side of the sacristy (S.4) and three others (S.l-3) on the palace façade facing the cathedral. All surfaces were
divided into lm2 squares/quadrants, starting from the building wall, going from east to west. The 2001 campaign
was conducted in two stages. Between 21 May and 8 June, we mainly focused on the same sectors: the cathedral
sacristy (S.5-9) and the northern façade of the bishop’s palace (S.10-11). The second stage took place between 11
September and 3 October 2001, when S. 12-18 around the cathedral were accomplished, following the trajectories
of rain sewerage pipelines.
The most comprehensive campaign was carried out in 2002, between 17 June and 17 September, at the
northern façade of the palace. A 4.5x39m area was investigated, along with 2 smaller areas of 2.30 x 3m, and 4 x
3m, at some distance from the palace. Also, at the beneficiary’s request, 2 trenches were dug in the palace garden,
perpendicular to the western and the southern parts of the building. 82
82 tombs were recorded during the excavations, further numbered every year (1-80, 14A, 55A) and marked
M. The 43 ruins also have common artefacts, labelled Z followed by a number. Four pits (pits nos. 1-4) and two
fireplaces were also recorded separately, whereas the other complexes were identified by way of stratigraphy (pit
33, etc.). The stratigraphic analysis is based on a single legend consisting of 235 layers. References to such layers
have been made by merely indicating the number of the layer, inserted in the text or in parentheses. When we gave
explanations for the figures, we did not repeat the description of the layers, as we think it is easily accessible by
referring to the legend in the appendices.
The archaeological items gathered in these campaigns, which are extremely abundant in pottery, have remained
under the custody of the Roman Catholic Archiepiscopacy, and were separately recorded by year. The main categories
of items were the following: m - coins; C - pottery; D - various special items. To this end, we drafted detailed
catalogues, and classified the materials in the complexes separately from the one in layers. In the catalogue the
reference to archaeological items is also accompanied by the temporary recording number, as follows: C.350/2002
or C.350/02. In comments, references were made to catalogues. Level 0 of the site was set at the threshold of the
western entrance of the cathedral. Subsequently, all excavations were related to it, alongside with all levels used on
drawing and in text. However, the depths indicated in catalogues are related to the occupation level closest to the
discovery location when no other reference points are indicated.
IV. GENERAL SITE STRATIGRAPHY
The natural structure of the land. The sterile soil is brownish-yellow sandy clay, located at variable
depths; hence it was only exceptionally reached by the excavation in S.22 (126). In front of the cathedral this
layer is reddish and more compact, with a reduced sand content (219), its upper part being identified at - 4.54m
(S.16). The black, clean, loose soil identified in S.22 and S.29 (127) seems also virgin; no items have been
recovered from it.
437
The Prehistoric Age. In S.16 at - 3.35m the excavation went through a relatively clean clay layer from
which we recovered prehistoric pottery shards made of coarse paste, with no decorations - which have been unique
finds so far in the archaeological landscape of this fortress corner.
The Roman age. The Roman era unfolds within the limits of the stratigraphic group R where 52 layers were
recorded. Though the deposits are rather numerous, the fact that the Roman layer was not investigated on larger
areas prevents us from giving details on the stratigraphic evolution of this period.
The post-Roman age. The deposits that mark the end of the Roman era are overlapped by successive layers
of black soil that hide traces of habitation in the migrations period and early Middle Ages. The upper limit of such
deposits is determined by a layer that we relate to mediaeval constructions: layer 28, reddish debris, consisting of
mortar mixed with an abundance of brick powder. Between the Roman era and the first medieval mortar constructions
(the 11th century) deposits reach a maximum thickness of lm (S.25).
In the current stage of research, it is problematic whether we can speak of a stratigraphically identifiable post-Roman
layer, namely the period after Dacia was abandoned, late 3rd and 4th centuries, respectively. We can most certainly relate
layers 2 and 3, with their variants, to this period; several typical pottery shards were recovered from them. The partial traces
of habitation were apparent in S.25 ‘ further developed in layer 2; still, we could not assign it any other complex.
The Age of Migrations. The materials dated back to the 5th-6th century appeared at the upper limit of layer 3
(S.26), and layer 4B, a dark brown layer that directly overlaps the Roman era (S.24). Such presence was identified
in particular in the near vicinity of the Roman tower, in a extremely narrow space, subsequently pierced by numerous
medieval and modern constructions (S.23, layers 113 and possibly 114). Isolated shards were recovered in other
points of the excavation as well, points that moved to such positions. The material is, however, reduced in terms of
quantity, and complexes were not identified. In S.I., shards typical of the period were found at depths between -
2.40m and - 2.97m (NC), at the upper limit of the Roman material layer R17; we cannot clearly delimit a deposit
related to the Migrations period.
Early Medieval Age. The early medieval layer is mainly represented by layer 4, with quite a few subdivisions,
where two large chronological groups can be recognized: (the 8th) 9th-10th centuries with very little material, around
3% of the entire amount and the 10^-12* centuries. The upper segments of layer 4 cover almost the entire interior
Roman ruins by its various subdivisions.
Considerable habitation of this period was identified in the southern part of the Gothic choir that was,
however, investigated only on an extremely limited area (layers 190, 198-209). Except for the black layer here,
versions lighter in colour appear here (174 and 197) due to a high content of clay and burnt material pigments
where the pits of the first layer of tombs sank. Near the sacristy, in S.4, layers 173 and 173 A belong to the same age,
most likely being part of the filling of a dwelling.
Much of the archaeological material comes from such deposits, in particular pottery shards. Several fragments
of a floor and a heating installation are a clear indicative of an existing dwelling; still, we did not have the occasion
to entirely delineate and research but one single complex. Whether the rotunda was built in this interval of time, it
remains a question to be answered.
The Medieval Age. Group six of layers includes the middle medieval age that we can call the age of great
constructions. On top of layers 4 and 5 deposits with significant amounts of mortar appear - an indication of the
fact that the surface was prepared for systematic habitation to take place around two major components: the cathedral
and the bishop’s palace. The first two manifestations of this type were probably limited to cleaning the surface and
possibly uncovering some ruins as deep as the occupation level; no major land movements are detectable. Thus, the
deposits on the surface were layers of black soil mixed with lime (34 in S.23,24,25; 98 in S.23) or some filling that
consists of very thin lenses of lime alternating with thicker, loose, black soil layers (6 in S.26). At the limit between
layers 4 and 34 in S.23/24 the oldest coin in the excavation was uncovered (m. 113/02, 1095-1116); coin m .96/2002
comes from layer 34 and is dated to the interval of 1131-1141.
Layer 28, brownish red debris with many brick shards, appears to be some levelling of the surface, prior to
constructions, that we can relate to cathedral lb. Palace I was also built in this interval of time when the cemetery of
the first cathedral was functional (layers 161, 162).
On top of a black soil lens (29), layer 30, made up of compact yellowish lime that we relate to the main
construction site that was functional in Alba Iulia in the Middle Ages, the current cathedral, laid down on the
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surface. We believe that layer 30 laid down on the surface at the end of the 12th century or earlier in the next, dating
supported by the coin material (m.20) and the analysis of the context. During the 13th century it reached its current
state, and the eastern and western ends were completed towards the end of the century.
On limited segments, layer 28 is directly overlapped by layer 31, a pellicle of black soil mixed with mortar
and brick shards, very compacted, used as the occupation level for an extended period of time. At this level the
foundation ditch ofZ.34 (layer 35) was dug around year 1300. Other deposits related to this period are nos. 42 and 36.
Near the cathedral, the deposits between the Roman age and the first half of the 13th century (or even later for
the western part of the cathedral, see the comments in the chapter on the cemetery) were mixed by the digging of
tomb pits.
The 14։h-15th Centuries. Stratigraphy becomes extremely complicated starting with the second half of the
14th century, as a result of a building zeal that aimed mainly at the extension of the palace. It is at that time, if we
judge by the coins recovered from its foundation ditch (7, 43 and 82), that the Gothic palace site (II) is started. The
occupation level of this stage is around - 0.80m. Near the curtain wall (S.23) this stage is related to layer 95, with
variant 95A, with a coin from 1330. The digging of pit 33 is contemporary with the southern side, which partially
disturbed the ruin of the dry wall Z.34.
Outside the Roman curtain the first medieval constructions (56,107,129,130) appear at the time; in connection
with them, a complex dated late that century was identified and partially researched (the 14th century complex).
Many interventions were conducted in the vicinity of the palace, leaving deposits on the plan that are consistent
with the MM 5th century material (40, 40A, 44, 46, 15 A, 160 etc.). It is probably in early 15th century that palaces
I and II were united by a connecting structure that we named palace III.
The Modern Age. The 16th century brings yet another large construction site when the Renaissance
transformation of palace II was completed. After the interventions done for the construction of the cellar (layers 78
A and B), some extentions were attached to the northern fafade: latrine 1, a staircase tower (layer 132), the corner
bastion by which the palace was extended to the western wall of the Roman curtain that was still functional at the
time (110, 111). The deposits that we can relate to the modern age start at the current occupation level and go as
deep as a level that varies between 0.20 and 0.50 m (S.l, layers 74, 76, 77; 47, in front of the western wing of the
current northern end etc.). As for the 18th century, the deposits identified in the excavations are limited to its
beginnings, whereas the major event is the construction of the Vauban fortification. The most palpable intervention
is the ditch that demolished the Roman curtain (pit no. 1), from the filling of which quite a lot of the 17th century
material was recovered. The large pit, identified in the area of the current entrance, is related to the same period of
time, the 1704 events (pit no. 2). On the southern side of the cathedral we found the deposits related to the construction
of the Baroque sacristy (184, 185).
The 20th Century. At the beginning of the 20th century, the level of the southern side of the cathedral was
lowered as much as the 13th century level from where a foundation ventilation canal was built, cast in concrete,
which has remained accessible to the present day. This was an ingenious intervention that most certainly protected
the cathedral and provided for fit and sound foundations. It is still at the time that a general systematization was
done and a river stone pavement was set in place (181,187). Its upper level is -0.42m in the direction of the palace,
and the minimum level at the S.5 limit is -1.40 m. An exception to such interventions was the sacristy area, which
stayed on some soil pedestal in the midst of the church gutter. The north-western corner of the bishop’s palace was
built near the western side of the Roman curtain (palace IV).
V. THE ROMAN AGE
V.l. General considerations
Our excavations investigated fragments of the north and west sides of the Roman castrum, which made
possible the thorough analysis of their technical characteristics: materials, manner of construction, and evolution of
the occupation level in the near vicinity. The most important piece of news is the ruin of an intermediary tower,
located inside the western curtain and interwoven with it. Equally, a series of walls belonging to some constructions
inside the castrum were uncovered.
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Though at the level of this period areas were limited, we could, however, recover an important amount of
archaeological material consisting of pottery shards, metal, glass and bone items, as well as coins.
V.2. The Roman castrum (Z.21)
A fragment of the western side of the curtain wall of the Roman castrum was investigated in S.22 and S.30
(plate. 7). The wall is, on a large part of the surface, dismantled as low as where the foundation starts, and it is only
in the near vicinity of the current palace corner that a fragment of the standing structure was preserved, as high as
five rows ofmasomy. Such drastic demolition was done in the early 18th century (pit no. 1 ,fig. 8, 13; plate 17/1).
The foundation of the castrum is made of medium- and, mostly, small-sized river stones, sunk in coarse
mortar {fig. 9). The lower part went as deep as the sterile soil, which is a yellow clay layer (126) at -4.28m. At the
upper part of the foundation a worked stone block layer was set, on which the trajectory of the standing structure
was carved, withdrawn by 10-12cm, at - 2.94m. The standing structure was made up of cut stone blocks, 40-5 0cm
wide and 80-90cm long, some of them L-carved, which facilitated perfect joining. Towards the interior of the
curtain, the wall is less neat, given that it was behind the agger (fig. 10, 12, 101). The broken lime foundation
extends down to - 2.28m, from where it rises to - 1.34, with white-greenish, medium-sized sandstone rock masonry
and fragments of lime blocks, sunk in much mortar, and having an oblique cross section. The first row of blocks
was set at the upper limit of the construction, at the level of the elevation of 1.80m.
Another segment was found in trench S.17, standing for the foundation of the western wall of the western
part of the bishop’s palace, and the cellar wall, respectively (fig. 108). Up to the current occupation layer (- 1.05 m.
on an average) five block layers are visible, all in an excellent state of preservation, without having been subject to
major repairs.
V3. The Roman tower (Z.22)
The excavation revealed the southern side of a tower built inside the Roman curtain, and the southern side
respectively, of a total length of 6.30m at the starting level of the standing structure and a fragment of the eastern
side (plate 7). The tower is perpendicular on the curtain, interwoven with it, and withdrawn to the exterior by
0.22m. A larger segment at the corner has been preserved from the standing structure, consisting of five block
layers to the exterior and 3-41ayers to the interior - actually the ones interwoven with the curtain wall (fig. 9). The
interior of the tower is excavated at a level lower than the demolition level of the southern side; however, we do not
know the level and stage of the intervention (fig. 11).
V4. Stratigraphic coordinates and defence-related elements
The construction level inside the castrum, near the western curtain, was probably around - 3m (fig. 72);
during the surface site, a thick layer of lime splinters, the level extending to - 2.76/2.88m (R35). After the construction
was completed, an agger 3.90m wide was built, extended to the interior of the curtain by a supporting inclined wall.
1.50m wide, and opposite the tower by a soil gradient, with the same inclination, 1.75 m wide. The occupation layer
near the wall of the curtain was thus determined at - 1.74 m, and at the agger-related constructions at - 2.75m. Via
sagularia would have possibly been 6 - 6.20m away from the curtain wall; however, no concrete traces were
discovered in the excavation, as it was under the foundation of the Gothic tower. This soil structure was subject to
3 makeovers over time, which served to raise the level to - 0.62m.
To the exterior, the stone rocks of the curtain and the tower are set in the sterile soil (layer 126, yellow clay),
and the block layer that marks the transition from foundation to standing structure is correspondent to a black soil
layer mixed with gravel, with no materials other than castrum rocks, including crenel fragment (128). The berm
was most likely located at the limit between layers 127 and 128, hence around level ֊3.32 m or possibly somewhat
higher, within the limits of layer 128 (fig. 14, 101). Athin mortar deposit (129A) separates this epoch from the late
14th century. The width of the berm could not be determined; in any case, the layers start to descend (to the ditch?)
1.25m away from the wall.
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Until the end of the 14lh century the fortress inhabitants used only the interior of the castrum - at least in the
south-western corner of this fortification: the first deposits on top of the berm of the ditch consist of coal and ash
layers, containing a large amount of pottery that can be dated by coins back to the second half of the 14th century.
These deposits are the result of the burning of a wooden structure, the remains of which collapsed or were thrown
into the ditch; the large amount of material is also indicative of the civil function of this structure. The medieval
walls discovered in this area most likely date to the 14th century and it is not impossible that they may have
belonged to a tower built outside the Roman curtain, partially in the ditch. Certainly, other theories may be considered,
such as the creation of a large-sized fortified space, doubling the Roman curtain, at a 2.50m distance from its
standing structure, having at least two compartments separated by a superficial wall.
Inside the castrum, the first deposit identified near the curtain is a loose brownish soil, with plenty of coal
pigment in it (113), most likely belonging to the migration era. It is overlapped by a thin pellicle of red burnt clay
(117) between - 1.74m and ֊ 1.51m, which may be the floor of a dwelling.
Archaeological research led to the conclusion that the western side of the curtain was apparent in the early
18”1 century, and that the demolition trench deepened exactly along its route (pit no. 1). The same thing may also be
stated about the ruin of the Roman tower, though it is surprising that it does not appear in any of the historical plans.
However, on the northern section between S.22 and S.23 one can see how the demolition pit most precisely followed
along the standing structure of the tower. What was the state of the Roman structures at the time of the demolition?
How they evolved in time? These are all questions about the western side of the castrum which meant to remain
unanswered. We do know, however, that, where the curtain wall was integrated in the construction, it has been
preserved to date, with minor repairs.
V.S. Final considerations
Given all the above, we can draw several conclusions concerning the main structures of the Roman age in
Alba Iulia.
Within the investigated perimeter we cannot support a clay stage of the castrum with documents. On the
other hand, if one is to carefully study the specialized literature, one can easily reach the conclusion that such a
stage has never been clearly outlined as a result of archaeological research, but it was rather a working assumption,
borrowed by various researchers, thus gradually becoming a theory. All clay structures found near the Roman
curtain are contemporary with it and contributed to maintaining a more elevated occupation level next to the wall.
Secondly, we can change the general plan of the stone castrum by more precisely positioning the western and
eastern sides and the western gate and adding intermediary towers towards the interior of the curtain. The western
side is not located at the limit of RaduHeitel’s excavations, but at the limit of the bishop’s palace; it was actually re-
used in its structure. Compared to the present constructions, it is slightly oblique. Thus, among the planimetric
versions, the closest position to the reality of the western side of the castrum belongs to Kovács András.
Based on more recent finds in the basements of the storehouse, an 18th century building in the south-eastern
comer of the current fortress, we must admit that the stone castrum had a rectangular plan, with its north-south side
measuring 440m, the east-western one around 470-480m.
As far as the western gate is concerned, it was partially uncovered in the autumn of 2004, on the occasion of
the rehabilitation of the main sewerage network in the fortress. As we could see, it had the same structure as the
southern gate, with two towers and a median pillar. The shape we suggest is an estimate; we expect the people who
supervised the work to provide us with a more accurate location and real sizes.
We can consider a proven fact that the curtain wall was provided with intermediate towers built inside, with
a small jut towards the exterior and, possibly, buttresses. The tower we discovered is located approximately at one
third of the distance from the south-western corner of the castrum. Hence, we have assumed that up to the main gate
there may have probably been another tower that we temporarily positioned at the limit of the Orthodox cathedral.
We can take these assumptions even further, and consider that the castrum sides were provided with intermediate
towers most likely arranged in groups of four, at equal distances. On the other hand, on the wall fragment that has
survived on the southern side, two small buttresses probably belonged to such a structure type. Modern plans are
also supportive of such assumptions: in the 1687 drawing, on the northern side, there appear three interior
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constructions that could have such an origin. On the same plan one can see a rectangular tower in the north-western
comer of the fortress, having an oblique direction, the construction of which may also be assumed in the early Tl
millennium.
Given these observations, we can provide a plan of the Roman castrum that is closer to the archaeological Iv
documented reality; however, there are still quite a few question marks and significant unknown information
concerning this epoch.
V6. Roman interior constructions
During excavations, several wall structures, related to the Roman age were identified: Z.16, 17, 23, 24 and
33.
V 7. Materials
V.7.1. Pottery (Mihaela Ciau^escu)
Most pottery shards come from debris, medieval or modern layers - very few of them having been discovered
in situ, as the research of the Roman castrum was made even more difficult by its stratigraphic position in relation
to the existing buildings. However, we resorted to fully recording the shards for the purpose of establishing a
comparative database in view of future systematic excavations that would generate complexes less affected by
post-Roman activities. Despite its residual nature, this group is one of the most analyzed in this castrum and
provides a general perspective of the pottery types that were used (plates 20-38).
A total of 501 shards were collected; among them, only 91 come from Roman layers, the estimated equivalent
of 24.39 pots weighing 16,776 grams. At least 14 types of paste were found on this site, most of them locally
produced, besides a few shards of terra sigilatta that come from the production centres of central Gaul (Material
Catalogue, Appendix 1). At least four types of locally manufactured terra sigillata paste could be distinguished,
representing almost half of the total number of shards; figures are indicative of a comparatively high consumption
of fine pottery at this military camp.
The mentioned statistic results are difficult to interpret given the residual nature of this group. They can at
most be suggestive of general tendencies in terms of pottery consumption at this military site. Graphs show similar
figures for fine and course pottery. Most common pottery is grey in colour while fine pottery is predominantly
burnt by oxidation (19%) while merely 8% by reduction. A wide range of decorations was used, which was already
known in connection with military camps that seem to have been appreciative of certain pottery categories, in
particular the ones with varnish, mottled, barbotine, glazed, excised decorations or other techniques.
Pottery shapes. An almost complete list of shapes has been recorded where pots and recipients for liquids
prevail. Ware is illustrated by bowls, glasses, cups, flat dishes/plates. The only shapes that have not been identified
are mortaria and dolia, which are probably related to the residual nature of the analyzed group. Similarly, amphorae
shards seem to be rather few in number. Certain categories, such as turribullae, kantharos, Camulodunum 306 type
bowls, generally seem associated with rituals/cult-related practices.
The pottery discovered at this site is a true illustration of the pottery tradition of Pannonia, a province where
13th Legion Gemina was active for a long period of time. The best analogies can be found in Sirmium, Poetovio.
Aquincum, Brigetio, which is why comparisons are related to these sites. Some categories originate in the Rhine
territories that were, however, introduced in Dacia, rather by some Pannonic route, where they had already become
part of the province’s range of pottery.
Date. The attempt to date these shards cannot rely on stratigraphic elements, given the conditions of their
discovery. The defined typological range is indicative of a disturbance during the medieval period, mostly for the
upper layers of the castrum. Most shapes correspond to the locally known types, especially in the first half of the 3 rd
century AD. The pots, jugs, bowls, that are representative of most of the analyzed shards, are versions that had not
been used before late 2nd century, but that, in the 3rd century, stood for the most common shapes in other local
complexes, such as Liber Pater’s sanctuary in Parto§. On the other hand, several shards date to the 2nd century' in
particular, and are not typical of the 3rd century complexes: Noriccum—Pannonia bowls or ring-necked jugs. Future
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stratigraphic excavations that will provide more pottery from this castrum’s we 11-stratified complexes will enable
reaching more chronological conclusions.
Conclusions. The analysis of this pottery group provides a somewhat satisfactory image of the various
pottery types used by this legion while in Apulum. One may notice the perpetuation of the Pannonié pottery tradition
prior to the arrival in Dacia, that comes from potters who probably followed the legion to the new territories,
whereas a large part of the colonists who settled in the area were most likely from Noriccum and Pannónia. Besides
the several imports of terra sigillata and amphorae, which, actually, do not account for the actual figures of such
imported recipient supply, most studied shards are of local origin. However, it is not impossible that the supply may
have come from other close production centres as well. The residual nature of this group does not allow for decisive
conclusions on the supply sources, which, however, may be possible possible after a series of production sites have
been satisfactorily studied and published.
V.7.2. Metallic artefacts (Sorin Coci$)
Military equipment pieces. The following were withheld for analysis: 1. Accessory? 2. Sandal nail. 3-4.
Shields nails; 5. Applied ornament. (Fig. 21). These are common pieces in a Roman soldier’s military equipment.
Quite a few such items are known in Dacia, as well as in the Empire. Chronologically, the archaeological context
does not allow but for a rather wide dating back to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.
Medical instruments. The two medical instruments (a spatula and a probe) have good analogies in Dacia.
The medical instruments have a longer period of use, first, because of the purpose they are meant for, second,
because they are not subject, just as many bronze items (jewels, pots, toilet utensils), to fashion whim.
Jewels. An Aucissa-type fibula, coming from the second half of the 2nd century - the first two decades of the
3rd century AD, as well as a fibula with its leg twisted underneath that can be dated back to the first half of the 3rd
century AD were discovered.
V.7.3. Coins. Several Roman coins were discovered in the Roman layer or rolled over to the medieval and
modem fillings during the excavations.
VI. THE 4th CENTURY LAYER
In most cases, the Roman layers (1, R) are directly overlapped by early medieval ones, with pottery shards
that can be dated after the 9th century (4). However, in some cases, deposits were identified that can be assigned to
the intermediate period, such as layers 2 and 3.
In S.25, between the two Roman buildings, the traces of a house were uncovered (layers 2A, 2D), from the
filling of which pottery material was recovered, dating back to the 3rd-4th centuries (fig. 6, 15; plate 14/2). Layers 2F
and 2G can be identified in S.ll as traces of post-Roman habitation right on top of the yellowish brown layer
typical of the end of the Roman era (plate 11/1).
VII. THE 5th - 6™ CENTURY LAYER (DANIELA TÁNASE)
VII. 1. General considerations
Although on the entire area material was uncovered that can be dated to this interval of time ֊ mainly
consisting of pottery shards - no complexes were identified that can be related to this period. We can observe that
the material concentrates in trenches 23 and 24, hence in the near vicinity of the Roman tower. In S.24 the material
came, with almost no exception, from a dark brown layer (4B) that directly overlaps the reddish brown layer
belonging to the end of the Roman age(l). In S.26 the material typical of the migration period appeared at the upper
limit of layer 3, a deposit that we can generally consider post-Roman, belonging to the 3rd-4th century, and in S.22/
23, in layer 113.
Historically, the layer we analyzed corresponds to the last third of the 5th century ֊ 567, a time when
Transylvania was included in the power structure of the Gepidic Kingdom.
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VII. 2. Clothes and jewellery pieces
1. Pendant (fig. 22/3). In the layer where stamped pottery shards were discovered another find was a round
bronze cast pendant, with a fastening ear, radial veins and profiled frame, with a groove in its centre, most likely for
setting a semi-precious or precious stone. We found no analogies for this object; it is most certain that it comes from
the layer where the stamped pottery typical of the 6th century was found.
2. Buckle (fig. 22/1. Oval buckle, with no plate, with a curved needle, that was not preserved in its initial
shape, but stuck outside the link. The piece can be related to the 6th century period, in Transylvanian cemeteries and
tombs in the Tisa Plain.
3. Buckle plate (fig. 22/2). At the upper limit of the layer where materials typical of this era appeared, a
piece, seemingly a buckle plate, was uncovered. Because it is broken at one of its ends, it is difficult to accurately
determine both its function and typology; however, we tend to believe it is a buckle plate. It is made of bronze, cast
shield-shaped; one of the side is rounded and has an arched edge. Inside there are crescent-shaped motifs. At the
broken end, one of the grooves meant to fasten the plate onto the belt are still preserved. In terms of decorations,
there is some resemblance between this piece and the Sucidava-type buckle imitation discovered in the Tisa Plain
at Szeleveny (Hungary). Nonetheless, we cannot certainly state whether our piece is an imitation of the Sucidava-
type buckle plates.
VII. 3. Pottery
The pottery shards are the most significant class of artefacts dated back to the 5th֊6th centuries. The pottery has
various shades of grey, from light grey to black, most of it wheel-turned, consisting of paste that may be fine, medium
with coarse aspect, or medium with pebbles mixed with the paste, which gives it a rather coarse look. Typologically,
we found mugs, jugs, glasses, bowls, pear-shaped pots and biconical pots (material catalogue and plates 39-45).
In terms of technology and decoration motifs, we should note the fine polished pottery, with motifs such as
net-type, straight or zigzag lines, pottery stamped with triangles and leaves and medium or coarse pottery decorated
with carved, straight or wave-shaped lines.
VII.3.1. Fine pottery
Stamped pottery. The pottery with stamped decorations is made of fine paste and varies in colour: yellowish,
shades of grey or black. The stamped decoration that appears on the pottery shards we presented can also be found
on pots discovered in settlements in Transylvania, and in settlements and cemeteries in the Tisa Plain.
Polished pottery. A well-represented pottery category is the grey and black pottery, exclusively wheel-
turned, of fine paste, with no decorations or with decorations such as net-like lines or vertical or horizontal zigzag
lines, alternating with straight lines or fields of lines imagining some sort of metopes. Such pottery has analogies in
Transylvania in the Morejti settlements, in house number 1 of Bratei, but also in the Tisa Plain at Magyartés,
Szentes-Berekhát and Tiszaörvénv.
VII.3.2. Common pottery. We included in this category the grey or dark brown pottery that is wheel-
turned, of a semi-fine paste, coarse when touched, as well as the wheel-turned grey pottery with a paste degreased
with micro-shingle that gives it a rather coarse aspect. The shards we uncovered allow us to notice the existence of
several vessel shapes: bowls, bi-conical pots, pear-shaped pots, pots with handles, and mugs or jugs. The decorations
are grooves, wave-shaped or horizontal indented lines, or horizontal rows of oblique little dashes; at times, there
can be no decorations at all. Analogies for the pottery were found in More§ti, Bratei, Cristuru Secuiesc (Harghita
county), Suceag (Cluj county), Porumbenii Mici, Soporu de Carnpie (Cluj county), Berea (Satu Mare county),
Taga (Cluj county).
VII.3.3. Handmade pottery. We have found so far only several handmade pottery shards, among which a
rim coming from a pot, dark grey in colour, made up of semi-fine paste.
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*
The pottery shards found in Alba Iulia have good analogies in Transylvania, in the Tisa Plain, and also in
Wallachia and Moldova, where settlements and cemeteries were researched that, according to authors, come from
the 6th or 6*-7* centuries. An explanation is the fact that the area north of the Danube River owes quite a lot
to the Roman and Roman provincial tradition and is strongly influenced by the Late Roman Empire and Roman-
Byzantine Empire technology. It has been said that coarse pottery could be a cultural component of the Romanics,
as the production of this commonly used pottery continued from the Roman age; however, there are finds outside
the provinces of the Roman Empire that are proof to the fact that this pottery type had been taken over and produced
by the barbarians outside the Roman world quite early.
The collapse of the Danube limes in the first third of the 7th century led to a discontinuity, in terms of potteiy
types; good quality, commonly used pottery made up of semi-fine or coarse paste, typical of the Roman and Roman
provincial tradition, gradually disappeared, as an interruption of the relations with the technological nucleus south
of the Danube occurred. These pottery types belonged to the technological area of the Roman-Byzantine Empire,
on which they were directly dependent, although they were independent of the manufacturers’ ethnic origin.
VII. 4. Conclusions
The layer contemporary with the Gepidic Kingdom overlaps the Roman and post-Roman layer, corresponding
to the 4th century, a period which is certified by the discovery of a considerable amount of potteiy typically shaped
for this century. The 5th-6th century pottery has its roots in the Roman provincial pottery both in terms of technology
and the range of shapes and decorative motifs; however, the Germanic influence is also noticeable in the decoration
of stamped pottery. Potteiy and metal artefacts that we have discovered support the hypothesis of some 5th-6th
century habitation.
VIII. EARLY MEDIEVAL AGE
VIII. 1. General considerations
The early medieval age is represented by a black filling that contains, with no exception, mortar pigment,
stone shards, brick powder and shards in various proportions. During our investigations the black deposits
were given number 4, and the potential differentiable layers were marked with letters. The black colour is,
however, intense and uniform; thus, generally, it is rather hard to distinguish layers or pellicles in its structure,
though the materials are often suggestive of such differentiation. On most of the researched area, this layer
was pierced by the 12th century tombs that attracted artefacts of this period. An explanation is that the pottery
collected from layer 4, which is extremely abundant, occupies a rather extensive chronologic interval,
corresponding to the 8th-12* centuries. Approximately 3% of this material belongs to the Balkans-Danube
culture habitation stage (Dridu), as we will further thoroughly analyze in the chapter on materials. Concrete
traces of this habitation were identified in several points of the excavation, but the only complex that we
found in a state that can be reconstructed is a domestic installation (pit No. 3). In the other cases we recorded
fragments of floors, fireplaces and other remains typical of a semi-buried dwelling. Tombs with ritual animal
bone deposits are also a component of this epoch.
On limited portions, the upper part of the early medieval deposits is layer 5, consisting of black, rather clean
and well-compacted soil (S.25 and S.26). Elowever, generally, mortar deposits start at the upper part of layer 4. The
coin issued by Koloman, discovered in layer 34, sets the upper chronological limit of these deposits at a time when
the occupation level inside the castrum was in this sector at around - 1/- 1,30m. (fig. 71).\i is interesting that they
are not clearly linked to the Roman ruins that, at that time, had already disappeared: they are covered by layer 4 or
by successive deposits on it, just as layer 98 in S.23.
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VIIL2. Pit no. 3
The clearest structure of the era is an installation formed of a kiln and the related pit, researched in S.24 (fig.
25, 26). The stone-made kiln was built of rocks, with no apparent binding agent, closed with 1-2 re-used stone
blocks. The kiln was set in an approximately oval pit, sunk by 0.60m under the excavation level. The hearth was set
on the bottom of the pit, most likely on a layer of rocks. The inside of the kiln was thus 0.40/0.60m high, and tine
useful interior was irregular in shape, assimilated to a 0.40x0.40m square (approximate reconstruction). The
mouth of the kiln must undoubtedly have been located to the north so as it may be accessible from the related pit.
0.64m deeper. It was outlined on the plan at -2m circular in shape. The pit has black filling that can be taken for
early medieval layers so as it was noticed and delimited a little lower than the mouth level, against the reddish
brown background of the Roman age. It has a pear-shaped cross section and its walls were subject to no treatment
whatsoever.
The filling of the pit is not uniform, consisting of pasty black soil, with plenty of wooden coal (4L), stone
shards and rare brick shards, plenty of gravel, and dislocated stones with intense burning traces. The latter are more
frequent in the upper part while in the lower half of the pit there are mostly pottery shards and many animal bones,
most of them burnt. The pottery is classified as semi-coarse, of medium paste, slow wheel-turned and superficially
burnt so that the colours are rather blackish. It comes in such shapes as short-necked and widened-rim jars, with
overall decorations of irregular incisions or waves. One body shard is decorated with waves at large distances from
one another and, at irregular intervals, there is a field with de décor made by nail. Generally, this material is dated
back to the 9th-10th century. It is impossible for us to determine a clear delimitation between the filling of the pit and
the layer that covers it; however, layer 4A is the one that is on top of everything, with a content of materials that are
dated to the 11^-12* century. The filling of the pit stayed loose, mainly because of the many stones so that subsequent
deposits (4) formed a valley around it. The surface was levelled by layer 28, which belongs to the middle Dark
Ages, namely the 12th century.
VIII3. Materials
VIII.3.1. Pottery
According to the analysis of the contexts, we date to this interval the pottery shards in the filling of pit 3
(plates 46-48), the ones recovered when dismantling the tomb with animal bones (M.80), as well as the shards in
contexts 3, 4A and 4C. To them are added some moved shards, the technical characteristics of which may be
considered relevant for such dating (plates 119-121).
The material in pit 3 is extremely fragmented, so we could not reconstruct any shape (material catalogue, pit
3, 1-31). Several shards coming from a sphere-bodied pot, an almost globular shape, with a short neck, slightly
protruding and with an obliquely cut rim could be put back together. The pot was decorated all over with irregular
horizontal incisions on top of which, in the shoulder area, oblique line fascicles overlap. The decoration was done
with a small broom; the incisions are uneven in depth and in terms of distribution (30). The pot was made of a semi-
coarse paste, and the burning was by reduction; the pottery colour was black on the outside, and reddish in the
inside. Fragment No. 31 is part of a similar decoration, too. Another pot (29) has an elongated, ovoid body, short
arched neck, and thinned rim. The exterior is decorated, from right under the rim, with irregular horizontal incisions
which other deep, oblique indentations overlap. Other pot shards have a somewhat better shaped neck, with a
slightly protruding rim from inside out, cut horizontally (8, 9), or a much opened rim, such as fragment No. 26. A
simply arched edge, with a rounded rim, adds to the above-mentioned range of pots (28). A second shape of this
complex is a mug, opening diameter of 11 cm, made of coarse paste, with a carefully smoothed exterior. The neck is
long, and its rim is rounded and everted (24). The pot is most likely an imitation of amphora-shaped jugs typical of
the Balkans and Danube culture. Most of the preserved shards belong to pot bodies and help us outline the decoration
range. Therefore, the pots were decorated by wave-like incisions (2), wave fascicles (4, 6, 15,21,25), combinations
of waves and horizontal lines (1, 5, 17, 20, 23), irregular horizontal lines (7) or lines fascicles (14, 16, 23). A
fragment of a large-sized pot shows a decoration all over the body, made up of wave-like and simple lines, at some
distance from one another, in between which small irregular alveoli are intercalated (22).
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Only a few shards come from context 4Л (plates 119-121). A shard from the upper part of a pot has a slightly
everted collar (562). Another shard has an arched collar, ended in a slightly widened rim (617). The pot at No. 616
has a spherical body, the neck is missing, and the rim is thinned and everted. Right under the rim there is a decoration
formed of wave-like lines, most likely going down all over the pot body. Other decorative variants are the irregular
waves (615), horizontal incisions (561) or combinations of waves, horizontal incisions overlapped by vertical ones
(328) and so on.
Only the upper part of a short-necked barely shaped pot is preserved from context 3; the short rim is everted
and vaguely widened (796). The paste is completely black, and the decoration starts right under the neck, a wave-
shaped line with a sharp loop. In addition to a wall with wave-shaped and irregular horizontal incisions (794) is a
shard decorated with the small wheel coming from this context, which is rarer in these early contexts, though not
unique (795). The extremely small shards recovered from near the tomb, with animal offerings, have perfect analogies
in pit 3 (534, 535).
The moved material has largely the same characteristics as those above. The most interesting artefact is a pot
with a handle, decorated with a polished line network outside (765). The pot was made of a coarse grained paste,
then the exterior surface was manually finished, and the decoration was made by polishing. The pot was burnt till
brick red in colour with various shades; still the exterior was covered during processing with a fine brown reddish
slip layer that enabled the creation of a smooth surface on a wall that had been first made of coarse grained paste.
Another shard with net-type polished decoration is the one in No. 221. In No. 75 the upper part of a pot with
globular body and barely-shaped neck, decorated with rather negligently made wave-like line bands, has been
preserved. The medium paste was modelled with a very slowly rotating wheel; many finger traces are visible on the
interior surface of the pot. We should also note a slender pot with an extremely thinned rim, rounded at the end,
decorated on its shoulder with fascicles of partially overlapped horizontal and wave-like lines (618). The pot in No.
74 has no neck, its rim is almost horizontal; the one in number 540 has a much widened and rounded rim. A rarer
shape is the conidal pot, with an everted rim and decorated with rows of oblique piercing (182). The other shards
were broken from pot walls and only provide us with information related to decoration, that are included in the ones
that have already been described: fascicles of partially overlapping horizontal and wave-like lines (76, 618), waves
(71) fascicles of overlapping horizontal and oblique lines (513). The wave-like lines incised on the very neck of
pots are less common (78, 182) alongside with the poking made with a 5-6 toothed comb that are oblique (70) or
vertical (8).
Handmade pottery is poorly represented. Pot no. 799 has its maximum diameter in the median area, a bit
larger than that of the opening (18cm). It was made of medium paste, the walls are unevenly thick, and the superficial
burning created reddish exterior pellicles whereas the core stayed black. The spherical body is associated with a
short neck, the rim is thinned and sharpened at its end and decorated with an irregular wave inside that we find in
the exterior as well, right under the neck, combined with wave-like fascicles. Other handmade pots seem deprived
of necks, their rims are almost vertical (335) or slightly everted (224).
Several handmade shards come from the filling of pits 33 and 1. They seem so primitive that we wondered
whether they could not be even older than that, for instance the 8th century; the answer is difficult when one is to
judge a situation by merely five shards. Until the identification of complexes to document this era, the dating of the
shards stays questionable. We are thinking of a pot with an extremely thinned rim, everted almost horizontally (pit
33/14), an S-shaped profile with rounded rim (pit 33/16) and a base (pit 33/15). In pit 1 a body shard and a base
shard can be included in this category (pit 1/16), made of coarse grained paste, with the exterior surface covered
with a thick layer of slam and then polished.
The 9th-10th century pottery is known to exist in large amounts in Transylvania, though dating does not
always result from contexts or at least the level of publication is not suggestive of it. The chronological classification
based only on technical criteria is debatable, in particular when the material is fragmented and many of its basic
characteristics can be seen unchanged in the following period. Beyond the fact that this aspect is the best argument
in favour of the continuity of the local material culture, there is an acute lack of the publication of contextual
information and even systematic research on this epoch. Among the many analogies we should mention the material
of Cicäu, Däbäca, Cluj Mänä§tur (in a context dated by coins), Turda§ and Asinip etc. Such pottery is frequently
mentioned on the territory of the city of Alba Iulia as well. We can assume that identical material can be found in the
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cemetery at the Ambulance Station, which material we have got to know only by the publicity it has had during the
last decades. Almost perfect analogies can be found in the material of Blandiana, the settlement related to the
cemetery, dated back to the 10th century and even in the tomb artefacts. There is a noticeable distinction in that, in
our Alba Iulia excavations, the fine grey and yellow pottery is absent or possibly represented by shards that are so
small that we cannot precisely relate to a certain period of time. On the other hand, some shards have direct
analogies in the Dridu culture area, but the subject deserves a complex approach that cannot be done in this
monograph.
VIII.3.2. Metal artefacts
The iron artefacts found among animal bones in M.80 can be dated to this timeframe; among them, a buckle
could be recovered alongside with a less clearly, a metallic tip (catalogue 1, 2). Another iron buckle (148) and a
bronze chain fragment (149) appeared near this complex, the context of which is not very clear, and that enables us
to date it prior to the 11th century.
The most interesting of the artefacts included in this timeframe is, nonetheless, a lunula-shaped bronze
earring (2A). The piece is decorated with the filigree technique, its frame is made up of three rows of interwoven
threads fixed by a small lunula-shaped plate; the threads are then twisted around the ends and the protuberance in
the middle of the lunula; a braided thread that surrounded one of the ends is broken (fig. 27).
A fragment of a silver lunula-shaped earring, decorated by the granulation and filigree technique, was
discovered in an incineration tomb in cemetery 2 in Bratei (Sibiu county), dated to the 7th-8th centuries. Bronze
lunula-shaped earrings were discovered in the cemetery in Sultana (Giurgiu county), in a burial tomb. The earring
found in Alba Iulia also resembles the one in Ciumbrud (Alba county), though the production technique is different.
Ever since they were discovered, the Ciumbrud artefacts have been related to the Moravians and dated to the 9th -
early 10th century. Earrings and lunula-shaped pendants similar to the ones in Ciumbrud were also found in Nitra-
Lupka (Slovakia).
However, there are certain distinctions between the lunula-shaped earrings found in Nitra-Lupka and Ciumbrud
and the one uncovered in Alba Iulia as regards to the execution technique even if, at first sight, they are part of the
same typological group. Unlike the Slovakia and Ciumbrud earrings, that are more complicated, made by casting,
thus an imitation of filigree and granulation, and some others that have small chain pendants fixed to the plate, the
earring we found is made according to the filigree technique and the threads are fixed on the small plate. From this
perspective, the earring is closer to analogies in Bratei and the Lower Danube area. That is why we believe that the
fact that this sort of piece appeared be rather linked to the Lower Danube and not Moravia, which pieces are almost
identical to the ones found in the Sultana cemetery.
As for the dating of this type of earring, Bulgarian researchers plead for dating it back to the 8th-9th century.
Uwe Fiedler believes that this type of earring, which spread as far as Moravia, can be dated to the second half of the
9th century and around 900, though earlier dating cannot be excluded. The German researcher chronologically
reassessed all Lower Danube cemeteries and made a series of corrections, placing them during the 9th—first half of
the 10th century. In our opinion, the change of the chronology of cemetery 2 of Bratei is required; it can be rather
placed in the 8th-9th centuries if we are to consider the analogies with the Lower Danube cemeteries.
The earring found in Alba Iulia may be dated back to the second half of the 9th century, possibly around 900.
and may be included among the 9th-10th century settlement artefacts which the cemetery north-west to the castrum
corresponds to, on Zlatna Street ֊ the Veterinary Hospital.
The analogies of the piece certify once more the presence of a population that had connections with the
Lower Danube, contemporary with the period of extension of the first Bulgarian Tsardom north of the Danube.
IX. THE MEDIEVAL AGE
Most of the remains researched in Alba Iulia belong to the mediaeval period. In principle, we have included
the interventions, deposits, constructions and artefacts that can be dated starting late 11th century/early 12th century
and as late as mid-16th century to the extent that such timeframes can be delineated with arguments typical of such
approach. The most important events are, of course, construction sites, that unfold around religious buildings.
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mainly the two cathedrals that overlapped the current location in the llth-13th centuries. Cathedral lb was not
touched by our research so as we can add only indirect observations from the cemetery research to the few known
details. Otherwise, several excavations were undertaken near cathedral II, which was a chance to add relevant
infonnation to its background. Almost in parallel, constructions were erected that were necessary to the operation
of the bishopric. The bishop’s palace had some tormented history and its current form is the outcome of sites that
have lasted since the 12։h-13lh centuries up to the contemporary age.
The medieval age is extremely resourceful. An impressive amount of pottery, such as ware and stove tiles,
was discovered in layers and the several complexes that we managed to define. A comparatively high number of
special artefacts and coins add to it that provided essential points of reference to the excavation analysis and
drafting of a stratigraphic matrix.
X SAINT MICHAEL’S CATHEDRAL
X. 1. General considerations
As is generally known, the current cathedral was preceded by three other religious constructions, uncovered
by archaeological excavations, and frequently analyzed in the specialized literature, in particular in terms of
chronology.
Among these is the rotunda with apse, the ruins of which are in the southern wing of the transept, uncovered
in an open area excavation by Posta Béla, then partially researched by Radu Heitel. The Roman origin was first
assumed by A. Csemi, then supported by R. Heitel and, otherwise, by most researchers that dealt with the subject.
The date of the moment when an apse was added to a Roman tower, thus being turned into a church, varies, and
most specialists connected these facts to the Hierotheus phase, hence mid-10th century. Equally, earlier variants
were supported as well, such as the end of the 9th century. Entz Géza believes that the rotunda and the Romanic
basilica were the self same construction when built; thus both buildings belong to the 11th century.
The second religious construction is the single-nave church, with semi-circular apse, located in the western
part of the cathedral, discovered by Radu Heitel and identified as cathedral la. Most researchers acknowledge in
this case the dating to the first half of the 11th century.
The ruins of cathedral lb are in the perimeter of the current church; these were identified during the first
modern rehabilitation site, then uncovered in an open area excavation by Radu Heitel, according to the 1968-1977
excavation general plan on which the contour of its walls can be assumed. Researchers almost unanimously agree
that this church was built in the second half or at the end of the 11th century, the site being inaugurated during King
Ladislas 1 (1077-1095). The building could not be archaeologically dated or at least such details were not made
public.
The current cathedral (cathedral II) is a basilica, consisting of three naves, transept and two towers on the
western faţade surrounding an atrium. The naves end in semicircular apses, and a tower used to stand over the choir
frame. The main apse was initially semicircular, the Gothic choir being the result of a secondary construction stage.
The chronology of the monument stirred quite a few debates and is still a subject of controversy. The Hungarian
historiography believes that the site was started at the end of the 12th century and the building was largely completed
in mid-13th century during the Tartar invasion. The second theory belongs to Romanian specialists who place the
opening of the site of cathedral II after the Tartar invasion, in the second half of 13lh century. In both cases, the
building was completed in 1277, when the Saxons of Sebeş and Ocna Sibiului under the rule of Gaan, son of Alard,
attacked the cathedral and caused significant damages; to remedy them, Johannes de Saint-Dié’s team of craftsmen
was brought in. We owe to them most of the western part of the cathedral, including the main Gothic portal, the
rehabilitation of the walls up to their initial height and the repair of the tower on the frame. The building received
some additions in early 16th century, in the spirit of the Renaissance, and its original shapes were not affected. On
the northern side the Holy Spirit chapels were erected (more often called Lázó after its patron) and Saint Anna, a
work under the sponsorship of Bishop Francisc Várday. We owe to the latter the interior staircase as well, located
on the southern side at the main entrance (1514-1524), that still preserves the bishop’s coat of arms, and around
1520 some works in Saint Mary’s chapel, of which we have no details. In 1603 the north-western tower exploded;
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it was later rehabilitated by Gabriel Bethlen in 1614, and in the same period the south-western tower was made
taller (1618-1619). At the beginning of the 18th century the Baroque sacristy was built on the southern side of the
choir.
Archaeological research. Ample excavations were done inside the cathedral, the entire area being uncovered
during the first two restoration sites. The walls were also analyzed from the outside, as resulting from Radu Heitel s
excavation plan. Still, from an archaeological perspective, we know next to nothing about this building. In its
various reports, Radu Heitel never made any explicit comments on the chronology of cathedral II, but we can
explain this by the fact that the excavation had never been fully processed. Indirectly, the author seems to agree
with the fact that the site was opened in the second half of the 13th century though, as concerns the niche tombs, he
makes a clear reference to the first part of this interval. In the archaeological site, the outcome of which we present
here, the cathedral was seldom affected in connection with utilities. Ampler research was conducted in the north-
western tower; outside the south-western tower, the current sacristy and the altar area were both slightly affected.
We recorded a series of technical information on the structure of the masonry and stratigraphy from these excavations:
the amount leads us to several mentions on the chronology and planimetry of the monument.
X.2. The north-western tower
X.2.1. Characteristics of the masonry
The foundation of the tower is a withdrawn wall that varies in height; its base is at - 3.69m on average, sunk
by 0.70m in the Roman layers (fig. 30-31). The section of the masonry is extremely irregular because the foundation
trench was dug in the filling. The construction material is varied: re-used whole or fragmented blocks, river stone
(in particular for levelling) and Roman-type brick and tile shards. Processed stone shards were incorporated in the
southern and northern sides foundations as well. The lime mortar is very robust, but it was used in extremely low
amounts so there are plenty of gaps between the stones. On the whole, the foundation masonry may be characterized
as irregular and has rather the aspect of a filling.
X.2.2. Stratigraphy and evolution of the occupation level
The occupation level from the tower construction time is, on an average, at֊ 1.95m, somewhat more elevated
towards the south; the foundation trench was excavated at this level and its walls deteriorated because of the less
robust filling. During the construction, a variably thick debris layer was spread on the surface (layer 225, similar to
30), and thus which the level increased to - 1.80m, slightly more elevated in the northern half of the tower. Two
coins discovered in this layer were issued between 1235-1270 (m.5/2000), and 1272-1290 (m.22/2000) respectively.
They confirm the erection of this building late in the 13th century.
The first occupation level inside was a wood board flooring covered in clay (layer 227); still, it is difficult to
say whether that was a floor itself or a mere supporting surface. It is certain that this layer was severely burnt at
some particular time, very likely in a fire that substantially affected the interior of the tower (layer 228). When this
floor fragment was delimited and cleaned, a Charles Robert (1307-1342) coin was discovered, which enables us to
date this occupation level to the first half of the 14th century. We have no documentary information on a fire in this
timeframe, but it may be related to the Saxons’ attack in 1308.
On top of this fire, which left very strong traces on the interior face of the wall as well, another levelling was
done with a layer of brown soil with plenty of very compacted coal pigment; its upper limit is at - 1.64m (layer
229). Subsequently, all this stratigraphic sequence seems to have disappeared on most of the surface, and the
occupation level changed substantially by the sedimentation of a soil layer mixed with debris (layer 230), which
represented the supporting surface for a stone slab floor. A coin issued between 1477-1492 (rn.21) dates this new
interior arrangement back to the end of the 15th century.
The stone floor (232) has been preserved only along the eastern and southern sides. On the remaining
surface, it was dislocated, the occupation level was raised again (233) and 9 masonry piles were done, the upper
limit of which is generally at ֊ 1.14m. The filling of this stage contains many processed stone fragments, pottery-
shards, roof tiles, gutter tile, and various fragments of metallic objects. A wooden board floor was set on its upper
part, fixed on north-south oriented boards, which was also destroyed in a fire fig. 29, 32). In 1997 a mid-17'h
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century coin was discovered approximately at the upper level of the piers. In principle, this major reorganization of
the interior can be related to the rehabilitation of the church after the 1658 events, when it is a known fact that it was
seriously affected by the Tartar attack.
Finally, the last arrangement of this interior belongs to the modern age, when the level was again elevated by
unrefined debris filling with a high content of processed stone shards, roof tiles, bricks and stone rocks (235). Sheet
metal fragments from a door’s coverage were also discovered alongside with the pottery dated to the 18lh century,
as well as a 1780 coin. The occupation level thus reached a level of approx. 0.90 m over the threshold of the access
from the church. At the end of our research, the 15th century level was resumed, and the room on the ground floor
of the tower was turned into a museum in memory of Bishop Marton Aron.
X.2.3. Masonry piers (Z.l - 9). Superficial masonry foundations were made in the tower corners and the m idst
of each side, numbered from 1 to 8; the ninth is located in the middle (fig. 29). What were these foundations used for?
We found no clue in the excavation to help us answer these questions. Most likely they supported a light structure
where the bell was fastened so that its vibrations should not be transferred directly to the supporting structure.
X.3. THE SOUTH-WESTERN TOWER
The southern tower was partially investigated in trench S. 16 where in-depth observations could be made on
the north-western corner and its buttress (fig. 33).
X.3.1. Characteristics of the masonry
The tower foundation was made in a unitary manner, alongside with the buttress and the column supporting
base (fig. 34, 36). The materials of the wall are large roughly carved lime rocks, fragmented bricks, processed
stones and even sculptural elements (a lion’s body). The joining was done with high-quality lime and coarse sand.
The mortar was set in thick covering layers, which partially leaked towards the edge of the wall; the levelling was
done with brick pieces incorporated into the mortar of the covering layer.
The hydro-insulation works also helped to partially notice the column base located left of the atrium; a
palmette belonging to the original design, dismantled when the wall was installed on the Baroque fence, becomes
visible in the western part of the pedestal.
X.3.2. Stratigraphy. On the western side of the cathedral, the stratigraphy is extremely simple as compared
to the other investigated sectors. At - 4.54m the excavation in trench 16 stopped at the sterile, a clean yellow-
reddish clay layer (219). It is followed by comparatively clean sediments of which we recovered coarse pottery
shards that seem prehistoric; then the Roman layers and the early medieval black soil layer containing several
tombs. Layer 4 is overlapped by broken lime filling (light in colour) with brick shards (220), a layer that belongs to
the site of the current cathedral and can be assimilated to layer 30. Several tomb pits intersect this filling; they were
undoubtedly excavated after the site was started, and belong to the 13th century (age M-4). The foundation trench
was observed in surveys 2 and 3; however, its occupation level could not be determined. The foundation massive
withdrawn wall shows a construction level at around - 1.18m, and the upper part of the trench filling is approximately
at the same level.
X.4. Other structures in the western part of the cathédral
X.4.1. Ruin Z.18
A north-south oriented ruin was found in trenches S.16 and S.18, along a 0.50-0.60m width. Z.18 was prior
to the southern tower foundation; however, at present, we can only assume its medieval function related to a stage
prior to the current church (fence?) (fig. 33, 39, 57).
X.4.2. Ruin Z.19 was most likely a foundation for an older entrance to the atrium, abutting the two towers.
Only the southern end is still preserved, along a 50cm length from the tower buttress, irregularly demolished at -
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0.16m (fig. 34, 36). The superficial masonry (base at - 0.38m from the current occupation level) was made of raw
stone bound with rather brittle lime mortar and plenty of sand.
X.4.3. The foundation of the staircase for the entrance in the atrium
could be observed in trenches S. 16 and S. 18, having the same technical characteristics. Relatively superficial,
the foundation is set on a row of large rocks (among which there was even a re-used processed stone) (fig. 33). on
which bricks were laid (S.16, trench A-A, F-F9fig. 36, 39).
X.4.4. Modern crypt (Z.20)
Near the tower foundation the crypt of Nicolae Borbereki and Ecaterina Ribiczei’s family was partially
uncovered in the excavation (1727—1737), made of brick and covered with a semi-cylindrical vault (fig. 33, 40).
X.5. The cathedral choir
X.5.1. General considerations
The apse foundation is made of mixed materials (average-sized (5-20 cm.) lime pieces, river stones, roof tile
and brick fragments) bound with high-quality, specially resistant mortar. This masonry work is lm wide on the
northern side, and 1.70m wide in the apse axis. The upper part of the ruin is at-2.12/2.22m (fig. 42-43), right under
the modern interventions, and the foundation base cannot be determined.
X.5.2. Stratigraphic coordinates
In the eastern half of the church, the stratigraphy near the walls was destroyed along a 1-1.10m distance on
the northern side and almost 3m on the eastern side by the construction of the foundation ventilation canal (layers
181A-C). Still, outside this area, an in situ stratigraphic sequence was found that matches perfectly the general
characteristics of the site.
X 6. Sacristy
X.6.1. General considerations
The Baroque sacristy has been recently rehabilitated and made functional again, as the issues of water
supply, gas and electrical power supply were settled. The bad state of the building required ample consolidation,
with exterior surrounding understructure, which created the conditions for conducting several archaeological surveys:
S.5/2001 on the eastern side, S.4/2000, S.6/2001 and S.7/2001 on the southern side. Except for S.4, which was
intended for the general investigation of the foundation state and structure, all the other excavations preceded the
under-structure works. A Gothic sacristy and the ruins of other constructions were discovered, and details were
determined in connection with the construction of the current sacristy. It mostly leaned on the ruins rather than its
own foundations, which situation partially explains the stability issues it has raised in the last several decades. Its
southern wall is hidden behind a concrete ventilation manhole. The stratigraphic matrix determined for this micro-
area corresponds to the general stratigraphy of the complex, to which is added the local sediments related to the
evolution of the buildings nearby.
X.6.2. The Gothic sacristy (Z.14)
As far as we could assume, the Gothic sacristy was a square-shaped building, with 7- 7.15m sides; the outer
comers were provided with small-sized, obliquely arranged buttresses, whereas the standing structure sides ranged
between 0.80m and 0.90m. The building foundations were made of mixed, generally re-used, materials and the
standing structure was made of processed stone blocks, as suggested by the fragment of the south-west buttress
visible at the surface.
The level where the sacristy construction was started is very close to the construction level typical of the
choir; the difference is a thin deposit of brown-reddish shingle, possibly mixed with soil (176). The construction of
the Gothic choir and the sacristy on the southern side, at different stages, is thus included in a comparatively
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reduced time interval, in late I3)h century or in early 14th century. The question we should ask is related, of course,
to year 1277: is this the sacristy where the Saxons stopped while conducting a furious attack against the Bishop?
The logical answer would be affirmative, but this would make us accept that the construction of both the choir and
the sacristy was done before this date. Most likely that future excavation will also provide more concrete arguments
in this respect.
X.6.3. Entrance in the sacristy (Z.12)
The Gothic sacristy was added a room most likely sized 4.5x2/2.5m on the southern side which, we assume,
was someway of access from the outside. In S.5 its south-eastern corner was found (fig. 50-51), with superficial
walls (0.70-0.90m.).
X.6.4. Wall 13
Older masonry work was found (Z.13) at the northern limit of S.5, 3.70m from the south-eastern corner of
the current sacristy, otherwise visible on top of the occupation level up to the intersection with the choir wall (fig.
52).
X.6.5. Baroque sacristy
The sacristy built in early 18lh century overlaps fragments of three previous structures on the same location:
- the southern wall overlaps almost precisely the side of the Gothic sacristy (Z.14); the new building is an
extension of the old one along the east-west axis, by 2.60m, of which 1m to the east (actually, only the wall
thickness), and 1,60m to the west (in the present form).
- the eastern wall overlaps Z.12 in its central area, and, towards the north, near the church, a north-south
oriented superficial wall (Z.13).
This topography results in the conclusion that the current sacristy’s own foundations are limited; the location
of the trenches did not allow observing them except for the eastern side where they were identified by two different
segments, built between the above-mentioned demolished walls. The foundation trenches excavated to this end are
irregular trenches.
X.6.6. Stratigraphic coordinates
The foundations of successive sacristies sink in a black soil layer with brick shards and lime stone, possibly
mortar granules, highly pigmented, with materials that make us consider it early medieval (4, 4F, M-2). On top
there is some levelling made with black soil mixed with brown clay, frequent pigment and stone and brick shards
(layer 174) under layer 30 that is considered to be the construction level of the current church. A white mortar
pellicle (layer 175) may be hypothetically related to the construction of the Gothic sacristy, with its upper part at -
1.57m. Up to the supposed occupation level that corresponds to the current sacristy construction, around level -
0.61m, the land was raised by the artificial sedimentation of a layer consisting of black soil mixed with gravel and
quite a lot of coal pigment (layer 195).
Istvan Möller’s interventions supposedly shaved off a series of layers, in particular near the church, however
they could only belong to the modern age. The slope created by the excavation of the soil near the church descended
from - 0.10m southward to - 1.22m to the north, thus linking the church occupation and the Baroque sacristy
levels. During this century, several layers were naturally or artificially set on this area, caused by various interventions,
of a total thickness of 0.30m.
X. 7. Trenches 8-9
X.7.1. Wall 15
In S.9 an east-west oriented wall appeared, located approximately opposite the southern wall of the transept.
Though it was initially believed that this structure belonged to the Roman era, the comparative analysis of the
excavations done around the cathedral finally proved that Z. 15 was a medieval construction subsequent to cathedral
II. What did this ruin belong to? Its relation to the southern wall of the transept was destroyed by the construction
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of the ventilation canal; anyway, it seems illogical given the planimetry of the cathedral, at least based on what we
know so far. This is the reason why we assume that we should have integrated it rather in the evolution of the
bishop’s/prince’s palace; however, we do not have enough links for this either. By its construction-related
characteristics, Z.15 is rather similar to Z.10, but to what extent they belonged to the same structure is a question
that stayed unanswered for the time being.
X.8. The Möller stage
Next to the church the foundation ventilation and checking canal completed in the Möller stage, of a total
width of 1.40m, was identified; its lower part is at -1.48m, and anyway it goes as deep as under - 3.26 m (1.80m
under the current occupation level) (north section). The canal was made of concrete and is shaped as half a vault
that leaned with the upper end on the foundation and the side wall is fixed by stone spacers at places. For the
execution of the canal a trench was excavated approx, lm wider, which space should enable the installation ol
casings; this activity destroyed the deposit layers in this area (fig. 54).
X.9. Final considerations
The 2000-2002 archaeological research was rather limited to the vicinity of the cathedral. However, given all
recorded data, we can draw several conclusions on the evolution of this religious institution.
All over the surface, a compact layer of lime splinters mixed with mortar, and, in several sectors, mixed with
soil (layer 30 with its variants) was identified. We related these deposits to the site of cathedral 11, generally dating
them around year 1200. The start of the great constructions site may be placed, however, in the late 12th century, as
suggested by the stratigraphic sequences analyzed in these pages, and in the in-depth analysis of the cemetery.
Before the Tartar invasion burials were still performed in the western part of cathedral lb, which is a clear sign that
the north-western tower was built after this event and completed around 1270, according to the coins in its construction
level.
The Gothic choir is set on an unusually wide foundation, in a style that is not typical of the rest of the church.
However, this foundation seems medieval, and its sizes and planimetry raise, as they are unusual, many questions.
Was this foundation built for another choir, which in time changed the site plans? Was it conceived as wide as that
only for this standing structure, as an additional consolidation measure? Did builders think of a sufficiently wide
foundation so as to support the buttresses as well? One can easily see from all these questions how little we know
of this cathedral.
Shortly after the construction of the choir, a sacristy was added on the southern side, and its side walls
became extensions of two buttresses. It is natural to admit that all these constructions were completed when the
1277 attack took place. The sacristy where the Saxons stopped was not, therefore, the chapel on the southern side
of the church but this building on the southern side of the choir, discovered by our research. Another clarification is
connected to the evolution of the cemetery. It is a fact that outside cathedra] II burials were made after it had been
built, after the construction of the Gothic choir and the sacristy, and even later in the modern age.
XL THE CEMETERY
XI. 1. Stage of the research
Among the excavations conducted by Dumitru Protase 24 tombs are known, dated by 12th century coins and
rich series of artefacts; the latest coin was an issue under Emeric (1196-1204). At the Radu Heitel stage we do not
know, actually, how many tombs were discovered. The author indicates only the 291 tombs in the 12th-century
cemetery, to which are added 11 tombs dated back to early 13th century. An early 10th-century tomb seems not to
have been numbered. Around the single-nave church (la) it appears that no burials were carried out; contrarily, the
number of buried people outside cathedral lb is estimated at 1200. At the end of one of his articles he mentions an
18th-century tomb, and at another place he refers to the many burials made in cathedral II, starting with the 14th
century. In a brief summary in 1977 seventeen 18th century tombs are mentioned, the pits of which intersect the
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construction level of the Vauban fortification. Given all this, we can assume that from the 10th to the 18th century
burials were done near the cathedral, with interruptions in the second half of the 10th century and the first half of the
11th century.
We are familiar with most details on the 12th-century cemetery, among which 315 (291+24) tombs were
published; they are considered to have belonged to the unitary cemetery developed around cathedral lb, starting in
the late 11th century until around the year 1200.
XI.2. The 2000-2002 research
The excavations conducted after the year 2000 focused on the southern part of the cathedral and inside the
north-western tower. As they were some locations other than the ones investigated by our predecessors, the outcome
too appears at times different. Thus, the 82 tombs discovered by us most certainly belong to several ages, which has
been proved by the frequent interweaving and overlapping noticed around the cathedral, in particular in the western
part and near the Baroque sacristy (plate 5; fig. 56-59). Their differentiation is, however, extremely difficult because
of the almost complete absence of artefacts; thus the stratigraphic relations appear the only points of reference.
Analyzing the vertical sequence of burials and their relations to the layers and masonry structures, we managed to
delimit 5 ages appropriate to an interval between the second half of the 9th century and the modern age (Catalogue
of tombs with illustrations).
Age M-l. We include here the tombs where animal offerings, namely horse parts, were made. Two tombs
were identified inside the north-western tower (M.14A), and in front of the bishop’s palace respectively (M.80),
both disturbed. M.14A was destroyed by the oldest tombs in the cemetery of cathedral lb, datable back to the 12th
century as, on the plan, only fragments of a horse’s skull were recovered, mixed with several stones.
M.80 is located at the western extremity of the cemetery, next to the Roman tower, which also explains the
comparatively small depth where it was identified. The bones were in the early medieval black layer (4), that cover
the interval of the 9th-12th centuries; the pit contour is not visible. Nothing has been preserved from the human
skeleton and we could not precisely determine the place where it was located. However, it was most likely destroyed
when pit 33 was dug. On the plan several animal bones were recorded, as well as very poorly preserved iron
fragments, so we can only assume they came from harness piece or maybe even a quiver. The archaeo-zoological
analysis showed the fact that the bone fragments come from several individuals, among which we could recognize:
a comparatively young horse, an old horse and bovine bones. A larger anatomic part was offered from the first horse
the bones of which were, at the time of the discovery, in anatomic connection. From the second horse, it is only the
skull that seems to have been offered of which we recovered merely bone fragments. Also, from the Bos Taurus
individual only several bones were set in the pit. In any case, the association of these bones is undoubtedly related
to a certain burial ritual. At a small distance from these bones, in the same layer, a lunula-shaped earring was
discovered, dated to the second half of the 9th century and early 10th century.
The best analogy that we identified for this ritual is provided to us by tomb 2 from the Blandiana A cemetery
where a whole horse, the skull of a second horse and remains of cattle, sheep, and goats were offered. The group of
tombs was dated back to the 9th century - early 10th century, and integrated in the sphere of influence of the civil ization
south of the Danube. E. Gall had another opinion, limiting the chronological interval to the 10* century and relating
the tomb to another person of “a different origin”, resulting from the (Hungarian, our note) state founders’ movement
in the Transylvanian Basin”. Later, the same author provided a more accurate date, back to the first quarter of the
10th century, associating the tomb to the first generation of state founders.
From Radu Heitel’s older excavations we are familiar with another tomb associated with a horse skull; only
few bones were discovered from both skeletons. The tomb was dug in the filling of a Dridu dwelling, and later
destroyed when cathedral la was built in the first half of the 11th century. Besides this fortunate stratigraphic
situation, a metal piece found nearby was invoked in order to date the tomb, with good analogies in the first half of
the 10th century.
The partial nature of the finds prevents us from a more in-depth analysis of these tombs. Although the
existence of a small cemetery is outlined, this can be situated on the same chronological level as Blandiana A, the
Ambulance Station I and other such finds in Transylvania between the Carpathians. Hoping for new finds, it will be
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interesting to follow the relation of this cemetery with the 9Л-10th century settlement, which is rather well documented
for this area of the fortress; however, it is unlikely that the two could be contemporary.
Age M-2a. A child’s tomb set in a box made of Roman bricks laid on their narrow sides, also covered in
bricks (M.70) was discovered in the western side of the cathedral, in S. 18; the artefacts in it consisted of a hair ring
with an 5-shaped end. In a high density area of the cemetery, M.70 is the oldest; still, a more accurate chronological
classification still remains questionable, being obvious that we can think back at the earliest in the second half of
the 10th century.
Age M-2. This age corresponds to the cemetery of cathedral lb and is chronologically delimited between the
end of the 11th century and early 13th. It contains 50 tombs spread all over the surface, and is stratigraphicalh
located under layer 30 (with its variants) that defines the site of the current cathedral. It is obvious that these tombs
are concentrated in the near vicinity of cathedral lb, where overlapping happens quite often (maximum 4 intersected
skeletons). In the western part, burials spread indeed to the limit of the fortification wall, and its density is much
reduced.
The bodies were laid down on their backs. In 22 cases, their arms were stretched along the bodies, palms on
the femur ends, under the pelvis or next to the body. In two other situations the same position is most probable. In
6 cases (plus 1 uncertain case) the right arm is stretched along the body, the left arm bent, in 3 cases the left arm is
stretched and the right one bent. In 5 cases a forearm is on the pelvis and the other on the abdomen. One single
skeleton has obliquely set forearms, with palms together on the pelvis. For other 10 skeletons we could not determine
the position of the arms.
The tombs of this age have an excellent range of artefacts. In 7 cases hair rings with 5-shaped ends were
discovered, 1, 2 or even 3 atone place. M.50 has 2 simple earrings, and in two tombs finger rings were found. M.78
had a rhomboid cross-section bracelet fragment, a wire fragment comes from M. 9, an iron tip from M.15, and
several silver applied ornaments from M.13. In one single case a coin set was found in the dead man’s mouth (M.3).
Near M. 1 another coin was found, but we cannot precisely relate it to this skeleton. A green stain on the arm of
M.14 could also be interpreted as the trace of a coin.
Age M-3. We include here tombs with head rest, made of stone or brick, dated back to the end of the 12::i
century and the first half of the 13th. The two tombs are part of this age (M.55A and M.8), both partially found.
It is only that the niche formed of 2 stones set on the narrower side on either side of the skull that has been
preserved from M.8. M.55A has a cist made of brick, covered in a massive stone slab that was affected by a
series of modern works. In the current status of the research, we believe that the tombs of this age belong to
colonists, their existence in Alba Iulia being an argument for starting the site of cathedral II at the end of the 1 2"
century and the early 13th.
Age M-4. We included in this group a series of 20 tombs that intersect the deposits related to the site of the
current cathedral. Based on this fact we can date them after mid-13th century. The upper chorological limit was set
as a matter of reference in the 15th century. Most burials were done around the sacristy (M.34-46, 48) and some
other in the western side of the cathedral (M.64, 66, 68), in front of palace I respectively (M.2, 4, 6, in S. 1).
The bodies were placed on their backs, with their arms stretched along the body (5), obliquely set on the
pelvis, palms together (1) or a forearm set on the pelvis and the other on the abdomen (4). In other ten cases the
positions of the anns could not be detennined. Four of them were intersected by various mediaeval ruins (such as
Z.15 or Z.12), and other four by the foundations of the Baroque sacristy. The tombs are rather poor in artefacts.
Only M.64 has an iron tip, and M.66 a horseshoe fragment and a bent nail.
Age M-5. We include here four tombs in S. 16 that most likely belong to the 16th-17th century. The bodies are
set on their backs, the arms’ position has been determined in 2 cases (M.59 and M.60) and they have no artefacts.
XII. THE BISHOP’S PALACE
XII.l. Background in brief
The Roman Catholic Archiepiscopate Palace, in the south-western corner of the fortress, south of the cathedral,
is formed of four buildings, arranged around an approximately square inner yard. The western and southern buildings
are erected on the Roman castrum, which can be seen inside the cellars. The main entrance comes from the north
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through a monumental Baroque-style gate. A secondary way of access leads to the gardens, in the Bethlen bastion,
and the traces of a walled portal are located on the southern side (plate 1; fig. 60).
The buildings located in the western half of the yard have a ground floor and a storey, and the ones to the east
have one storey. The eastern part of the northern building is part of the old medieval constructions of this complex;
however, the buildings that close the yard to the east are subsequent arrangements, post-1736, most likely overlapping
older foundations in a manner that cannot be precisely indicated. The current form is largely the result of the early
17th-century transformations, supported by Gabriel Bethlen and his successor, when the palace represented the
western yard, the kitchens’ court respectively, in the prince’s palace complex. The beginnings of this building are,
still, completely unknown. Though it is one of the most important civil monuments in Transylvania, so far the
subjective and objective conditions for its ample research have not been fulfilled. The most important author is
Kovács András, who studied the complex of the prince’s palace in his Ph.D. thesis (1984) and other subsequent
works, including a synthesis of the reduced amount of accurate information in his 2003 book.
The first mention of a bishop’s palace comes from 1287; however, even before this date there must have been
constructions that made the bishop’s office activity possible, providing dwelling and administrative facilities for
the bishop and his council. Generally, it is believed that this first building was on the location of the western wing
of the barracks, related to the current cathedral through a passage that led to the chapel portal located west of the
southern wing of the transept (wrongly called so far “the old sacristy”). The bishop’s palace later extended westward,
first by the construction of the northern building, most certainly in several stages; no planimetric details are known.
Actually, nothing is known on Romanesque and Gothic constructions.
An important construction site related to the palace should be placed around year 1500. In this period, a
Humanistic circle had already been active at the bishop’s court, around Bishop Ladislas Geréb, that would particularly
develop in early 16th century, standing out by its increasing number of members, their activity clearly influencing
the monumental constructions that were erected at the time. The transformation of the palace in the Renaissance
spirit is considered to be the great work of Bishop Francisc Várday, but this stage disappeared and cannot be
reconstructed, at least in light of our current knowledge. A memorial plate, lost as well, said that the works had been
fully done during his lifetime, between 1514 and 1524.
From 1542 the palace became the political centre of the newly-created Principality of Transylvania, being
taken over, after the secularization, by Princess Isabella and her underage son, John Sigismund. The evolution of
the buildings after this date is better known due to Kovács András’ constant preoccupations to this end, based
however, more on documentary sources than on the direct research of the preserved buildings that remained less
accessible (fig. 61).
Thus, the localization of some rooms was possible, hence the assumption that, at the time, the bishop’s
palace largely occupied the current surface. East of the gate, upstairs, was Queen Isabella’s palace. We assume that,
in the second half of the 16th centuiy, the northern building was extended to the west to the curtain wall or even
beyond it, thus creating some sort of a corner bastion, protruding as ajutty, that can be seen on the 1711 plan and
must have existed in 1687.
The extension of this complex to the east started at the end of the 16th centuiy and lasted for approximately
a century, during which time the complex consisting of three yards, serving the princes’ necessities, was completed.
As for the western yard we are, however, unaware of any details about this stage. It must have been affected by the
1601 and 1603 fires, following which it remained in ruins, whereas in 1614 it was but partially fit for habitation.
The rehabilitation of the buildings probably started immediately after the fires as it is known that, in 1615, square
box shaped ceiling works were being done, whereas the rehabilitation itself was assumingly owed to Gabriel
Bethlen. He first rehabilitated the existing buildings, then, in 1618-1619, started the extensions, continued by
Gheorghe Rákóczi I in an effort to create a representative dwelling “that should fulfil the functions of a political,
military and administrative centre of the entire principality”. An important part was played by architect Giacomo
Resti who ran the prince’s sites and continued to work in Alba Iulia even after Gabriel Bethlen’s death. It is a fact
that in the northern building they continued the works (most likely storey arrangements) during the rule of Gheorghe
Rákóczi I, and later arranged (built?) the storey of the south-western corner.
Early during Bethlen’s rule the representative rooms of the prince’s palace were located in the northern wing
of the current palace, two “palaces” respectively, an antechamber, audience chamber and the prince’s bedroom. In
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1624 the audience chamber was located in the area of the present gate and was plated with pottery slabs. Until 1629
some changes took place as the audience chamber was located in the north-eastern corner of the yard, and the
princess’ chambers west of the gate. Utility spaces were located on the ground floor.
In 165 8 and again in 1662 the palace was set on fire by the Tartars, and later rehabi 1 itation works are mentioned
to have been carried out under Mihai Apafi. Once the Habsburgs took the crown, the former bishop’s palace was
taken over by the Roman Catholic Bishopric, re-constructed, and the two other yards given the military functions
that they have had to date.
Between 1711 and 1736, as a result of the analysis of Visconti and Weiss’ plans, the eastern ends of the
northern and southern buildings were demolished, and today’s Archiepiscopate palace was separated from the rest
of the complex. Even later the bastion on the northern building corner was demolished and its current form was
created in 1968 by the extension of this building to the west.
Archaeological research
The 2000-2002 research mainly focused on the exterior fapades of the northern building, advancing eastward
(S.10) and northward (S.l, 11, 22-30). In its structure four segments are visible that were independently built at
different times in history. The oldest component (Palace I) is located at the eastern end, built shortly after cathedral
lb. The segment west of the current gate was built, as many coins recovered found from its foundation trench filling
prove, in the second half of the 14th century. We called them the Gothic palace or Palace II. Palace I and Palace II
were united at a certain time through the connection building left of the gate of access to the inner yard that we
believed to be Palace III. Finally, Palace IV, dating from mid-20th centuiy, stands for the western end of this building
(fig. 62).
XII. 2. Palace I
XII.2.1. Characteristics of the masonry
The building at the north-eastern extremity of the bishop’s palace was researched by two trenches, S. 1 /2000
placed on the northern fapade, and S.l0/2001 on the eastern facade. We reached the conclusions that the northern
and eastern facades of the eastern building are technically identical, undoubtedly belonging to a unitary building.
Several segments can be distinguished in the structure of the masonry: a more or less regular foundation (A), a
pedestal partially visible on top of the occupation level in the construction period (B) and a standing structure (C)
(fig. 63-66).
The foundation was made of quarry stone fragments (sandstone and lime) and rare brick fragments were
thrown into the trench. The binding agent was extremely little unrefined yellowish mortar so that significant gaps
remained in between stones. On the eastern side, no mortar was set on top of the first layer of the foundation base.
Lime blocks were set on such irregular masonry work, creating a console, forming some sort of a pedestal visible
on top of the occupation level (segment B). The standing structure itself, more or less withdrawn from the foundation
pedestal, was made of processed stone blocks, of various sizes, irregularly alternating with brick layers (segment
C). Brick fragments were also used between the large-sized stone blocks to facilitate the connections. The current
aspect of the standing structure is greatly indebted to local repair work were done at different periods.
A window was identified on the eastern fapade, on top of the first large-sized stone block layers, having the
features of a small shooting window1, indicative of the existence, at the stage of the palace construction, of either a
cellar, or rather a sunken ground floor. The lower limit of the window is at-0.71m (1,03 m higher than the exterior
occupation level at the time of the construction), and the upper limit at - 0.03m (fig. 64). The sides are made of
obliquely cut processed stone blocks (fig. 68), and the lintel also consists of one single stone. In the current form,
the window' gap is filled with mixed masonry, stone rocks and brick.
XII.2.2. Stratigraphic coordinates and evolution of the occupation level
It is interesting that, though the trenches are at small distances from one another, the stratigraphy differs on
the two fapades of Palace I. Firstly, it is worth noticing that the frequency of burials is much higher on the northern
side, towards the church, so that only two layers are recorded up to the upper limit of the pedestal: the Roman age
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ones (R17), tomb filling, a black soil uniform deposit with plenty of materials, respectively, which forms the
transition to the late Middle Ages. Contrarily, on the eastern side, the medieval stratigraphy seems undisturbed and
so we can identify both the construction level and the trench of the palace foundation.
The most used level seems to be the limit between segments C and B, at- 1,30m, obtained by the sedimentation
of a black heavy soil layer with various materials in it, among which stone and brick fragments and mortar pigment
are quite frequent; layer 163, that we consider must have laid down in several stages, having today’s uniform aspect
by the excavation of the tomb pits in age M-4 (fig. 66). Three meters from the palace’s building, layer 163/M-4 also
covers M.55A, located in a brick cist covered with a massive stone slab that can be dated back to late 12th century
and early 13th century, marking the start of the current cathedral site. The stratigraphic situation recorded in S.10
clearly shows that Palace I is prior to this monument, at least in terms of infrastructure, so we must admit that this
building comes partially from the 12th century. The analysis of the sections of the two trenches also enabled the
reconstruction of the evolution of the occupation levels up to the current level (֊ 0.10- 0.13 m).
XII.2.3. Final considerations
The stratigraphic context, materials, and complexes that can be related to this building undoubtedly show
that we are dealing with the oldest building that is part of the bishop’s palace. Dating this building to the 12th
century, when the medieval cemetery was active, preceding one of the head rest tombs, is thus unquestionable. The
stratigraphic situation in S.l 1 can also be invoked as one of the arguments that are supportive of the early start of
the site of cathedral II.
XII.2.4. Annexes
West-east oriented wall (Z.10). The northern side of Palace I was extended to the east with a stone wall of
an average width of 1.45m, abutting the north-eastern corner; its southern side is at the limit of the cellar window
(suggestive of the fact that it could be active) and extends to the east, slightly obliquely from the eastern wall of the
palace (fig. 67, 68). Z.10 was made of (mostly) large- and average-sized stone rocks, and rare brick fragments for
levelling, bound with plenty of brittle lime mortar. The irregular aspect of the masonry suggests that it is sunken;
next to the palace wall 2 or even 3 layers of the standing structure of this wall are visible, which indicates an
occupation level at - 0.73m /0.93m. The ruin was preserved at a two meter distance from the palace, demolished so
as to form a slope accentuated to the east, so that only the foundation base is left at the limit of this segment. On the
remaining investigated surface (boxes 3-4-5) only the trace of the demolition is visible, consisting of a relatively
compact debris layer; we assume that in this area the demolition ditch slightly descended under the foundation
base, completely disturbing the stratigraphy.
At first sight, it may seem that this extension is related to the palace extension to the east and its transformation
into a prince’s residence, in the first part of the 17th centuiy. However, the stratigraphic context resulting from the
comparative analysis of the sections S.10 is suggestive of an earlier period, namely the 15th and 16th century. The
unusual width of this wall could also be invoked as an argument that it was even older than that; the reality is,
though, that the information we have is not enough for reaching a firm chronological conclusion. When Palace 1
was extended eastward, and how this area looked like in the early 17th century are questions that remain to be
answered.
The end of this construction is clearer, as a comparatively large amount of pottery shards was extracted from
the debris that covers it, belonging to common pots, stove tiles and decoration plates that inclusively belong to the
17th centuiy. The demolition of Z. 10 in early 18th centuiy, when the bishop’s palace got its current form, torn apart
from the prince’s complex, may be certainly accepted. It also should be that the demolition trench obviously aimed
at recovering the construction material.
Superficial construction (Z.ll). From the upper limit of layer 168 a superficial construction was erected,
very likely a small-height annex that was active for a short period of time, in an era that is chronologically close
enough to the present day.
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XI 1.3. Palace II
XII.3.1. Characteristics of the masonry
In the trenches completed in year 2002, in front the northern building of the palace, between meters 10.50
and 39, the masonry work of the Gothic palace was investigated to various extents, along with the foundation and
a fragment of the standing structure that in time receded under the level of the land (platel). The studied masonry
is unitary and unequivocally indicative of a single stage of construction. Its general characteristics include a
comparatively neat stone and brick foundation, and a slightly withdrawn standing structure, built on regular layers
of stone and brick block fragments for levelling, whereas the face of the wall was covered with lost mortar.
The western limit of Palace II could not be identified because of a large agglomeration of late constructions
in the perimeter where it could be assumed, between 10.50m and 14m respectively. The typical masonry was
noticed up to meter 13.50 from where it is covered by an intervention that we related to the 16lh century annex (fig.
70), and the cement palace foundation newly cast inside latrine 2. It is hard to state how this area may have looked
like before it was seriously affected by the 17th-18th century interventions, as well as the 20th century ones related to
the construction of Palace IV. If we are to compare the structure of the walls and the stratigraphic relations, we
believe that the Gothic palace lies up to meters 8 or 9; thus the foundation we relate to a tower could be located on
a corner or as an extension of the western wall. The eastern limit was located along the line of the gate, though we
cannot localize it exactly - hence a resulting length of 30/3 lm west of the current gate. It is very likely that this
building had one single storey, a high ground floor, as suggested by the stone frame window revealed by the
research conducted by architect Sarkadi Marton on the face of the wall.
On the researched surface, the foundation of the palace overlaps the ruin of the northern wall of a Roman
building (Z.24) (plate 14/2; fig. 6, 57, 69, 82). The withdrawn foundation descends along a slope from west to east
(from ֊ 0.68m to ֊ 1.15/1.20m) just as the foundation base (from - 1.36/1.30m to - 2.16m (plate 13/1; fig. 78).
As a result of other trenches of the excavation as well, the Gothic masonry work was not immediately visible
on top of the withdrawn foundation, but 0.20-0.30m on top of it. However, the face of the wall is covered by lost
mortar right above the withdrawn foundation (jig. 69, 79). The Gothic standing structure has been preserved
underground at a maximum 1 meter height; over this level, it is clad in a coverage that remodelled the entire faqade
of the palace, completed at various stages (fig. 70-71, 79, 82-83). On the whole, the lower limit of this coverage is
around level - 0.10m; however, it varies down to - 0.80m depending on the obstacles it had to avoid, protect or
hide. The period when this intervention was done is for the time being harder to indicate. So the lower part coverage
should be related to the construction of the cellar, when the windows were made (refurbished?), an intervention
following which the wall had to be subject to a cosmetic intervention. Without having access to the wall face
research in that area, the outcome of the discovered complex study is that this coverage was done at several stages,
on segments, depending on the way the faqade evolved. The change of the Gothic face of the wall was done with a
mixed masonry work of stone rocks and whole or fragmented bricks; on certain parts, a small pedestal was made.
0.06-0.10m withdrawn from the new standing structure (fig. 78-79, 83; plate 13/1).
XII.3.2. Stratigraphic coordinates
A variable-width trench was dug in order to build the palace, the traces of which were found in various points
of the excavation (layers 43, 84, probably 95), and the filling of which, loose soil with various construction materials,
mainly contained coins issued in the 1281- 1382 interval; one may notice that they are concentrated around year 1330.
At the upper part of the filling in S.25 (fig. 23, 73) a circular, 0.50 m in diameter hearth was made, delimited
by stones (hearth 1). It is very likely that we may be dealing with a temporary installation used by the palace
builders, maybe related to the building of the roof. On the same level as this fireplace, we find a displaced burnt
material lens in S.26. Near the palace, the land was made uniform by the sedimentation of layers that contain traces
of burnt material in some form (44,20), so we can think of a fire that seem to have occurred in the early 15th century,
possibly in connection with the 1438 Turkish invasion. Though older coins (m. 6/2002, 1377) (fig. 6) appear in such
filling as well, 15th century materials (in.68 in S.26) prevail, including a series of pottery shards.
At the upper part of these layers another construction stage took place and most likely some scaffolding was
mounted. A clean mortar lens (21, 40A), a pit that seems to be a scaffolding pit (46A) and several bricks that are set
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directly on the occupation level near the building (40) support this theory. Layers 40 and 40A also contain 14th-15th
century materials. At least in S.25 we can notice the fact that these layers preserve a slight tilt to the palace caused
by insufficient compaction of the soil in the foundation trench. Following such interventions, the level increased
quite a lot (approximately 0.40m) by means of some brownish filling. Layer 46 is abundant in materials, among
which three coins from 1333 (m.8), 1390-1427 (m.15) and the 15th century respectively (m.2); a 1465 coin comes
from the upper part of layer 22. Quite a few pottery shards were recovered from this filling, generally dated back to
the MMS'11 centuries. So for the 15th century we can consider an occupation level at an average - 0.20m in S.25,
and lower to the west, following the slope line. The ensuing deposits reveal another construction site from where
mortar lens (23) laid down on the surface as well, later a coal pigment filling (24) where we can most likely see the
remains of the early 16th-century Renaissance transformations. A pit (39) was made in layer 46, in the filling of
which we can find mid-16։h century coins: m.7/2002 and m. 16/2002. On the whole, the level of this era seems to
have increased by at most 0.20 m. (S.26). Another pit in this perimeter is related to the early 17th century (1613-
1629, m.69).
In the vicinity of the palace the last stratigraphic deposit is layer 26/47, probably at the boundary between the
16th-17th centuries or even early 17th century. This is the layer where the brick coverage in S.25 and S.26 is at
present, alongside with a mortar-bound brick sidewalk, set on a wooden beam. It is up to us to draw the conclusion
that the subsequent deposits were in the 0.30m uncovered area in front of the palace in year 2000, as a preliminary
operation before the drainage works.
XII.3,3. The Gothic tower (Z. 29)
In S.23, immediately after the removal of the occupation level, a somewhat trapeze-shaped ruin was uncovered
(2,85/3,1 Ox 2,80m), with its smaller base facing the palace (plates I, 7). The upper part was irregularly demolished
at levels between + 0.06m and - 0.34m. The foundation base in the east overlaps the ruin of the Roman wall Z.23
at levels between ֊ 1.90 and - 1.25 m, and the north-western corner has its foundation base at ֊1.51 m, in early
mediaeval layers.
The ruin has the aspect of a filled foundation, made of masonry work consisting of regular layers that
alternate large semi-processed stone blocks with bricks and various-size stones for levelling gaps (fig. 76). The
relation with the palace could not be looked into as both intersection points were obturated (plate 1; fig. 100).
Unfortunately the construction level is not clear either, as the only area where it could be seen, namely along the
northern side, was completely disturbed by the insertion of the gas pipeline. The structure of the masonry, identical
to that of the palace, as well as the foundation depth, makes us relate this construction to the Gothic stage, as it most
likely was a comer tower.
XII.3.4. The cellar
The research done in the 2002 campaign lead, as far as the palace cellar is concerned, to a conclusion that
may seem strange: the northern wall of the current cellar was built after the Gothic palace and the foundation trench
was dug mainly from the inside out where, under the Gothic foundation older structures were identified, and from
outside in where the Gothic foundation was set on the ground. The trench for making the foundations was dug by
segments, as is done at present in under-structures: a segment with a variable length of 2-3m, under the existing
foundation wooden logs, was set, around which the cellar wall was built. Such segments were clearly unexpected
in S.28 (plate 16), S.24 and the balk between these two trenches; opposite meter 20 the print of a 0.23m diameter
log was also noticed. Equally, in S.28 the limit between two such segments was noticed on the face of the wall
(plate 16). Vertically, the cellar masonry crosses only accidentally that of the Gothic foundation; in general, between
the two there are fragments of the early medieval layer untouched by these interventions (S.28,y?g. 82) or at places
mixed with mortar and stone (S.26, fig. 79, 83).
A 1547 coin (S.24, m.22,plate 13/1) and several artefacts that can also be dated back to the 16th century were
recovered from the filling of the trench (78 A and B). The first layer in S.24 (layer 82) contains 16։h-century coins.
An important argument for the chronological identification of this intervention is provided to us by the round tower
whose foundation was set in the filling of trench meant for the construction of the cellar: year 1586 is thus a
terminus ante quern for the cellar. Summing up all this information, we can determine the construction of the cellar
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or at least its current northern wall, between 1547 and 1586, hence, largely after mid- 16th century.
Concurrently, we must admit that the Gothic face of the wall, right above the occupation level, was changed
in order to make the gaps for the current windows with simple smooth stone frames (fig. 57). In order to hide these
interventions, the Gothic masonry was covered at this stage, probably along the entire length of the building, with
mixed stone and brick masonry. This intervention was, however, hard to uncover in the current state of the face of
the wall as subsequent local repairs were added that endeavoured not to change the faqade too much. The fact that
this masonry uses much brick makes interventions even harder to separate. The study of the face of the wall will
have the last word on the vertical compartments of Palace II: the ground floor became lower and a storey was
added, which interventions we believe to be in direct connection with the general remodelling of the faqade.
XI. 3.5. Superficial foundation adjacent to the Gothic tower (Z.30)
Some superficial masonry work was discovered in the angle formed by the western side of the Gothic tower
ruin and the current palace; it was made of stone rocks and brick shards, adjacent to the tower and overlapping a
Roman ruin (Z.22A). It most likely served as basis for a staircase and a buttress (plate 7; Jig. 80).
XII. 3.6. The round tower (Z.35)
A circular construction was discovered between 21 and 25m, thick walls of an interior diameter of 2.60m and
0.70m (on an average), adjacent to the Gothic tower (S.28 and S.24/28) (plate 16; fig. 81). The masonry is made up
of whole and fragmented bricks, stone rocks, plenty of processed stones and stone fragments, sunk in white-yellowish
mortar with a lot of gravel. As to the inside occupation level, the construction foundations are 0.70 m. deep. The
first occupation level was some brick flooring, at — 0.20m. Two 16th century coins (one in 1586 and the other from
an unidentified year) were recovered from the filling under it as well as quite a few pottery shards belonging
particularly to stove tiles of various types (by fonn and decoration), datable to the second half of the 15th and 16th
century. Based on these materials, the construction of the building may be rather precisely dated to the last decades
of the 16th or early the next century.
Given the current stage of the research, we assume that this construction was a staircase tower which provided
the access into the palace, most likely to the palace first floor in the modernization stage in early 17th century. We
tend to identify this building on the 1711 plan as well, where we can notice a circular construction near the main
entrance which could be a way of access to the palace. In 1735 it had already disappeared.
XII.3.7. Well (Z.38)
A construction was discovered between metres 29.80 and 33.40, having an trapeze-shaped opening at the
upper part (that has survived), with inner sides of 2.70x3.10x2.30 m (plate 1; fig. 84). At - 0.60m (the preserved
upper limit) it had an opening 2.60m away from the palace, its walls being obliquely sunk as deep as - 3.90m, a
level where the opening becomes 1.30m.
Having analyzed this complex, we have reached the conclusion that it must have been a well; dating it is
quite difficult as the stratigraphy nearby was completely destroyed, and inside we had to interrupt the excavation
without reaching the foundation base. The construction is adjacent to the Gothic masonry (fig. 83, 85), prior to the
cellar and certainly prior to latrine 1, so that it could be built at any time after the end of the 14th century. In the early
16th century, when the latrine was built, it was abandoned and partially filled. Several layers were delimited in the
relatively clean filling, but the archaeological material is rather poor, which pleads in favour of a short period of
operation and quick filling.
XII.3.8. Latrine 1 (Z. 37)
Between metres 28 and 30.30 a rectangular-shaped construction was investigated, its inner sizes of
1.60x1.70x1.75x1.60m, which we assume may have had the role of a latrine (plate 1). The analysis of the context
enables dating this complex back to the 16th century. Latrine 1 seems to have been built during the Renaissance
transformation stage of the bishop's palace, whereas the final decommissioning occurred after it had got filled up;
the demolition of the superstructure and surface levelling are all operations that coin findings place at the end of the
16th century.
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The filling was done in a relatively short period of time. In the lower part a brown filling mixed with ash,
animal and fowl bones (153) was laid down, in which we can distinguish several lenses. It is here that four coins
were discovered: m.32 issued in the 1330-1336 timeframe, m.57 issued during Ferdinand’s rule, some time in the
15(3)2-15(6)2 timeframe (only digit 2 is legible in one year) and fragments of other two illegible coins, m.44 and
m.48. Also, a large amount of pottery shards comes from this layer.
In the central area there is brick unrefined debris coming from the collapse of demolition of the superstructure,
consisting of masonry blocks made of mortar-bound bricks (154), and also a coin, m.43, issued in 1540. The ruin
was demolished at the occupation level and is smoothly located at present at
-0.24m, covered in a thin lens of compacted filling that can be taken for 48. A 1544 coin discovered in this
layer confirms the demolition of latrine 1 in mid-16th century or in the second half of this century. Shards coming
from 65 pots were also recovered from the filling; they can partially be made whole again, as well as the fragments
of 10 stove tiles of various shapes.
XII.3.9. The corner bastion (Z.40)
In trenches S.23, S.23E, S.22 and S.30 the traces of a large-sized construction appeared, which construction
was an extension of the Gothic palace to the west up to the wall of the Roman curtain wall or even beyond it.
The northern side of the corner bastion was partially researched at an average distance of 4.20 meters north
of the palace, along a route slightly oblique from it, at the limit of the present day parking lot (plate 1). The ruin was
followed to the limit of the metal barrack and continues under its foundation; to the east, it is preserved along a
maximum 4.65m from the barracks, whereas a 3.50m-long segment was completed demolished. To the west the
ruin appeared in one of the sections S.30 (plate 7), adjacent to the Roman curtain (plate 17/1), protruding the
perimeter we investigated, at a 5.50m distance from the palace corner. The eastern side was identified in S.23/24,
abutting the Gothic palace, at a 15.50m distance from the north-western corner of the current palace. Hence, we
assume some at least 21m inner (final) length along the east-west axis and 4-4.65m width to the north.
The foundations of a maximum thickness of 1 meter were built in an irregular trench that sank as deep as -
l. 1m. The annexes had compartments. The ruin of a transversal wall (Z.41) was investigated in S.23. The wall
delineated a room 6 - 6.25m long, adjacent to the northern exterior wall, and along most of its length it re-used the
Gothic tower foundation. It preserved a 1.25m long segment next to the northern wall of the annex; near the Gothic
tower the transverse wall was destroyed by the excavations intended for the gas pipeline. The surviving fragment
belongs entirely to the foundation, and was made of small- and medium-sized stones bound with a rather robust
white mortar. The base descends as low as maximum - 0.74m, and the upper part was demolished down to - 0.33
m. Inside several burnt material layers were outlined (122B-D) on top of which some levelling was done with burnt
loam mixed with coal pigment (122A). A 1554 coin comes from these layers (m.lOO). There must have been plenty
of brick in the superstructure, as the demolition level may suggest (123).
A stove functioned in the western room; its pedestal was uncovered right near the northern wall, with a total
0.40m width and a preserved 0.65m length, made up of processed stone slabs, set on a wood coal layer (Z.42). The
upper part of the slabs is at - 0.24m, indicative of an occupation level inside the annex at its last operational stage.
On a large part of it, this construction was demolished as deep as the foundation base (99, 99A) (fig. 71, 100).
After demolition, the level stabilized at-0.25/-0.30m, hence approximately at the occupation level that functioned
inside. The current shape of the ruins is owed to recent interventions, being clad in a brown-yellowish brick filling,
gutter tiles, gravel, and stone (layer 102) that we cannot date more precisely.
Structure 31 (kiln 1). In the eastern room, the traces of a circular construction were identified; only a circle
segment indicative of 2.5m radius has been preserved. The construction was superficial. The masonry is made of
fragmented brick, seldom small-sized stones; sandy yellow clay was used as the binding agent. Inside this construction
a thick layer of clay mixed with brick powder and burnt till red was cleaned; hence we assumed it is a domestic kiln.
Structure 32 (kiln 2). After the kiln described in the point above was closed down, a smaller one was built,
the ruin of which was also identified in S.23 (plate 1; fig. 94). The western part of this construction was destroyed
when the latrine was built, and the eastern part was displaced by interventions we cannot identify, mostly likely
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related to the construction of the cellar. A small fragment of this construction was identified in S.2/2000 and
dismantled (fig. 9).
The wall is 0.65m. thick. The foundation is extremely irregular, made of stone rocks and brick fragments and
set on some soil filling with large stone rocks and brick fragments (layer 111).
Conclusions. The corner bastion that we can see in the 1711 plan was built in two stages. According to the
analysis of the excavation, towards mid-16th century, the compartment inside the fortress must have been constructed,
added onto the north-western corner of the Gothic palace from which it protruded as a jutty by approx. 4.5m. It is
rather certain that, at the time, the wall of the castrum operated as a curtain wall, delimiting the medieval fortress
one way or another. The construction of this bastion meant the extension of the palace to the curtain wall, thus
blocking the access to the south-western corner of the fortification, which seems more a military measure than one
meant for the extension of the living spaces. To what extent we can relate these works to the stage coordinated by
General Castaldo remains to be proved.
The interior of this compartment was divided, and in the western part domestic kilns functioned successively.
At a given time, this construction was extended outside the curtain wall, thus forming the corner bastion that we can
see on the 1711 plan. This stage implies an important reorganization of the medieval fortification, and, in our
opinion, it cannot be related but to the construction of the Bethlen bastion in the early 17th century when the
fortified perimeter was considerably extended. It is now that the gate documented in S.29 must have been eliminated:
the access to the bastion was probably made through this extension.
The corner bastion is also shown in the 1736 plan, and this compels us to place its demolition after this date,
which was quite troublesome when it came to chronology. Several coins recovered from the upper part of the ruins
would suggest that it had been already closed down at the end of the 17th century; however, we must probably
consider this only an intermediate stage that is insufficiently documented. Anyway, when pit No. I was dug, it is
certain that the bastion no longer existed (plate 17/1). Generally, this is the chronology of the area, and detailed
explanations may be provided only after the extension of the excavations.
XII.3.10. Latrine 2 (Z.39)
Latrine 2 was investigated in S.23; it had a rectangular shape, interior sizes of 1.50x1.20m, and walls of a
variable thickness between 0.50 and 0.65m. (plate 1). The construction was most likely filled in one single stage,
with sandy soil mixed with debris; few pottery and glass shards were recovered from it. It cannot be earlier than the
18th century as it was built after the demolition of the bastion on the palace corner. As far as the demolition is
concerned, the current state is owed to the 20th century interventions connected to the construction of the new
building of the palace. A 1624 coin was recovered from the debris that covers the ruins; it must be in a secondary
position (m.77).
XIL3.1L The current entrance to the inner yard (the Baroque gate)
The area located west of the current entrance to the inner yard of the palace, investigated in S.3/2000, is
specially disturbed because of the many modem works: an iron lighting rod, two electrical lines in the centre and other
two near the eastern section, a gas pipe and a water supply pipe ֊ all these cross the section along west-east axis (fig.
96). These are the reasons why the soil was disturbed as deep as 1.5m on an average; on these occasions, several tombs
were disturbed and the bones were found put together, not in anatomical connection, near the palace wall.
The gate pillar abutted Palace II at a time we cannot precisely indicate at the current stage of the research
(fig. 72, 95).
XII.3.12. Final considerations
It is almost impossible for us to describe in detail, judging by excavations on one facade, the time and space
evolution of the buildings that we delimited at infrastructure level, identified as a Gothic construction and recorded
under the name of Palace II.
The building was 30-3 lm long, starting some place near the current Baroque gate, and its western extremity
is marked by a trapeze-shaped tower with a full foundation. Many archaeological materials recovered in the foundation
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trench are unquestionably indicative of the period of construction: that is the second half of the 14th century, as the
oldest of coins were from 1382, Initially, this building did not have a cellar; in any case not a stone one, its
foundations being relatively superficial. The underground level, or at least its current northern wall, was built in the
second third of the 16th century, being one of the Renaissance transformations of the palace that are often mentioned
in literature, but which are actually unknown. What we best know of this stage is related to the fact that the interiors
were provided with stoves, designed and manufactured by the best standards in the Hungarian Kingdom at the time.
If the 16th century was indeed a stage of abundant interventions, mainly related to the reorganization of the
palace and the adaptation of space to its new status, that of residence for the Transylvanian princes: these are not
too visible in the archaeology of the northern building II. To the above can be added only the construction of a
latrine (Latrine 1), that functioned early that century, becoming a ruin in mid-century, and filled with debris where
many pottery shards were mixed, mostly belonging to pots that could be made whole again. Hence, we can assume
that, at the time, the Gothic ground floor already supported one storey, and its facade had been remodelled. After
the first half of the century, the corner bastion was built and Palace II was extended to the west up to the castrum
curtain wall that was still standing. Domestic installations were identified at the ground floor of this building,
which most likely led to the name of “kitchens’ yard”.
Around 1600 this palace was in ruin, as we learnt from written sources, and it was to be subject to a renovation
and modernization program. Approximately in the centre of the fapade a circular tower was added, most likely a
staircase tower, and the comer bastion was extended to the interior of the curtain, in our opinion, in direct relation
to the building of the Bethlen bastion. The possible ruins of the well and latrine 1 must have been levelled, and this
is what Visconti showed in his 1711 real-scale drawing.
Subsequent interventions are related to the construction of the Vauban fortification when the corner annex
was demolished and at its eastern limit a new latrine built.
XII. 4. Palace III
XII.4.1. Characteristics of the masonry
The building located left of the access gate was investigated in two trenches: S. 1/2000 and S.l 1/2001 (plate
IMll fig· 98). As otherwise noticed in the current standing structure as well, the building that we call Palace III
abuts Palace I; it was built at an occupation level around - 0.85m (on average).
In the foundation structure two segments are delimited, that were marked D and E (fig. 63, 98). They were
both made in river stones and (Roman and medieval) brick shards trench, the difference being determined by the
binding agent quality and the construction manner. Thus, segment D was built by throwing material into an irregular-
walled ditch, and a small amount of yellow and sandy clay was used as binding agent. The masonry looks like
tilling, and strikingly resembles the ruin discovered in front of Palace II in the third excavation campaign (Z.34).
This is the reason why we do not exclude the possibility that it may actually represent a ruin, re-used for setting the
foundation of Palace III. The observations in S.l 1 seem to be supportive of this hypothesis as well, as the masonry
looks rather irregular (plate 11/1). For building the upper segment of the foundation (E) the trench was lined with
boards and a casing was made: the masonry is more regular, and the materials are sunk in yellow sandy mortar
which is extremely brittle. Stone blocks in various processing stages prevail; rare brick fragments were used,
mostly in the lower part for levelling layers. Though it is obvious that when the construction was completed only
part of it was sunk up to the present occupation layer one cannot see any difference in the current structure of the
masonry. In S. 11 the upper limit of the segment is irregular, tilted down from - 0.33m to the east to - 0.64m to the
west, partially levelled with a layer of bricks - as if it were the result of demolition, or possibly signalling an
interruption of the site. On the other hand, it is not excluded that in this area there may have been such radical
interventions, at least of repairs, as the following segment has all the characteristics of such an operation: mixed
masonry made of mixed materials irregularly set in place.
The standing structure of this building (segment F) is mainly made of cut-stone masonry; rarely were stones
and Roman brick fragments used for levelling purposes. In comparison to the foundation, the visible face of the
wall seems neater; it is well abutted, with no attempt to interweave.
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XII.4.2. Stratigraphic coordinates
The stratigraphic succession in the two trenches is substantially different. Initially, we assume an occupation
level around - 0.80/-1 m; later the occupation level was stabilized at -0.70/-0.80m for a long period of time (fig.
99). In this interval of time, the masonty that is right on top of the land was either strongly worn, or, from various
reasons, partially demolished and rehabilitated. The following deposits most likely come from successive stages:
some levelling with brown yellowish land (layer 69 that is extremely compacted, suggesting prolonged use); in its
upper part, a significant fire seems to have occurred, reflected in a coal lens (layer 71). The materials recovered
from these layers are simply pottery shards that can be dated to the 15th century — the first half of the 16*.
A pit was dug from the upper limit of this last layer (layer 73); later there seems to have been a construction
site that left easily identifiable traces in the stratigraphy. It is hard to detail such facts from such limited excavation:
however, on the southern section S.ll one can clearly see that the face of the wall was subject to thorough
rehabilitation for which purpose bricks were frequently used (fig. 99). The lime pit of this site was prepared next to
the walls: we think of a superficial cavity (maybe rather a temporary storage place of some construction material
that was to be later used); its bottom reached ֊1,20m. The lime left firm traces on the plan (layer 13 A), as well as
on the masonry work, as a compact lens or crusts (fig. 70-71). When these works were completed, the pit was filled
up and the surface levelled with soil and debris (70, 74, 76); hence, the occupation level was raised to around -
0.30m. A large amount of pottery shards, including glazed stove tiles dated back to the 16th century, typological ly
common or very similar to the ones in the round tower, was recovered from the filling of this complex, in particular
layer 13F. We can hypothetically date these interventions around 1600, in connection with the important rehabilitation
works of the palace in ruin.
Tip to the current level (on average - 0.12m) the land level increased again in successive stages, by levelling
that frequently contained brick and roof tile fragments.
XII.4.3. Final considerations
The building that we call Palace III is a connection building between the Romanesque Palace and the Gothic
one (I and II). Was this a building from the very beginning or was it a wall that closed an inner yard instead of Z.34
that had been demolished? This we cannot answer so far, but it is a variant to keep in mind.
When was Palace III built? If we consider the average construction level around ֊ 0.90m, and relate it to the
coordinates of Palace I (layers 15A and 71A), then we will notice that we are most likely at the boundary between
the 14th and 15th century. Given the current stage of our research, we can, therefore, think that the current building
foundation dates most likely to early in the 15th centuiy, and we can only hope that the extension ofthe investigations
to the current entrance gate will be of help in determining more firm chronological references.
XII. 5. Palace IV (1968)
The building located at the western end ofthe northern wing was built in 1968. It has a cement infrastructure
that overlaps a series of ruins: the western side of the Roman castrum, the buttress added to the Gothic tower, the
Gothic tower, and latrine 2. The palace has its own foundation only inside latrine 2, where it descends to the
maximum level of- 1,46m (plate 7; fig. 100), and in the gap between the tower buttress and castrum wall, where it
reaches the maximum depth of- 1.48m. For the remaining surface, the lower limit of this foundation is at + 0.10m
on average, that is, right under the current occupation level.
XIII THE FORTIFICATION SYSTEM
The archaeological excavations that we analyze here reached the medieval fortification system in Alba lulia
only peripherally. Two structures inside the castrum have drawn our attention in particular; they delimit, in the
south-western corner of the fortress, an area that belongs to the Catholic bishopric: the mortar-free wall Z.34 and
the east-west oriented ditch, called pit 33.
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XlII.l. Curtain wall (?) Z.34
XIII. 1.2. Characteristics of the masonry
In the 2002 excavations conducted in front of the Gothic palace, in trenches S.24, S.28 and S.25, a ruin was
discovered that was almost perpendicular to the western wall of the Roman curtain wall. It has an oblique trajectoiy as
to the Gothic palace Z.34, and is 0.70/1.35 m. to the north (plate 1, 16; fig. 15, 23). A 11,45m segment was recorded,
of which only the foundation has been preserved along 2.80m (layer 79, partially 80). The most complete context was
that in S.25, where both the ruin and the stratigraphy around it are well preserved (plate 14/2; fig. 6, 73).
The wall foundation is made of average-sized stones and brick shards thrown down into an irregular trench;
yellow sandy clay was used as the binding agent. The maximum width is 1 m. The foundation base tilts down west to
east, and stops at an area of very clean, compacted black soil belonging to the early Middle Ages (layers 34 and 5 in
S.25), at the upper limit of the brown-reddish mortar 28 (S.24). The characteristics of this foundation show that it was
made hurriedly and negligently (fig. 24). The limit between the foundation and the standing structure follows the same
slope from - 0.90m to ֊ 1.50m. The standing structure was built with filling; its exterior is made of comparatively
regular layers of processed block fragments (processed and used again from the Roman structures) and brick shards
for levelling. Mixed and fragmented materials were used for the inner filling, thrown into a yellow sandy clay layer.
The width of the standing structure is 0.65m, and the first layers seem to have stayed sunken from the very beginning.
Fragments of different heights (maximum 0.70m) seem to have been preserved from the standing structure; the upper
part was irregularly demolished at - 0.82m (on average) (plate 14/2 with the highest segment preserved at - 0.64in).
XIII.1.3. Stratigraphic coordinates
The trench for the construction of Z.34 was dug from the upper limit of layer 31, that may be dated back to
the end of the 13th century and at the latest as early the following one ֊ as one may notice from sections S.25 (plate
M/2; fig. 6). The few pottery shards recovered from layer 35 (ditch filling for foundation) plead for the same dating
around 1300. In S.24 Roman ware was recovered from the remains of the foundation, alongside with a small bucket
rim (layer 79), and at the limit with layer 31 a 12th century coin ֊ most likely also displaced too from the layers
disturbed by the ditch (plate 13/1).
The ruin of Z.34 is overlapped by the materials coming from the demolition (clay, large stones, stone and
brick fragments, layer 37), of which we recovered several 15th century pottery shards and a 1335 coin (m.74/02,
plate 16). The ditch for the foundation of Palace II overlaps it as well, according to the western section of S.25 (fig.
6), and the partial western profile of S.28 (fig. 82). Given all these observations, we can date the demolition of Z.34
to the end of the 14th century; it was not functional for too long.
XIII. 1.4. Final considerations
We related this ruin to the lower segment of the foundation of Palace III (segment D, plate 11/1; fig. 63, 97-
98), that shows the same characteristics: irregular masonry work made of stone and brick, yellow sandy clay used
as binding agent. If this hypothesis proves right, then Z.34 was added to Palace I as a curtain wall, delimiting, in the
south-western corner of the castrum, a space reserved for the bishopric that largely coincides with the current
situation. The construction of this wall at an earlier time, around the year 1300, closely followed the construction of
the current cathedral and Palace I, is once again supported by the stratigraphic context outlined in S. 11 and S. 1. The
almost perpendicular trajectory to the casti-um wall clearly shows the fact that the latter was visible up to a considerable
height to make the locals within feel safe.
The extension of the research east of the current gate may confirm the framework we described. What kind
of buildings was functional on this area, except for Palace I, is also a question to be answered in the future.
X1II.2. Pit 33
The excavations revealed a ditch parallel to the northern facade of the Gothic palace (II), that assumingly
functioned as a defence trench for almost a century, in the timeframe between the palace construction (the second
half of the 14th century) and mid-15th century (plate 7; fig. 100). Pit 33 is dug approximately at the same level as
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the palace foundation ditch, intersects the same layers, and sinks under the level of the Gothic foundation, into
Roman layers (plates 13/1, 14/2; fig. 6, 78). Initially it had a maximum depth of 1.90m (S.25) and an upper part
width that we estimate at 2.60m. The walls sink slightly obliquely and are V-shaped in the lower part.
There is a filling layer on the bottom of the pit (33A), that had obviously leaked from the walls while it
functioned in an open state. The filling was done with black, rather compact soil, rich in materials. No lenses are
distinguishable in the filling, which, alongside with the comparatively unitary material, is an indication of the fact
that the filling took only one stage to make. Obviously, the soil comes from the displacement of the medieval layers,
which justifies the presence of 12th- 13th centuiy materials, including a comparatively large number of coins. However,
most of the material dates back to the 14th-15th centuries and there are no later materials. Quite enough coins belong
to this interval as well, the most recent of them, coming from 1468, serving as reference for the trench filling and
surface levelling. In S.23 the filling typical of this complex was partially identified due to the many modern structures
that crowd there. Recorded under no. 121 this filling equally contains coins dated to the 1373-1468 interval (m.79,
81,111) (fig. 91).
The levelling of the land on top of the pit does not seem to have known a unitary solution or it has changed
in time. In S.25 the pit was covered with an in situ burnt material lens (87), partially displaced by some filling
containing a 1518 coin (88) and mostly by an intervention with mid-15th century coins (39). In S.24 the pit is
covered with some robust filling (82), from which come plenty of material and a 1542 coin (fig. 78). In S.27 and
stratigraphy witness S.25/27 the upper part was disturbed by a lime pit (146) that eliminated most of layer 88/148
with early 16th century coins.
Summing up all the information collected in connection with this complex, we can delineate the timeframe
in which it was active, namely between the second half of the 14th century (contemporary with the construction of
Palace II) and the last quarter or the end of the 15th century. It is part of the primitive fortification system of the
bishopric’s properties that is mentioned in early 16th century documents, and the filling should largely coincide
with the endeavours meant for the modernization of this system.
XIII.3. Constructions outside the Roman curtain wall
Outside the Roman curtain wall, approximately as the extension of the line of the palace wall, 3 ruins were
identified that must have belonged to the various Middle Age fortification stages (S.29 and S.30, plate 7). They
were investigated on an extremely reduced surface, with no possibility of delineation, so we do not know which
structures they belonged to; chronology is uncertain too. The area incurred major interventions in early 18th centuiy
so that the uppermost layers are not of much use to us when it comes to the reconstruction of the area’s historical
evolution. What we can do at this stage is describe in detail the situations found in the excavation, so as they may-
be useful in the event of new observations.
xm.3.1. Wall 26
In S.29 some north to south oriented masonry work was discovered. It was made of average- and small-sized
stones and many brick shards, all sunk in a large amount of rather thick mortar (plate 7). The ruin was later covered
by successive layers of clean debris (72, /2A, 12Q,fig. 102) of which only rare pottery shards, generally dated back
to the 15th century, were recovered, but the area was particularly disturbed so that subsequent deposits already
contain 17th century materials.
XIII.3.2. Wall 25
To the Roman curtain wall was added a wall to the west (Z.25), most likely toward the end of the 14th centuiy
or early in the following century ֊ if we are to judge by the oldest materials recovered in this area (S.22, 29, 30).
The wall was located perpendicularly to the curtain, its axis being different from that of the Gothic palace, whence
we may assume that, at the time, the curtain was still standing (plate 7). It also overlapped and partially incorporated
the ruin of Z.26. Z.25 was uncovered along 5m, and we did not reach its western limit; we do not know its precise
thickness ֊ in any case, it was higher than 1.10m. It was built of stone block fragments, more or less processed, in
regular layers, with river boulders and smaller rocks for levelling.
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At a subsequent stage, wall 25 was broken for the construction of a gate and was made of brick and stone.
The occupation level inside it increased at several stages, which was not reflected at the level of the face of the wall.
XIII.3.3. Wall 27
The medieval wall 27 was placed on the withdrawn part (?) of wall 25 at a 4.45m distance from the Roman
castrum and parallel to it; it was most likely related to the construction of the Bethlen bastion in the early 17th
century. Wall 27 was demolished upon the Vauban fortification construction stage: there is a filling layer between
the two - consisting of loose soil mixed with stone and brick fragments, gutter tiles, mortar.
XIII.3.4. Final considerations
If we are to review this information, we can state the following:
- about the oldest wall (Z.26), we could determine that it was demolished at the latest in early 15th century, by
an operation that was aimed not only at the reorganization of the surface, but also the recovery of the construction
material. When was this wall built? Practically, any version between the Roman age and the 14th century is plausible.
What was it built for? Only uncovering it on a larger part could help us find an answer. Its presence leads to another
question concerning the structures of the Roman era, more precisely the existence of a trench outside the stone
curtain. The wall sinks in the sterile to the direction where it was accessible to us. As we go westward, however, it
was placed in a trench, on top of its filling? Can its existence be interpreted as proof of the absence of such
construction on the western side?
- about Z.25 our assumption is that it may have been built at the earliest in the 14th century, hence almost
simultaneously with the Gothic palace; still, it is hard to explain the existence of such a wall, at such an early time,
outside the Roman curtain. This is the reason why we can not exclude the possibility that the wall may be more
recent. Maybe in ruin, it was partially demolished and re-used for the construction of a gate, most likely in early 16lh
century. We can relate this operation to the construction of the gardens in this corner of the fortress about which we
are in possession of several documentary mentions at this time.
- wall 27 may be related to the early 17th century constructions, maybe belonging to the building that is an
extension of the palace outside the Roman curtain wall, shown on the Visconti plan.
XIII.4. The Vauban fortification
In the researched segment, the wall of the Vauban fortification does not have its own foundation, being set
directly on the occupation level at the construction time, located a bit lower than the current level (plate 7; fig. 104).
It overlaps the ruins of walls 25 and 27, and only at the northern limit of wall 27 it seems to be set on its own
foundation.
XIV. OTHER COMPLEXES
XIV1. Pit no. 1.
In trench 30 the excavation was done in the filling of a pit that demolished the western side of the Roman
castrum curtain wall down to the river stone foundation level, that is - 3.34m. (plate 7; fig. 8). The pit was intersected
in several directions, being also found in S.22 and S.23, and, in consideration of this information, we can reconstruct its
sizes, namely 7.30m or more in width. Near the curtain wall, towards its interior, the trench gradually sank (plate 17/1).
The curtain was dismantled as low as the foundation level and the tower as low as the block layer on which the
standing structure route is indented ֊ except for a small fragment next to the palace comer. This configuration and the
manner in which the ditch sinks near the palace are unequivocally indicative of the existence of another building or at
least another wall at the limit of which the trench stopped, along the approximate trajectory of the current palace.
In the lower part, right on top of the Roman ruin, is a black soil, relatively compacted layer, with rare
pigments: this layer is a natural deposit, coming off the ditch wall (116 C), proving the fact that it stayed open for
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a while. Opposite the tower on the bottom of the pit a few large stone blocks remained in a layer of debris mixed
with plenty of brick and gutter tile fragments (116A) on top of which black soil mixed with yellow comparatively
clean clay laid down (116B). The pit was filled in two stages with various fillings, so the archaeological layers can
be very different from one trench to another. In the first stage, a filling was brought in that mainly consisted of
layers of clean debris or mixed with soil in various proportions, very poor in materials, except for several potten·՛
shards and Roman coins the recovery constantly consisted of Iznik plate shards, used in the 17th century for decorating
one ofthe palace’s rooms. This material must have come from important repairs and changes of the Bishop’s Palace
that could not take place but at the earliest in the 18th century (layer 141 with its variants). In the filling in the upper
half of the pit (140 variants) Roman material prevail, though quite little, and modern materials can rarely be found.
It must come from deep excavations, in layers that were not touched by the Middle Ages — and we first thought of
the Austrian sewerage networks in the Bishop’s palace garden.
The chronological delineation of this complex is comparatively simple as it comes after the Roman curtain
that we can still see on the 1711 plan. Hence, the pit could not have been completed but afterwards, most likely in
connection with the Vauban fortification construction, mainly aiming at the recovery of the construction material.
XIV2. Pit no. 2
A pit was identified at the eastern limit of the 2002 excavation, approximately in front of the palace entrance:
we estimate its width, at a median level, to be 5,5m along the east-west axis and over 4.5m on the north-south axis.
As far as we could understand, the edges of the pit were irregular, and its depth variable. It partially stopped at the
well and latrine 1 ruins (plate 15; fig. 84), at ֊ 2.68m, and it gradually sank from the palace, descending on the
western side of the well (fig. 83).
The pit was filled in several stages, as suggested by sections S.26 and S.27, mainly with debris thrown from
the palace (layer 52). The major filling was numbered 53, and was a reddish brown loose layer, with coal pigment,
mortar, stone, brick etc. (G) that contains a series of other lenses. The filling is extremely rich in materials, 90% of
it belonging to the 17th century and mainly consisting of pottery. Besides it, we can also find older materials, Roman
and early medieval, coming from disturbed layers, but particularly from the 15th-16th centuries. Many stove tile
shards come from this complex (catalogue 1-55,plates 107-112), but a striking majority is common ware; quite a
few items can be reconstructed from it. The upper timeframe is given by several early 18th century coins, so as we
can relate it to the great site of the Vauban fortification.
XIV.3. Pit no. 4
In S.ll we partially found on the plan a lime pit right next to the palace wall, over 3.40m long along the
north-south axis (plate 11/1). In the lower part, a 1576 coin was discovered (m.5/2001), and in the filling, in
particular layer F, that is thicker, plenty of pottery shards belonging to glazed stove tiles (27 types), a common ware
respectively (shards of 21 items), was found.
When analyzed on an analogy basis, the archaeological material ofthe lime pit is suggestive of a 16th-century
date where both the stove tiles and the ware most certainly belong to that century. The coin makes us think of the
same era, as the pit was probably abandoned in the last quarter of the 16th century. The burnt material layer 13E may
be set in direct relation to the fires that occurred around year 1600, which we know caused major problems to
buildings and left them in ruin for a long period of time. The filling in the upper part is most likely related to the
repairs that followed such unpleasant events, when the palace was repaired and furnished.
XV THE EXCAVATIONS IN THE PALACE GARDEN
Trench 17 was determined perpendicularly to the western building of the bishop’s palace. It was noted that
said western wall is set on the ruin of the Roman curtain, the standing structure of which could be seen both in the
excavation, and in the cellar in this area (fig. 105, 108).
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Trench 31 was determined perpendicularly to the southern building of the bishop’s palace, oriented north-
south (fig. 106, 107). The palace foundation (under level +0.07m up to which it is plastered) is made of more or less
processed stone block fragments (most of them coming from Roman blocks), rarely smaller stones and bricks used
for levelling. The underground masonry work was built in a wide trench, in regular layers, and it is not excluded
that it could have been initially visible. The ruin of a superficial wall was identified at the western limit of the
excavation, abutting the palace (Z.28); its upper part, irregularly demolished, is at ֊1,35m (plate 19).
XV.l. The sewerage system
The sewerage system built in the early 18th century is by far superior, in terms of concept and execution, to
any other similar installation that has ever been built in Alba Iulia. The system is still in working order and all
sewerage pipelines of the bishop’s palace and the cathedral are directed to it.
The main pipeline, over 2 meters in height and around 3.5m in outer width, was built at a 4.5m distance from
the western wing of the palace (plates 17/2,18), and 4 meters from the southern wing (plate 19). Built of brick
typical of that time (33/34x17x7 cm), the canal is vaulted, the extrados of the vault is at ֊ 2.12m (- 1.80m from the
current occupation level; otherwise, it is the same as the level in the Austrian period). Along the southern side, the
extrados was identified at - 2.70m; the maximum depth reached by the excavation was -3.20m.
From the main canal, opposite the gutters (and probably opposite the various debris discharge) smaller
canals started off towards the palace, covered with brick semi-cylindrical vaults (fig. 105-106). They were made at
the same time, in trenches perpendicular to the palace, narrow enough as well. Near the palace lies a square-shaped
manhole, sized 2x2m, delineated by walls made of stone and brick; the one from the west is 0.90m wide, most
probably valid for the side ones, and the eastern side was used for the very foundation of the palace, and the Roman
standing structure respectively. The lower part of the manhole was paved with bricks (re-used Roman and medieval
brick) and has a more pronounced slope from east (- 2.40m) to west (- 2.86m) (plates 17/2, 18). On the palace wall
two vertical pipelines were made of brick to which two gutters or, by some similar system, water must have been
brought (plate 1; fig. 105). The two pipes discharge in canals that were also made of brick and covered in stone
plates or Roman brick shards, set on the pavement of the manhole. They had a square-shaped cross section, with a
0.20m side. The two canals probably became one to the western end of the manhole into the vaulted canal by means
of which they reached the main pipe.
XVI. ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIAL
XVI. 1. Stove tiles
The Alba Iulia excavations revealed over 600 stove tile shards, grouped by 337 types and variants, undoubtedly
in an unusually large amount, if we consider the extent of the excavation and the nature of the researched remains.
The material cannot be made whole again (with insignificant exceptions that will be mentioned below). In most
cases 1-3 pieces are recovered from one artefact. No stoves, but fragments of them, were thrown in the investigated
complexes. Except for the materials in the round tower, in all the other cases we did not manage to determine the
number of artefacts, as the shards are small and scattered on a large area.
The tiles date from the 14th-18th centuries; the 14th and 18th century tiles are poorly represented; the 16th
century is the richest in quantity. In terms of shape, all artefact categories are represented: concave, plates, ending
pieces, decorative pieces etc. As for the decoration elements, it is easy to see that the material falls within the
typical artefacts of the period; however, it is not repetitive but to a low extent.
As resulting from table No. 20, nine complexes containing stove tiles were delimited. The oldest of them is
the complex dated back to the 14th century, of which 2 plate shards and one pot-tile shard were recovered, mixed
with the several hundreds of common pot shards. The 14th֊l 5th century stove tiles were recovered from the filling of
the defence trench of palace II (pit 33), counting 13 fragments, mainly of concave shapes (pots and niches). 50% of
the material is glazed. The lime pit in S.ll (pit No. 4) can be dated to the 16th century by means of a coin and the
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stratigraphic context. Stove tiles prevail in the filling, of which 27 types and 7 variants were identified, having
concave shapes (16), plates (13) or vertical and horizontal attachment pieces (5). Glazed artefacts account for 64.7
%, polychromous glazes being predominant. The few shards in the well filling date to the 16th century too (5
fragments), just as the 10 types identified in the filling of latrine 1, among the many common ware that can be
made whole. The concave shapes prevail here as well (7), and glaze is used for about 40% of the lot. Pit No. 1
contains 15 stove tile shards among which most of them come from panel-tiles (10); on the whole, 5 types can be
defined as Haban ware One artefact is painted red, and glaze accounts for 46.66% of the lot. From pit No. 2, 61
stove tile types and variants were processed. They were chronologically classified into a timeframe that corresponds
to the 15th-17th centuries. As the complex analysis has shown, this was filled in the first years after 1700 with
materials coming from some general cleaning activity in the palace, including the closing down of some kitchens,
which explains the large number of pots that can be made whole again. 22 types of stove tiles belong to the 15-16,;i
centuries and some other 16 may be related to the 16th century. The last 19 types most certainly belong to the 1 7lh
century, dominated by infinity-type (or wallpaper) motifs and Haban stove tiles Of course, the wide chronological
framework makes such statistics less relevant; however, the persistence of Gothic shapes for such a long period of
time and its coexistence with shapes and decorations that are typical of the 17th century is interesting. We should
note in this context that under no circumstances was pit No. 2 a waste pit; it stayed open for a short while, and the
ware that accounts for 90% of it almost exclusively belongs to the second half of the 17th century'.
Among the closed complexes, the filling under the flooring of the round tower is obviously first; it includes
almost exclusively stove tile shards (80 types and 4 variants) that can be easily dated to the second half of the 15th
century and the 16th century. The batch is dominated by panel-tiles (58 types) among which 46 are glazed in green.
5 bi- or polychromous, 1 shard is glazed and painted, and another is alternatively decorated with glaze and slip. One
artefact has an untreated side, having the look of common pottery. Concave shapes are clearly in lower numbers (2
pot-tiles, 5 niches, 2 concave area plates and 3 variants of pieces with concave medallion); and the attachment
pieces are quite few themselves (11). On the whole, one may notice the very high percentage of glazed artefacts.
90.47% respectively, among which 14.47% have bi- or polychromous glaze.
Another 101 types and 4 variants of stove tiles come from the layers, dated to the 14th-18lh centuries, as
follows: four I4th-15* century types, forty-one 15th-16th century types, eighteen 16th-l7th century types, forty-one
17th century types and only two between the 17th and 18th centuries. Approximately 40% of the total amount of
shards were discovered in stratigraphic situations that can be dated, for example: the foundation trench of the
Gothic palace (the second half of the 14th century), layers 39, 40 and 44 (the 15th century), layer 121 (the second half
of the 15th- early 16th century), the demolition pit of the wall in S.10 (the 17th century) and the uncovering of 0.30m
in front of the bishop’s palace (the 17th century). The others were recovered from inconclusive contexts, so their
dating is based rather on analogies than context. Most of them are plates (67), among which 62.68% are glazed. As
for the 17th century, it is worth noting the high percentage of Habans’ pottery, 17 artefacts of the total of 41 (41.64%).
The processing of this large amount of shards raised a series of issues related, in particular, to the manner of
information systematization and coherent presentation. We finally decided to present the catalogue by complexes
and layers, whereas the analysis of the artefacts1 was done by chronological timeframes in order to avoid disturbing
repetitions and to identify certain general features of the stoves in the bishop’s/prince’s palace at various historical
stages. We have tried mainly to outline the chronological context and associations, without burdening the text with
an analogy-based stylistic analysis. In most cases, the dating comes from or is suggested by a complex situation that
sums up the entire range of information from the study of coins, stratigraphy and other materials. Starting from
such arguments, we tried to overcome the chronology stage by large timeframes, such as the 15th-17th centuries, and
most precisely date the appearance of certain shapes and decoration motifs. The proposed chronology does not
concern the period when the objects were used, that cannot be estimated except with a high degree of probability,
as it is determined by various circumstances.
The material under the floor of the round tower was analyzed separately; we insisted, in particular, on the
artefacts that may represent new contributions to the stove tile list in Transylvania.
1 The references to the catalogue indicate the name of the complex and the position of the piece (pit 33/1, pit 1/2 etc.), and for the artefacts in the
layers it is only the catalogue number that is preceded by the word ”stove tile”. The references to illustrations can be found in the catalogue.
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XVI.1.1.14lh century stove tiles
We can include here several artefacts in the 14th century complex, vessel-shaped tile shards respectively (1),
triangular panel tiles with geometric decoration and green glaze (2), as well as a small panel shard with geometric
decoration (3).
Vessel shaped shards burnt by reduction, with rectangular opening and simple rim, with inner olive green
glaze come from the foundation trench of the Gothic palace (stove tiles 3a), and several unglazed shards were
discovered in layers that allow for such dating (stove tiles 1).
XVI. 1.2.15։h century stove tiles
Shards that can be dated to the 15th century were discovered in large numbers in layers, in pit No. 33 and pit
No. 2. The vessel-shaped tile with rectangular opening and simple or maybe slightly thickened rim, of large sizes,
is typical of that time, as suggested by the walls the thickness of which is constantly around 1cm, made of semi-
coarse grained, superficially burnt paste. The artefacts appear in 14th-15th century contexts (stove tiles 1,4, 5, 11),
and a vessel-shaped tile with rectangular opening and much widened rim was identified at the upper limit of layer
44 (stove tile 9). Shards burnt by reduction appeared both in a context (pit 33/1, 3), and secondary positions or
moved (pit No. 2/1, plenty of shards) or in layers (stove tiles 2). Vessel shaped tiles of a better quality, with thinned
walls, come from all the sectors of the excavation; they were long manufactured and used, from the end of the 15lh
to the 17th century. We recovered only several shards from contexts that provide for some dating to the 15th century,
as well as the ones in layers 46 and 121 (stove tiles 7).
Glazed artefacts are much rarer and we do not know yet whether they were manufactured by local potters
or imported. A shard burnt by oxidation, with inner green yellowish glaze comes from the upper part of pit 33
(stove tiles 3), along with another shard, covered in very dark green, almost black, glaze (pit 33/2). Two other
fragments are glazed in green over the slip, an equally dark shade (pit 33/5, 6), one of them being decorated with
inner alveoli made in the paste. This decoration will become commonplace in the following century. Shards
from a vessel shaped tile with a thickened and rounded rim, with an inner green glaze, come from layer 121
(stove tiles 6).
Among the concave shapes there are niche stove tiles shards (pit 33/9, 10; stove tiles 13, 14), as well as a
comer piece made of 2 niches; its contact area is a 3-element twist (stove tiles 16). A small edge has been preserved
from a fretted stove tile (pit 33/11), and only two fragments among the panel tiles can be most certainly related to
this century (pit 33/12, 13).
We include in this chronological group a series of other pieces that do not come from a certain context;
however, given the limitations of our current knowledge, they originate from the second half of this century, though
they are manufactured and survived in the 16lh century stoves. A shard of a Gothic portal with green glazed partial
fretting, identical to the one discovered in the round tower was recovered in the filling of pit 2 (/17). Dark green
glazed shards on top of the slip belong to a composition of Gothic motifs (stove tiles 25), similar to the one used for
one of the Vi§egrad stoves. A small edge shard, coming from a legless unglazed panel tile belongs to a similar
composition or even a Gothic portal (stove tiles 26).
A group of artefacts typical of this century in Transylvania come from the filling of pit No. 2: a horse head
(pit 2/18), fragments of a gryphon (pit 2/19, 20), the arm of a person (pit 2/22), a creeping stem edge (pit 2/26) and
several elements in Gothic shapes, covered in dark green glaze on their face and only an engobe on their back (pit
2/40-42). Several shards belong to an artefact with a pronounced relief; the back is very uneven and the face is
covered in a thick layer of dark green glaze, at places almost black; they are small sized and marginal, so that
hypothetically, we may accept that the lines of the relief may suggest Gothic shapes (pit 2/23-25). A 3-element twist
was most likely a connection element (pit 2/27). Vague traces of some architecture may be identified on a green
glaze panel tile shard coming from the upper layers of pit No. 2 (/21).
A marginal field with an imitation of creeping stems between two thin veins, in some very delicate relief,
could belong to one of the plates decorated with a lion, gryphon or rosette, which types were spread by the royal
workshop in Buda in the second half of the 15th century (stove tiles 33). A creeping stem edge delineates a slightly
concave piece (pit 1/5); the pronounced relief sunken in glaze cannot be easily made out; however, it may be quite
certainly related to the above-mentioned group. Another marginal shard of a short-legged plate was depicted with
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ample creeping stems and could come from a composition analyzed at the round tower (/34) developed around the
character with the raised sword (stove tiles 31).
It is still here that we include two artefacts that are quite rarely encountered among Transylvanian materials:
a triangle-shaped concave stove tile of which a small comer shard has been preserved; one can see on it the trace of
an exterior applied ornament, most certainly belonging to a crowning piece (pit 2/2), as well as a corner piece made
up of two vessel shaped tiles with a most likely triangle-shaped opening (pit 1/14, stove tiles 16).
XVI. 1.3.16th century stove tiles
The typical complexes of this century are latrine 1, the lime pit, the well and, obviously, the round tower.
Many of the pieces discovered in pit 2 and in the layers belong to this century.
The filling of latrine 1 reveals the vessel shaped tile with the handmade base moulded by pressure from
outside in so as the visible face has a lobed aspect (latrine 1/3), which has an older appearance, though it is
associated with 16th century typical pottery (ware and stove tiles) in evolved shapes. The artefact has thick walls, is
poorly burnt, and can almost be completed again. Similar shards also appeared in the well filling (2). The prevalent
shape of the 16th centuiy is still the vessel shaped tile with a bi-conoid body, rectangular opening and a simple edge,
burnt by oxidation, with brown reddish shades that are different from their predecessors by better technical quality
and thinned walls (stove tiles 7; latrine 1/1; well/1; pit 2/4; pit 1 /1). There are various types of inner decorations (pit
2/5-11; latrine 1/2, 4, 5; stove tiles 10), and pot no. 3 of pit 2 was made of fine paste with plenty of kaolin that
resulted in a yellowish/white colour when burnt. The artefacts with interiors glazed in green are fewer in number,
in particular recovered from modern filling (stove tiles 8; pit 2/6).
Yellow brownish glazed shards from convex onion-shaped stove tiles were discovered in the filling of latrine
1 (/8) and pit 2 (/16). Among the 16th century artefacts the following stand out by the large number of shards: the
panel tile with a concave-medallion with corners decorated with small circular protuberances framed by triangles.
Some green glazed shards were recovered from 16th century contexts (stove tiles 17, pit 2/15, latrine 1/7); still, the
most important lot comes from the lime pit (pit 4/8,9), where shards of 10-12 artefacts were thrown away, remarkable
first by the glaze varieties that are used (pit 4/9). Such polychromous compositions are also present in the well (3)
and the filling under the floor of the round tower (round tower 10).
Rectangular panel tiles with rich borders, side oblique fields, and a narrow sunken central field come from
16th century contexts, the filling of latrine 1 and the lime pit, glazed with good quality dark green glaze, applied in
a thin layer on top of the engobe, a mustard yellow and green glaze alternately arranged on the edges (latrine 1/6;
lime pit/10 a, b). Green glaze shards were recovered from the upper filling layers that enable some general dating
to the 16th-17th centuries (stove tiles 18). Shards of oblique decorated sides appeared in pit No. 4(16) and in pit No.
1(/2).
More shards of fretted stove tiles are preserved unglazed or with a green glazed outer face (stove tiles 19,20:
pit No. 4/25). The central part of a knight in chain mail and poleyns also comes from a fretted piece (stove tiles 21.
21 a). The shards were recovered in layer 48, which limits the date to the 16th century and they most 1 ikely belong to
a representation of a pedestrian Saint George while killing the dragon with his sword.
There are plenty of panel tiles that, as far as their decorations are concerned, provide us with glimpses of a
world that still preserves the Gothic traditions in an environment where the first signs of the Renaissance appear.
Some ofthem could be manufactured in the second half of the previous century, but, as they were not discovered in
a clear situation, we preferred to date them to the 16th century. We can first notice the appearance of several shards
of the portal decorated inside with overlapping circles, belonging to a panel tile with no fastening system, glazed in
green (lime pit/15) ֊ that we partially reconstructed at the round tower (38). Two small shards included in the
category of geometric decorations (lime pit/12, 13) could also belong to the portal decorated with Turk heads. The
two fragments decorated with a net of veins belong to a triangle-shaped panel tile (pit 1/3), and a rectangular one
(pit 1/4); a panel tile is decorated with triangles of various sizes (stove tiles 33B). Green glaze border shards were
preserved from equestrian scenes; one can see a horse’s head turned to the right (stove tiles 29), and another small
shard showing a crest-decorated horse head, with the same technical characteristics, from pit 2 (pit 2/28). The panel
tiles decorated in the upper part with architectural features (stove tiles 28) were most likely representations of the
legend of Saint George.
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The stove tile decorated with rosette (stove tiles 30) is part of a vast series, developed under the influence of
the products of the knight stove workshop. Another rosette entirely occupies the field of a legless panel tile, probably
a comer piece, as the decoration is cut in half (stove tiles 32).
A fragment of a Gothic frieze meant for the crowning was discovered in the filling in front of the palace
(stove tiles 84, probably 85 as well). A corner stove tile was made by joining two pieces (panels?) at a sharp angle,
and the contact area has the shape of a protruding torus, decorated with small punched rosettes (pit no. 4). On some
other tile an obtuse angle was hidden by a torus decorated with slightly visible creeping stems, sunk in a green glaze
layer (stove tiles 91).
Other shards show vegetal decorations that have no relation to the Gothic traditions; still, they equally
belong to the same 16th century. The peripheral field of a piece with high border and short leg is decorated with leaf-
shaped motifs (stove tiles 34). A vegetal decoration framed by geometric edges is visible on a micaceous fragment
(stove tiles 41), leaves, flowers and possibly fruits appear on other shards that we cannot relate to one another: 42,
47,48. There are arched shapes on a small fragment of a central field, which can also be related to a vegetal element
(stove tiles 36), coming from a 16th century context. Shards of a central-type composition made up of vegetal and
geometric motifs were discovered in both the lime pit (15), and in fillings. A series of other artefacts are even less
suggestive in the context they were taken from: vegetal and geometric stylized motifs (stove tiles 37, 38, 43-45) or
geometric decoration (stove tiles 46) come from the debris layer that covers ruin S.10, which provides a dating
between the 16th and the 17th century. A small shard has geometric motifs (stove tiles 39), and the one with letter B
on it seems to be a very stylized vegetal decoration (stove tiles 50). A flower vessel is on a glazed piece, probably
with a narrow central field, as it is common for such type of stove tiles (stove tiles 40).
Among the crowing pieces, most of them are decorated with birds facing one another in the lower part and
with cut-out triangles in the upper part (pit 4/22), that we also found in identical shapes in the round tower (72,
reconstruction). We also include in this category a small fretted shard (pit No. 4/25) (that could belong to a field
piece as well, with a cut face and a closed leg), a fragment of a piece cut out in arched shapes, with rather ample full
parts, with no decoration (pit No. 4/23) and a cut out stove tiles (pit no. 4/24). We are familiar with fragments cut
out in arched shapes from other locations of the excavation as well. They are decorated with geometric motifs
(stove tiles 88, latrine 1/9), vegetal, more or less stylized (stove tiles 87) or with no decoration (stove tiles 86), with
the common feature that the face is covered in green glaze on top of the engobe, generally rather poorly preserved,
with irisated surfaces. Even now the classical corner tiles appear, made up of two panels joint at an obtuse angle,
with a flattened edge; an artefact coming from latrine 1 (latrine 1/10) has the central panel decorated with vegetal
motifs and all facets visibly sprayed with mica powder.
We can date between the 16th-17*h century several crowning tiles with vegetal decorations (pit 2/43), tiles
with torus and vault moulding forming the cornice (pit 2/48, 50), and corner tiles decorated with rosettes (pit 2/45)
or stylized lily flowers (pit 2/47). This group also includes two decorative pieces; one is onion shaped tile (pit 2/
52), whereas the other is similar to a nut shell (pit 2/51). Another artefact was cut out in an oval shape (pit 2/49).
XVI.1.4.17th century stove tiles
Most of the shards come from fillings and pits Nos. 1 and 2.
A polychromous piece was decorated with a centrally placed fortress, coloured in white and brown against a
green background (pit 2/38). In terms of decorations, it belongs to a series that seemed to have been preferred in the
17lh century. Among the later artefacts a mounted knight (stove tiles 52, 53), a stylized composition that is typical of
the Hussar representations is worth mentioning, so the artefacts may come from the early 17th century. Other shards
with vegetal or geometric decorations belong to this period (stove tiles 49, 54, 56 and 58; latrine 2/1).
The crowning tile under No. 88 is decorated with geometric motifs, and the cutting suggests arched shapes.
The same category includes shards 86, 87, as well as the crowning piece with vegetal motifs, with the upper part cut
along the shape of creeping stems (pit 2/49), with an inscription in relief that shows letters D and F. The corner tiles
are made of 3 sides, at obtuse angles, the central one being decorated with vegetal motifs (stove tiles 93), often
provided with a triangle-shaped ending (stove tiles 94). A tile for the cornice comes from the stove corner and
belongs to the type common in the lô'M?* centuries, with a protruding torus framed by a succession of smaller
toruses and vaults; the artefact was glazed in green and, at a given time, covered in a fresh thick lime layer (stove
475
tiles 97). The shards nos. 95 and 96 come from generally similar artefacts! the first of them has a tooth-shaped
ornament, discovered in layers that are most likely dated to the 17th century.
The century is, however, dominated by wallpaper decorations, illustrated by many shards recovered from all
the sectors of the excavation. The specific types of this period are represented:
1. overlapping arches, vegetal motifs derived from the tree of life in the side fields and vegetal and geometi ic
motifs stylized in the central fields (stove tiles 61-64, 66; pit 1/9; pit 2/31, 32, 35-37, 39; latrine 2/3). 1 he face may
be simple, micaceous, and also with green or yellow brown glaze.
2. geometric shapes and vegetal motifs stylized in fields: non-glazed fragments (stove tiles 59, 60).
3. oval shapes and vegetal motifs stylized in fields: a two-colour shard is preserved; it has a yellow brown
and green glaze (stove tiles 67); another has green glaze and stylized rose as secondary elements (stove tiles 68).
both in the same context of the debris in S.10A. A mica-covered artefact was decorated with connected arcs and
rosettes in fields (pit 1/10). A comer piece is decorated with a wallpaper motifs as well (pit 2/51).
XVT.1.5. Haban stove tiles
The stove tiles we associate to the Habans are mostly decorated group of wallpaper with overlapping arcs.
The prevailing variant is the white background with bluish reflexes and cobalt blue glaze relief (stove tiles 73-75.
77); however, there is also a shard with green glazed background and white relief with green reflexes (stove tiles
69, 76). The shard numbered 78 is distinguished by fine paste with a high content of kaolin that created a white-
yellowish colour when burnt; just as the relief, the border is marked in dark blue. A series of panels were decorated
by joining the vegetal and geometric elements in compositions that we can no longer reconstruct (stove tiles 71,72,
79, 80); pit 2/53, 54; pit 1/14, 15; latrine 2/2); the glazes are typical: white with green or blue reflexes (usually used
for the background), and various shades of yellowish, green, blue.
The best artefact is a shard of a crowning piece, decorated by white, blue, yellow, and green glaze shades.
The glazes are shiny, and on the whole the artefact has outstanding technical qualities: it is, in any case, one of the
most beautiful Haban stove tiles discovered in the archaeological excavations in Transylvania (pit 1/12).
Attachment pieces appeared in various contexts (stove tiles 89-91, pit 1/11, 13; pit 2/55), and a corner tile
with triangle-shaped endings is recorded under no. 94.
XVI. 1.6, The stove tiles in the round tower
The material is plentiful in terms of quantity, but in most cases we are dealing with isolated shards, not whole
pieces, or pieces that can be made whole again. Hence, it is obvious that no stove was thrown in the filling, but only
remains of several such installations. The diversity of the materials and the obvious stylistic differences suggest the
fact that the artefacts come from at least three stoves, one of Gothic design, the second much influenced by the
Renaissance, and the third already Renaissance. No matter what the situation is from this perspective, it is a fact
that the stoves were dismantled in the mentioned interval of time, so as their operation in the first half of the 16th
century does not raise any issue. Of course, the Gothic stove can be older, coming from late 15th century: the one-
century long use of the tiles would be no surprise. Nonetheless, for the time being, the certainty of the dating to the
first half of the 16th century is, anyway, an immense gain when it comes to the classification of this material.
Formally, all important tile categories are represented: concave (vessel shaped, niches, panel tiles with a
concave medallion, panel tiles with a “diamond” shaped central field), fretted tiles, panel tiles (triangle-shaped,
square, rectangular and coat-of-arms-shaped), cut out and fretted ridge pieces, corner tiles and others decorative
elements.
The most surprising piece in this context is a fragment of a tile with a coat of arms, a shield with side
hollows, and the interior distributed in four quarters by diagonals and lily flowers areas (14). The piece is probably
a panel tile with this coat of arms as single motif, as suggested by an almost perfect analogy from the Buda palace,
dated to the second half of the 14th century. Another shard seems to belong to this period: a legless panel decorated
with twisted vine creeping stems (mostly likely in the south), with leaves and grapes on the field (57), also having
good analogies in the Palace of Buda and in Poland in early 15th century.
Gothic stove tiles. A first group of pieces develops directly under the influence of the products coming from
the knight type stove workshop in Buda from mid-lS111 century, absorbed by direct contact or by mediators. We
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include here the stove tiles decorated with a Gothic portal (28), knight in tournament under a Gothic portal (12),
gryphon (27), lion (29) and rosette (30, possibly 32 as well) and several small shards of frames with imitations of
creeping stems twisted on edges (30,31 a֊b). This group also includes plates with exclusively geometric decorations,
consisting of a network of rhomboids formed of veins, keeping the same peripheral edge with small circular
protuberances (32, 33).
Some other shards are part of the Gothic group, with no belonging to the knight type stove incidence. The
shards under nos. 19a-d and 20 belong to triangle-shaped roof tiles. The fragment in no. 21 shows a lobe-shaped
opening, on a legless panel, glazed in light green, a common motif for a rather long period of time, between the mid-
14th century and early 16th century. We can relate several other shards to a similar variant: 22, 23 and 24 and 24a.
Several segments of a openwork frieze in the series of late Gothic pieces have survived (70), with their upper part
cut out in lily flowers (68-69) glazed in green. Several other shards seem to belong to this group and we do not
know of close analogies. A marginal shard of a slightly concave tile shows a character that raises a sword with his
right hand, in a field delineated by vegetal edges (34, no. 35 possibly of the same). The only similarity we may
notice is a possible representation of an equestrian Saint George, getting ready to strike the dragon with his sword;
still we do not exclude a fighting scene.
Several shards belong to triangular- or rectangular-shaped panel tiles, decorated with a network of veins՛
among which triangles in relief are intercalated (15-18). A peripheral edge with geometric motifs intercalated with
small circular protuberances grouped in clusters may belong to a variant of the rosette (36a-b). Another fragment
preserves a geometric composition made of rhombuses decorated with small three triangle-shaped petal roses (37).
These motifs are most likely auxiliary in order to cover the field around a central composition.
We may include in this group the niche tiles coming from the dissection of a cylinder at various angles (3-7),
glazed or not.
Gothic stove tiles with Renaissance influences. A portal of Gothic inspiration, with pinnacles and phiallae,
survived on a panel tile, but the design that overlaps it was replaced with a semicircular arcade, decorated with
leaves on its extrados. The inside is decorated with geometric figures made of overlapping arches (38).
The most interesting of the stove tiles is decorated with a knight under a Gothic portal (40). Shards of 6 items
were preserved, and none can be made whole again other than in a drawing. The front part seems to be a copy of the
tournament knight under a Gothic portal whereas the back, with a more intricate drawing and braided tail, is similar
to the Hussar's representations. The uniqueness of these images consists of heads with turbans in the leaves that
adorn the extrados of the portal, and in the lower part of the tile, under the horse’s belly, there appear other two
Ottoman heads, one with a turban, and one with a fez. The piece reminds, nonetheless, of the scene of the knight in
a tournament under the Gothic portal; it took over the general drawing lines from it, and in particular the front of the
horse, significantly changing the main character, and especially the message of the composition. Major changes
were made in the portal area of which only the main arcade (with a drawing of the leaves on the extrados) and the
upright beams were preserved, whereas all the other elements were replaced with creeping stems and the four
heads.
Analyzing the possible sources of inspiration, with no possibility to identify an appropriate analogy, the
author reaches the conclusion that the piece is a synthesis of common images in certain historical periods, such as
the tournament knight, the image of Saint Ladislas, the portal that mediates the transition from one space to another
etc. and that it preserved some features of each of them. The use of the Ottoman heads fallen under the horse’s belly
or suspended among luxuriant creeping stems undoubtedly sends the main message of the composition presenting
the knight as a hero fighting against the Ottomans, which in early 16th century are the main problem of the Christian
world, a conflict already two-centuries old. Though theoretically we can tend to associate the appearance of the
pattern to an important workshop in the Kingdom’s capital, the concrete data that we hold make us think rather of
a local workshop that operated some place in central Transylvania. The piece must have been made around 1500,
the earliest in the last years of the 15th decade. Unfortunately the only certain thing in this respect is that it was no
longer used in 1586. Most certainly the triangle-shaped roof panels under no. 41 are associated to this piece in the
stove structure.
Another knight under a Gothic portal is part of a better known type in the specialized literature; it may be
considered, at this stage of the research, another creation that is typical of Transylvania: the knight in a cloak, with
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a crossbow (42,42a). The fragments that have survived belong to a semi-cylindrical leg tile, with green, yellowish-
brown and white polychromous glaze on top of the engobe, and have perfect analogies in Sighişoara and Roşia.
6-7 items are still preserved among the concave central field tiles (8); they are glazed in green and have no
decorations; the glaze has poor quality, in most cases is eroded, exfoliated, iridescent in silver or sprayed. A shard
of a comer piece made up of two such tiles has also been preserved; their horizontal parts were eliminated (8a).
Among the concave medallion tiles (10) shards of 5-6 items were recovered, with their medallion decorated with
triangle-shaped forms made by the distribution of the glaze.
Renaissance glazed stove tiles. Most of the items in this group are considered typical of the second half of
the 16th century and, in particular the following century, so that their existence in such an early context is surprising;
this in the future will make us reconsider the chronological system of this material. First, we should note here the
stove tile decorated with a scene of Moses’ life, where he points at the cross around which the snake is twisted, near
the Tent of Promise (43). A small median shard is most likely part of a composition with central medallion in relief,
in a frame with vegetal motifs and usually decorated with a portrait (44).
Several shards of the median area of a panel tile decorated with a knight turned to his right have been
preserved: part of the knight’s torso (46) and the front of the horse (46a). The first fragment allows us to identify a
representation of a mounted Saint Ladislas, in an already known version: we think about a piece in Oradea, with
year 1540 inscribed on the lower part. Similar in nature is another fragment of a horse turned right, with a sophisticated
harness of which we notice the straps braided with rosettes (47). A fragment of a bird’s wing (48) may be identified
as belonging to a composition representing Hercules with Zeus’ eagle - based on an identical piece in Vinţu de Jos,
dated to the second half of the 16th century because of stylistic reasons. In the same complex there are perfect
analogies for a stove tile decorated with creeping stems, probably an asymmetrical composition that occupied the
entire field of triangle-shaped or rectangular panels (49). The vegetal and geometric motifs are depicted on a series
of other fragments, too small to suggest how the whole piece may have looked like: 50-59, 65-67.
Among the special pieces we should mention, first, a rectangular tile with a partially fretted lower area,
decorated with birds facing one another and alternating with geometric motifs, and the upper area cut out in triangle-
shaped crenels (72, reconstruction). This piece is most likely associated with a shape having its upper part in
rectangular (trapezoidal) crenels, with two-colour glaze, green on one face and yellow-brownish on the other (71).
The fragment may belong to a decorative body the sides of which were fully visible. A cornice tile is decorated with
balusters in the lower part, and with deep horizontal grooves in the upper part (73, 73a). Two green-glazed shards
come from a cornice (or maybe a decorative piece) as well (74, 75).
Conclusions
The large amount of shards from a limited-surface excavation concentrated in an area where waste would not
usually be thrown is relevant for the comfort standard of the bishop’s, and in particular the prince’s palace, where,
we must admit, all main rooms had heating means. Unfortunately, no stove that can be made whole again was
identified in the archaeological excavations, but only pieces that could approximately reveal what kind of stoves
there were.
It is obvious that such installations were mounted as early as the 14th century, in the forms typical of such
period of time. The clay stove was probably usually used incorporated with convex or concave pieces. In addition
to these we can assume that, in more sophisticated spaces, clay tiles were used as well, such as the shards of the 14th
century complex or the coat of arms in the round tower. The least amount of shards has been preserved from these
early products, which accidentally survived in secondary position.
We have no doubt that in one of the palace’s rooms at least a replica of the famous knight type stove created
in mid-15th century in Buda was built. For each of its main components we have a more or less accurate correspondent
the manufacture of which, in the second part of the 15th century or later, early in he following century, can be
certainly accepted. Though the motifs on the knights’ stove registered quite a circulation in Transylvania, they have
been isolated so far, enriching at least a series of designs. The fact that they were all discovered in the finds of Alba
lulia allows us to speak for the first time about the existence of such a stove, which case may not be singular in
Transylvania.
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Many other shards are Gothic in nature, by shape and decoration, and cannot belong but in structures typical
of this style: openwork shards, cut out lily flower crowning, knights, rosettes, edges with various compositions of
creeping stems, niches etc.
The stove with spiralled creeping stems as main motif, around some knights, may date around 1500, having
abstract compositions or on massif triangle-shaped roof tiles the remains of which were discovered in the round
tower. The most spectacular of them is the knight with creeping stems, the key to understanding and classifying a
series of pieces known in the literature of the recent years with various theories about it.
Remains of another stove seem to have been thrown in the lime pit that was partially investigated in S.l 1,
dated back to the 16th century. Mainly made up of concave stove tiles (medallion or concave central field) and with
a cut crowing populated by birds, their main feature is polychromism, accentuated by the shade and light play
coming from various plans that make up the pieces.
In addition to these, a series of other stoves were decorated with vegetal and geometric motifs in extremely
diverse combinations, with end pieces cut out in arched shapes, typical for the Renaissance. For the second half of
the 16th century and the 17th century wallpaper motif pieces are certified, and in the 17th century the artefacts
manufactured by the Habans in Vintu de Jos were rather highly appreciated.
In Transylvania several thousand stove tiles, almost all museum collections and stove tiles discovered on the
last decades’ archaeological sites have been published. Still, it is interesting that new types and versions appear all
the time, so the 15*-17th century stove universe seems an inestimably diverse. As to the finds in Alba lulia, the
chronological classification of the pieces is more important than this decorative diversity. The classification is
facilitated by contexts and coin layers. This situation allowed reducing the intervals that we usually date these
pieces back to if we have to resort to analogies but this procedure proves less and less acceptable. The discovery of
this batch is obviously a major contribution to increasing our knowledge on the fascinating, and almost equally
complicated world of medieval and pre-modem stoves.
XVI. 2. Ware and other pottery artefacts
XVI.2.1. General considerations
The excavations revealed a large amount of pottery shards, in particular in the 2002 campaign, in front of the
bishop’s palace. The pottery was collected by layers and squares were possible. At the end of each campaign a preliminary
recording of artefacts was conducted, that stayed valid to date, waiting for the organization of a much prepared museum.
On the whole, over 2000 bags were recorded, but this does not help us estimate the total number of shards as the content
of bags varies. Such statistics would not even be relevant as the material mainly comes from fillings.
At this processing stage we made a selection of the shards of rims, bases, bodies with decorations or other relevant
qualities. Since 2000 and 2001 all interesting shards have been drawn, but since 2002 a more rigorous selection was made
as the material was much richer. The analysis was based on the topographic criterion and the catalogue was drafted by
complexes, trenches, and layers respectively, datable contexts being outlined as much as possible.
The already listed complexes contain varied proportions of pottery shards:
- pit no. 3, containing 9th-10th century materials
- the 14th century complex (partially researched), containing homogeneous material of the second half of the
14* century
- pit 33, containing mixed materials, however, most of them come from the 14th-15th centuries
- well, latrine 1, the round tower and the lime pit in S.l 1 with 16* century homogeneous material
- pit no. 1, consisting of mixed material, however, predominantly from the 17th century;
- pit no. 2, with diverse materials, most of them from the 17* century.
Among them the materials of the complex dated back to the second half of the 14* century were treated
separately, alongside with latrine 1, that we considered relevant case studies both in terms of shard or pot numbers,
and the homogeneous character and well datable context.
Most shards come from layers. We distinguished two situations for their processing:
- shards located in contexts (layers) that can be dated by means of other materials (coins, other items with
easily traceable chronology), by aid of the stratigraphic matrix and/or masonry structures.
479
- shards in secondary position or moved. InAlbalulia, at the slightest motion of the ground, Roman, migration,
early Middle Ages and up to the 17th century pottery shards come out. Near the cathedral, the layers were disturbed
by the tomb pits (quite numerous in the 12th century and the first half of the next one), by the foundation trenches of
various buildings that were erected on top of or near them in time, the excavation of the first defence trench (pit 33)
and the major interventions in the early 18th centuiy (pits. nos. 1 and 2 in particular). The excavations conducted on
such occasions rarely reached the Roman age, but stopped in the Arpad era layers. This is why 10th֊ 12th century
shards appear when first striking the soil with a spade.
To chronologically classify the moved material we resorted to analogies, but unfortunately this method is
relative, given the incipient stage of the medieval pottery study in Transylvania. Many pottery shards have been
apparently published, however, the analysis stopped in most cases to general information, and the chronological
classification was almost exclusively based on analogies; it is very rarely that a certain stratigraphic or some other
context was revealed that may have undoubtedly led to dating the material. This level of the research is paradoxically
in contrast to the large number of excavations, in particular in the latest decades, and the enormous amounts of pottery
shards accumulated in the warehouses of museums. Large amounts of pottery coming from the ample excavations in
Dăbâca, Cluj Mănăştur, Şirioara etc. where many closed complexes and conclusive stratigraphic situations are mentioned,
would have stood for benchmarks, of course, for the current research; still, they seem lost together with the relevant
contexts. In Ţara Haţegului quite a lot of excavations have been done, but we can hardly recover several shards dated
in the context. The pottery from Cetatea Oradea seems to have been very generous; unfortunately, its publication
without contexts makes it of little use. Such examples are many, but we limit here only to excavations in Alba Iulia.
such as the ones in Staţia de Salvare/Ambulance Station and various location in the fortress, where dwellings are
mentioned quite frequently. One can see here that, in reality, we are still far from interpretation as we do not have basic
instruments. First, one feels the need for materia) catalogue that at least will clear things for future generation of
Middle Ages specialists interested in the history of this region. In such landscape a notable exception is the Seklars'
materials the processing level of which exceeds the local average by far. However, most of them are late materials
coming from the 14th-16th centuries, from a locally specific area that we should cautiously relate to.
XVI.2.2. The 10ih-13th century pottery. The pottery of this timeframe stands for approx. 50% of the total
shards, on the other hand reflecting the intense exploitation of the site during the Aprad era. On an average, its
context starts at֊ 1 m., but appears frequently in the upper deposits and even under the vegetal layer. The material
is fragmented, no shapes can be reconstructed, most often not even the diameter of the opening can be determined.
The contextual analysis allowed isolating several chronological groups that we will present as such.
The 10th-12th century pottery. The pottery group belongs to the 10th-12th centuries, comes from layer 4 and
the related ones (layers 174, 163 etc.), partially moved by the tomb pits. In the general chronology of the cemetery
these deposits correspond to ages 2 and 3, and most likely 2a, the chronological classification being determined by
coins, metal objects and, also, the stratigraphic context. These deposits are covered by layer 30 on most of the
surface, which layer we date around year 1200. Logically, some of the fragments treated here may be older, but at
the current stage of the research we cannot distinguish them by technical criteria.
In S. 11 the following were excavated: the filling of a dwelling, a black soil layer mixed with stone rocks and
brick shards, frequently mortar and coal pigment, and also plenty of animal bones (context 4R2). Quite a few
pottery shards were recovered from here, accompanied by a 12th centuiy coin, which dating is confirmed by the
stratigraphic context of the complex as well. Without this coin we would have probably had the tendency to suggest
some earlier classification, at least the 10th-11th century, as some of the shards have a rather archaic nature, such as
the one under no. 4453. However, others seem even more recent (437,444), so as, on an average, this seems indeed
a 12th-century dwelling. The material cannot be made whole again; not even two shards match together.
2 The description of contexts can be found in the legend of the layers.
3 References to the catalogue of the materials in complexes are made by the rules in note 1, and for the artefacts in layers it is only the number
in the general catalogue that is indicated.
480
Other contexts that can be dated to the 12th century are 4K (plate 122/1-15), 161-162 and 29 (plate 138). Still,
they have no characteristics to individualize them in any way, from a technical point of view, from the pottery in
layer 4, which confirms once again the homogeneity of this material in the Arpad era.
The paste is, generally, of the semi-refined category, but often the vessels were made of better homogenized
material, falling within the average group. Coarse grained and fine paste appears rather rare. We did not manage to
determine a certain correspondence between the paste types and other characteristical elements, such as the decoration
or the shape, so as it is most likely that the small variations in the material quality are accidental. The pottery is
modelled with the slow wheel and often shows finger traces. The burning is by oxidation and superficial, and
produces darker colours from reddish brown to black so as some smaller shards seem burnt by reduction. However,
this is probably the same kind of burning, in a rather primitive semi-oxidizing environment. The percentage of the
vessels with smooth/carefully finished surface, with no real polish, is smaller than 5-6%.
The prevalent shape is the short-necked and widened-rim jar, with the maximum diameter in the shoulder or
median area. The diameter of the opening, determined in few cases, is, on an average, 16-18 cm.; larger pots are
frequent too, with the opening diameter of up to 21.5 cm. or even 27.7 cm. Their profile varies, but in a rather
limited segment. The pots are decorated by incisions, excisions, small-wheel impressions, and combinations of
them, creating numerous variants depending on the potter’s inspiration. The attempt to systematize these decorations
led to a very large number of variants so as finally we can draw the conclusion that those people’s sense of beauty
was extremely well developed.
Other identified forms are: the bowl (68, 292, 327, probably 79 and 161) and pitcher (627). Several shards
belong to smaller shapes, some sort of small pots decorated inside the rim with wave bands (352). A special shape
is the vertical-walled pot, with a slightly rounded and thickened edge, highlighted by several grooves in the exterior
that we can see under no. 766. Plenty of shards come from the rims or bodies of small buckets made of the same
average- or semi-fine quality paste, burnt by oxidation to various levels. The classical type is documented; it has a
rounded base, rounded and thickened rim, with straight cut upper part, much everted at placed to allow making
hanging orifices.
Pottery dated back to the 10th and 13th century. An important batch of pottery does not have any contextual
dating, but is undoubtedly typical of this timeframe, so it was included in the catalogue by dating back to the 10th-
13th centuries. It comes from various types of filling, and approximately half of it was recovered from pit 33. In
terms of number of shards, the jar is also predominant; its technical and decorative characteristics correspond to the
ones described above. Several base shards, decorated with potter’s marks, were preserved: catalogue 33; pit 33/7;
pit 1/17, Several wall shards have finished (109, 469) or even strongly polished (113) exterior surface. Shards of
small buckets with everted rims and hanging orifices were recovered from fillings.
Glazed pottery. Several olive-green glaze pottery shards were recovered from various locations of the
excavations. Shards 65, 107 and 209 come from 12th century contexts. The last of them is made of fine paste, fast
wheel-turned and burnt by reduction. The exterior is covered in a compact olive green glaze layer. Shard 65 has the
same characteristics while 107 is closer to the common pottery category, made of medium paste and burnt by
oxidation, also modelled with a fast wheel. Its exterior İs covered İn a colourless glaze pellicle. Shard 54, from a
13th century context, has an inner olive green glaze, is made of medium paste, and burnt by oxidation. Two of the
most interesting shards come from the filling of the pit 33 (/39, 40).
XVT.2.3. 13th century pottery. In S.l, near the bishop’s palace, around the depth of 1 meter, a burnt layer
appeared that we can date to the second half of the 13th century (159). It is hard to say whether this is related to a
certain event, such as the ones in 1241 or 1277; the successive layers of burnt material seems to indicate some
habitation that we did not manage to delineate on the plan. From a stratigraphic perspective, it is interesting that
this level corresponds to the upper limit of the withdrawn part of the foundation of the cathedral’s southern nave.
Numerous pottery shards that we relate to the 13th century were recovered both from the burnt material, and the
deposits that precede it (156-158). The predominant shape is the jar, with the opening diameter varying between 13
and 18 cm., but with a clear average around 16 cm., with the maximum diameter in the upper third part. The pot
481
with the smallest opening diameter (11.2 cm., catalogue 326) is most likely a small pot, with the maximum diameter
in the median area, whereas the surviving shard suggests an ovoid shape. The rim profiles are varied. The predominant
decoration consists of small alveoli placed on the shoulders (116, 123, 124, 118, 151, 154, 97) accompanied by
grouped horizontal incisions (127, 120, 121) or a wave (122). In two cases the decoration seems to be limited to a
waved line at the base ofthe neck (125,98). A combination of horizontal incisions and irregular waves are preserved
on shard no. 144; waves with some distance between them appear on a wall shard (147), and one can see on a base
fragment horizontal incisions close together (150). The decoration made with the small wheel appears on a shard of
a pot’s shoulder (132) and on some other shard coming from the body ofthe pot (143).
Except for the jar, the following have been also preserved: shards of bowls (99, 158), jars (149) and small
buckets (96, 386, 156, 159, 160). It is worth noting that, though slow wheel-turned, the pottery has a good quality,
made of well homogenized paste of the medium or semi-fine category. Most of the jars have carefully smoothed/
finished outer surfaces, just as the jar shard.
Some other shards belong to contexts dated certainly to the 13th century, layers 30, 31, 42, 165 and 225
respectively. A small pot with a potter’s mark on the bottom was discovered in the north-western tower in a
construction level dated by coins (layer 225, catalogue 3).
A small fragment of the body of a pot decorated with a geometrical band imprinted with a roller comes from
context 42 (748). The pot was fast wheel-turned, the paste belongs to the medium category, and the outer surface is
covered in a thick layer of white paint. The oxidizing burning produced a reddish-yellow colour. It is a local
imitation of the gray pottery.
Among the moved shards, we dated to the 13th century a fragment of ajar decorated with differently sized
alveoli arranged on the rim and neck, an oblique line group made with a triangle-shaped small wheel on the shoulder
of the pot, and line fascicles on the body of the pot (345).
XVI.2.4. The 13th-14th century pottery. The material in layer 166, in S. 10, may be dated to the limit between
the 13th and 14th century. We indeed notice that some profiles are more evolved (551, 552, 555, 556) while others
are extremely simple, we could say, archaic (552, 554). The shards come from jars, but it is interesting that one of
the few bell-shaped lid shards comes from here (553). This early group probably includes fragment 505 as well,
though from another context.
Contexts 37 and 104 produced other material dated to this timeframe. The prevailing shape is the pot with no
handles, with relatively simple profiles (catalogue 378, 380, 382-383; 389), some even archaic (379, 381). The
opening diameters range between 11 and 14 cm., in most cases around 12 cm.: the base diameters are 8-10 cm.
(571). Potter’s marks are visible on several shards. The decorations consist of small alveoli, horizontal and wave-
shaped incision stripes, and equally small wheel-made or groove areas. Other identified shapes are mugs (730, fine
paste, with a partially finished exterior; 810, medium paste with polished outer surface, shaped base and handle
shards), plates (486) and bowls(456, 731 - fine paste and finished outer surfaces).
Several shards of this group, most of them moved, belong to good quality gray pottery; the existing shapes
are the mug (590) and bowl (598). A shard of a wall made of fine micaceous paste, quick wheel-turned has its outer
surface polished (470). One of the most interesting shards comes from a medium paste mug with handle, with a
geometric motif on its shoulder, made with the roller and burnt by reduction (793).
As for the white pottery, we dated a single shard coming from a whitish-pink paste bowl, with no context, to
this timeframe (268). The wall shard under no. 269, decorated with a roller, is most likely an imitation of the gray
type, and its dating to the 13th-14th centuries is suggested by the context.
Hypothetically speaking, we included two shards of pit 1 in this chronological group. The first belongs to a
small-sized pot, made of fine, soapy paste degreased with plenty of mica and made with the fast wheel-turned. The
full oxidizing burning produced a red colour, later the outer surface was polished and finished (pit 1/19). A second
shard most probably belongs to a mug equally made of fine paste, fast wheel-turned. The outer surface is decorated
with superficially incised ribs, unequally distributed. What makes this pot one of its kind is mainly the full reducing
burning that produced a compact gray wall (pit 1/18).
482
XVI.2.5.14th-15th century pottery
The 14th century complex. In S.22 a complex containing unitary material datable to the end of the 14th
century was found. According to the paste composition, one can distinguish three pottery categories: semi-coarse
grained, medium and fine.
The semi-coarse grained category prevails in terms of quantity (57%) This kind of paste was used for making
comparatively large-sized pots with no handles (with rim diameters between 17 and 25 cm., and the base diameter
between 12 and 22 cm.) that were mostly used on fire. The pot walls are relatively thick; an increasing thickness
was noted, from shoulder to base, with maximum thickness in the area between base and wall. The medium paste
was used for producing small-sized pots, with the rim diameter between 15 and 19 cm. and base diameters between
10 and 16 cm. The category of fine pasted pottery, very rarely represented in this lot, is made of clay with very little
degreasing agent. The pot walls are thinner than those of semi-coarse grained paste (thickness varies between 3 and
5 mm.) and this is the reason why burning is complete.
A special artefact of the pottery category for use on fire is a shard that was burnt by reduction, made of a
highly resistant cement-looking aspect. The shape of the pot is similar to that of a melting pot with a very thick rim,
everted, with almost vertical walls. On the upper part of the rim, in an area flatted and shaped as a pouring beak, a
stamp showing letter T is imprinted. The product was identified by us as a product imported from the Austrian area,
most likely Tulin am Donau, a city that still has the letter T on its coat of arms.
The jar pot is the most frequent type alongside with poorly represented bowls (2%) and jugs (1.8%). The
storage pot is represented by a single shard made of semi-coarse grained paste, fast wheelmade, with no traces of
decorations (49). The special execution element is a clay band applied in the rim area and smoothed inside with the
wheel. The shape of the pot has no neck, globular or elongated, with a rim much smaller than the maximum
diameter (with the rim diameter of 31 cm.), with approx. 7-8 mm. thick walls.
Other 14,b-15th century materials. Shards that can be dated back to the 14th century are present in large
amounts in the foundation trench of the Gothic palace (context 43 and related) and also in pit 33. Many fragments
of the first context were discovered in S.3 and S.25, where the interventions related to the construction of the palace
were not much disturbed. We think of those shards that are somehow standardized, fast wheelmade and with a
specific profile, that are probably generalized after the middle of the century and were to be used, with no significant
changes, in the following century as well. In the first part of the century it is certain that many of the old shapes and
decorations are present, and that most likely late Arpadian pottery was manufactured at a large scale, slow wheel-
turned; however, unfortunately, we have not found any complex to illustrate such transition so far. A good example
in this respect is no. 505 that has an evolved profile typical of the 14th century, combined with a decoration that
became traditional in the following century.
Generally, the material in context 43 is made of medium or semi-fine paste, degreased with sand, mica, and
pebbles of various sizes. The medium paste prevails, though semi-fine paste appears quite frequently. The pots are
fast wheelmade, and the prevailing burning is the incomplete oxidizing one. In several cases, we noticed the fact
that the core of the pot is gray while very thin exterior pellicles got shades of yellowish orange (231,249,263-267).
The burning by reduction is rarer, probably representing 5-7% of the entire material (234,235,239,240, 253, 256,
678, 735,741,745, 815), but the shards are not otherwise differentiated as their shapes are identical. Thus, the deep
black colour could also be the result of a certain position in the kiln.
The prevalent shape is the jar, the opening diameter varying between 14 and 20 cm., generally with no
decorations. The bell-shaped lid is represented by 3 shards; other illustrated shapes are: the bowl (245), a pitcher
with handle (241), a mug with lobe-shaped opening (257) and a smooth outer surface jug (263). The shards in nos.
238, 241,244 (with finished exterior), and 257 belong most likely to pitchers as well, just as the base made of fine
yellowish paste (814). The shard no. 233 seems to belong to a candle holder base. Three shards are included in the
kaolin pottery category, and one single shard preserves a colourless glaze pellicle on both faces.
Another context with 14* century materials is layer 44 that covered the filling of the foundation trench of
Palace II (Gothic) probably at a rather short interval after its construction. The layer contains later coins, but the
pottery material is uniform and, technically, is no different from the one in layer 43 that has already been described
above. Among the more special materials there is a base made with a torus decorated with an incised wave (725).
483
The lower part of a small-sized pot, that we assumed to be a melting pot, has been preserved, with its exterior
covered in a thin greenish glaze pellicle applied directly on the paste (669). There is also fine kaolin pottery
represented by the upper part of a mug (or bowl?) (723), and 2 shards of a very thin wall, decorated with superficially
grooves alternatively marked in red paint (663).
14։h-15։h century pottery. A well-represented group of pottery shards appears in contexts that provide only
a wider chronological classification in the 14th-15th centuries. Much of the material preserves the features described
for the 14th century; besides them, there are more sophisticated profiles, new shapes and gradually the number of
the glazed shapes will increase.
Inside the north-western tower excavations were done in a debris filling, marking some repair work following
a fire, preceding an occupation level dated by coins in the last quarter of the 15th century (context 230). The pottery
material is, however, archaic enough, there are no glazed shards (2 exceptions, numbers 43 and 44), there are
absolutely no painted decorations, and the profiles are predominantly simple. The prevailing shape is the same pot
with no handles, with collar-shaped rims (plate 166); however, there frequently appear more complicated profiles
that are rather typical of the 15th century. (35, 40, 41, 48). The decorations are limited to superficial incisions on the
shoulder of the pot; still, a small shard is preserved, decorated with geometric motifs made with a roller in the raw
paste (42). The pot was of average quality, and we believe it is a late imitation of the gray pottery of the prior period
that we mentioned above. A shard from the upper part of a ceramic bottle also has a brown glaze with green
reflections, which is actually lead glaze placed directly on the paste (51). There are several special shapes in this
batch, all related to serving meals: a small simple profile bowl (2), jugs (28,32); a beaked pitcher (50), a small lobe-
shaped opening pot and extremely thin walls (36). A circular tray with the opening diameter of 11.7 cm. (33) was
most likely used as a lamp.
Another context that is very rich in materials is layer 46, a rather rich filling near Palace II, most likely
related to one of the 15th century interventions. As we have already noticed in the case of layer 230, most of the
material has typical 14th century shapes. Most shards belong to jars; equally, shards coming from mugs, plates,
bowls of various sizes and pitchers were recorded. As compared to the previous batches, a new item is the pitcher
with geometric decorations painted in white and dark red paint (200). The shards made of white paste are more
numerous and usually have special shapes: a jug neck (657), a lobe-shaped opening pot and a bowl (199). A wall
fragment is decorated with fine incisions, and its outer surface is polished (640). The fine pottery category also
includes a small pot of a maximum diameter in the median area and decorated body, right under the neck, with
incisions (633). Finally, the shard under no. 646 most likely belongs to a lighting device: the outer surface was
covered in a thin brown-reddish glaze pellicle.
The 14th-15th century pottery is also found in moved positions in various locations of the excavation; we
merely selected several shards that are more interesting (plates 174-176). The list of kaolin ware is added with
painted shards, a mug neck or jug (707) and two other small pot profiles (592, 648 - the last of them decorated with
incisions). A special shape is the leg of a cup, with a much widened foot, equally made of fine paste that became, on
burning, white yellowish in colour (546). A single shard of common pottery preserves a green glaze pellicle (281).
The shards the chronology of which we can limit to the 15th century are few and come from contexts 88 and
194-195 (plate 177).
XVI.2.6.16th-17th century pottery. A series of pottejy shards that can be dated back to the 15th-16th century
come from context 82. As one can see in table 179, the material is substantially different from the previous period.
Thin walled pots are characterized by more complicated profiles (92, 292, 578, 601, 603) alongside with simpler
shapes (577, 579). A kaolin pot is extremely fine, with almost transparent walls and much thickened rim having a
trapeze cross section (769). Two shards belong to bell-shaped lids (589, 587).
The complexes where most part of the 16th century material comes from are latrine 1 and pit 4.
Pottery in latrine 1. After the materials have been washed, selected and copleted, it was determined that
they come from at least 65 pots preserved to various degrees. Most of them were made of fine paste, degreased with
sand, burnt by incomplete oxidation. For treating the outer surface, simple smoothing with a rag is frequent when
484
the pot is not dry. The most common decoration is horizontal lines incised on the belly or shoulder of the pot. Three
pots (/16,18, and 31) have their rims decorated: two with alveoli, one with incised oblique lines. One pot - no. 35
- has a soil pigment paint decoration, red-brown in colour, on the outer surface. Eight pots still preserve an inner
green glaze (with yellow or darker shades), applied on the slip.
Pot. This is the largest category and has variants with or without handle. The shape of the pots is given by the
flat base, sphere-shaped body ֊ the maximum diameter being usually at the upper third part ֊ and the rim is more
or less everted. In all cases - where measurements could be made - the height of the pot and the maximum diameter
were approximately equal, leading to a proportionate and balanced shape. These measures vary between maximum
28 cm. (/32 and 38) and minimum 15 cm (/16). In mosteases, the maximum diameter and the height are between 23
and 17 cm. The rim diameter is 2-4 cm. smaller than the maximum diameter. The treatment of the rim is uniform,
with few exceptions.
Lid. A category represented by eight artefacts. The association, in terms of their function, with the pot
category is also suggested by the approximate correspondence with the diameter - between 11.5 and 16 cm. - with
the opening diameters in average-sized pots. There is a single shape version: the cone-shaped lid with disc-shaped
button.
Glass. In this typological category only six pots can be included, that were preserved in an extremely fragmented
state. Its function of drinking vessel is indicated by its reduced sizes and the use of fine paste, alongside with glaze
as the case may be.
Other several shapes are represented in a smaller number of shards, such as pan, bowl, and jug. A special
piece is the onion-shaped smooth-based money box.
Other 16‘h century materials. In the lime pit in S.l 1 (pit no. 4) pot shards were also discovered in a smaller
amount than stove tiles. The material is fragmented, only few shards could be glued back together; still we could
not reconstruct any shape whatsoever. 26 shards were kept for analysis, belonging to the upper part of the pots,
except for three of them: a wall shard in the shoulder area (/40) and two bases (/28,43). They form a unitary group,
very similar to the material in Latrine 1; their dating to this century is mainly based on the stratigraphic context and
the presence of coins. Few pottery shards recovered from the well Ailing were dated back to early 16th century, this
time based on contextual analysis and analogies. In comparison to the material in the two complexes analyzed
above, the one in the well seems earlier indeed; there are also simpler profile and thicker wall pots. As concerns the
already listed characteristics, in this lot we notice the presence of a wall shard decorated with a geometric design
imprinted with a roller, and decorated with slip on the outside (/] 4), as well as a mug that was burnt by reduction (/
18). Nevertheless, the shards in the round tower also date to this timeframe. Besides the several pots (/76-79) we
should notice a glass base (/80), and a shard of a bowl with a much widened rim, inverted and articulated by two
grooves (/81). The shards are not glazed.
They can be added only few other shards recovered from conclusive stratigraphic situations. A pot base
made of white yellowish porous paste still has an inner green glaze compact layer applied on the slip (196). A pan
that can be made whole again, supported by 3 legs, has inner green glaze while the exterior is decorated with white
paint geometric motifs (197). Several pot shards come from context 97 (9, 13, 197), of which we should note the
version with the rim decorated with a small wheel. Contexts 216 and 221 revealed several pot shards that we date
back to the 16th- 17th centuries. A bowl shard shows strong inner traces of secondary burning, which made us assume
that it was also used as a lighting device (472). Other shards belong to plates with inner glaze (473) or painted (471,
477) decoration. Another pot base is also glazed in brown and yellow (489). If we compare this material with the
one in latrine 1, it nevertheless shows more evolved shapes, most likely typical of the second part of the timeframe.
The shards in context 76 are also well dated and belong to simple pots of comparatively small sizes (439-442).
Other ware that we dated to this timeframe is illustrated in table. 68 and partially 182 and add no new information
to the list of artefacts typical of the relevant interval of time. Among them we notice a bell-shaped lid with exterior
glaze and painted decorations (502) and some other glazed shards (340,482). It is here that several pots in pit 1 are
also included: inner green glaze pots (pit 1/22,23), a bowl with inner white paint decorations (/26) and most likely
a lid (/24).
485
XVI.2.7. 17ti։-18th century pottery
The pottery in context 102 is dated around 1700. Among the few shards illustrated in table 183 we should
notice mainly the small pot, probably a mug, with a lobe-shaped opening, with inner black compact glaze. The
pottery is of a very good quality and most probably it is imported (520). A rather common presence in the upper
layers of Alba Iulia is a small pot, 5-6 cm. in height, thick base and, usually, inner green glaze, that we believed to
be a melting pot. The shard in context 102 is even shorter, the outer surfaces are polished, and there is still a
compact layer of yellow glaze on its rim (521). We also notice here a pot with a handle, colourless glaze inside and
green glaze on the rim (517). We date to the same interval of time the shards in latrine 2, all covered in good quality
glazes in various proportions, placed in compact layers on the slip, and generally shiny. Other shards in this interval
are illustrated in table. 184, mainly coming from the upper layers near the sacristy (318-322). A porcelain mug
discovered in the palace garden could not be precisely dated (817).
XVI.2.8. The Haban pottery
The excavation revealed few pottery shards that can be related to the Habans, a common situation in
Transylvania, which is probably explained by the luxurious nature of these products. Most shards come from
medium-quality pots covered in white tin glaze, with blue shades, that can be dated to the 17th century relying on the
context (pit 1) or general chronology of this material.
XVI.2.9. Final considerations
Approximately 10% of the medieval and modern pottery discovered in the excavations was analyzed in this
volume; the outcome is a catalogue including 1258 entries corresponding to shards, very rarely to whole vessels.
Among them, 441 shards come from complexes and over 600 from dated contexts, the rest being recovered from
filling. Chronologically, the material covers the timeframe between the 9th and 18th centuries, but the limits of the
interval are hardly represented. Approximately 50% of the material is dated to the 10th- 13th centuries; however, the
14th-16th century timeframe is very well represented. The faetthat we defined contexts dated by accurate chronological
marks created the opportunity to delineate pottery groups, which is an important step forward in terms of
Transylvanian pottery study, given the current status of the research.
XVI.3. Special artefacts
A series of metal, glass and bone artefacts were discovered in the tomb and layer inventory. 258 positions of
artefacts coming from layers, 23 from the tomb list of artefacts alongside with 65 pieces in complexes were recorded
and distributed as follows: 18 artefacts in pit 33, 14 artefacts in latrine 1, 4 artefacts in the well, 5 artefacts in the
round tower, 11 artefacts in pit no. 1 and 13 artefacts in pit no. 2. This statistics does not include the artefacts
analyzed in the chapter on the Roman age, and the migrations period.
The material is abundant and covers a wide timeframe. The artefact organization has been done, as in the
case of the other materials, by complexes and layers4. The dating was done based on context dating; still unanswered
questions remain and a solution may be possibly found by an in-depth study of analogies.
Metal artefacts
The Roman age. Besides the artefacts analyzed in the specialized chapter, we can rather precisely relate the
Roman age to 10 more artefacts that were recovered from the deposits typical of that period, at depths where some
other dating is unlikely. Artefact no. 93 was probably an earring, and the one in 98 an applied ornament. We can add
two wire fragments (29, 62), 2 iron spikes (69), a fibula needle (79), a link (107) and a knife (132). We also include
here two fragments of reinforcements with a lesser degree of confidence, recorded under nos. 111 and 125.
The list of cemetery artefacts may be estimated as very poor as among the 82 tombs only 16 contained
various objects. Among the animal bones in M.80 there were several very corroded iron fragments among which
4 The references in the text to catalogues are made by indicating the complex (pit 33/1), and, in the case of artefacts coming from layers. b\
indicating the number in their catalogue between parentheses.
486
we could recover a metallic tip and a rectangular buckle (1, 2) that most probably came from a harness and are
dated together with this complex to the 9th-10th centuries. It is possible that M.70 may date back to late 10th century,
a child’s skeleton; near his skull a small silver hair ring with an S-shaped end was found.
Most often the objects belong to the most dense burial layer, M-2, developed around cathedral lb starting the
end of the 11th century (according to the oldest coins discovered in the site) and until the first decades of the 13th
century. Among them M. 15 is the richest, containing three hair rings with S-shaped endings (2 partially preserved),
a finger ring with a twiat and closed and flattened ends, and a shard of a metallic tip, probably a nail. The hair ring
that has survived in its entirety had its ending decorated with three superficial grooves. In each of tombs M.20 and
M. 69 two hair rings with S-shaped endings were discovered (11, 12, 17), while other 3 tombs (M. 28, 49 and 72)
had one single such object each (15, 16, 19). The ring in M.14 (5) was twisted with two silver wires, one of the ends
being flattened, decorated with a median vein, and twisted in an S shape. Two simple hair rings were discovered in
M.50, made of bronze (20), and other two made of silver, come from M.26 (13, 14). Fragments of an apparently
simple finger ring come from M.25 (18), and two bronze applied ornaments were discovered in the upper half of the
skeleton in M.13 (21, pieces 1 and 2). A fragment of a bronze bracelet, with a rhomboid cross section, belongs to
M.78, partially researched among the medieval foundation that overlapped and intersected it. The artefact may date
at the earliest to the end of the 11th century.
Earrings. Except for the above-mentioned artefacts coming from the tomb inventory, the earring group also
includes the lunula-shaped piece that was analyzed in the chapter on early Middle Ages (2A).
Bracelets. Two bracelets with twists (60, 61) with a loop-shaped ending, made of silver, were dated
back to the 11th-12th centuries based on analogies. They were discovered in the filling moved by tombs in S.l,
which anyway provides us with quite certain chronological references. A fragment of a bracelet made of
bronze flatband, with an orifice at one of the endings, comes from a context that can dated to the 13th-14th
centuries (144).
Rings. The only ring dated to the 1 lth-13th centuries in the context was made of a simple bronze band, with a
wide central groove (191). If the fragment of a bronze link recorded under no. 30 comes from such an object as
well, then it can also be dated contextually to the 10th-12th centuries. A ring made of a wide band on which a
decoration was applied on its outer surface, consisting of tangent circles with a central point, was made of a silver
alloy (150). Dating this piece remains questionable as the discovery context is unclear; however, analogies plead in
favour of an 11th-12th century dating. A silver seal ring (115) is made up of a simple link the ends of which are joined
on a disc-shaped chaton; its thickness has incised decorations with a central stylized lily flower; it was discovered
in a filling, but we proposed a 14th- 15th century dating for it, related to the Anjou dynasty and the functioning of the
royal clerical council in Alba Iulia. The simple ring recorded under no. 185 may be dated to the 15։h-l 6th centuries,
and the one in no. 137 comes from the filling moved by the sewerage in S.22, so a dating to the 16"’-17th centuries
seems more accurate. Some other finds are a ring with semicircular axis and another made of two wires shaped in
a twist and joined so that the joining place is not visible. Discovered in the upper layers of S.27, the artefact is most
likely a setting and comes from the modern age (190).
A bronze link with one flattened side and interrupted by a sleeve was discovered in the upper part of the
filling of pit 1 (/61) and most likely served as a jewel at a time that remains questionable.
Chains. A fragment of an 8-shaped chain made of bronze wire was discovered in S.23 under the burial level,
but its date stays uncertain prior to the 11th century (149). The chain in no. 163 was made of bronze as well; this time
it can be more accurately dated back to the 14th centuiy.
Hair pins. A single whole bronze artefact was found in the upper layers of S. 18. a context typical of the 14th-
17th centuries (129). A wire fragment with a twisted ending, dated to the 12th-13th centuries, most likely belongs to
such an object (26), just as the fragments in nos. 78 and 80, with no contextual dating. The wire fragment in pit 33
(/110) may be dated to the 14th-15th centuries, but whether it does belong to such an object stays questionable. A
bronze link developed of an axis appeared in context 4, however its date stays uncertain (94).
Buckles. A rectangular buckle with a rounded comer and a thickened side comes from the same context as
the chain fragment discovered above, being datable to prior 11th century (148). The rectangular bronze buckle
recorded under no. 199 may be more accurately classified in the 10th-12* centuries. A circular iron piece, provided
with a conic thorn, comes from the boundary between burial layers M-2 and M-4, so we suggested dating it back to
487
the 12th- 13th centuries, equally influenced by the fact that such objects had been discovered by Radu Heitel in brick
cist tombs (99). The other discovered buckles belong to the modern age (65, 141, 143).
A bronze belt end was recovered from a secondary position, so as dating it to the 14th-15lh centuries is
hypothetical (140). The tin fragment with holes for studs and decorated with circles, discovered in a 16։h-century
filling, most likely comes from a belt plate (151). The piece must, however, be earlier than that, so dating it remains
to be determined by possible analogies.
Buttons. 6 buttons were discovered, the oldest coming from the 14th-15th centuries (205), whereas the others
belong to the modem and contemporary ages (103, 138, 179, 202-2 items).
Hook fasteners. One piece was discovered, made of silver. We can date it to the wide timeframe of the 15'1-
16th centuries (186). Another one was recovered from the filling of pit 33 (pit 33/110).
Applied ornaments. A rectangular applied ornament made of very thin bronze tin was provided with fastening
studs at the ends and decorated with oblique incisions (28); it may be dated back to the 10th-12th centuries. We
included in the same timeframe the silver cast piece in no. 128, with pierced decorations, discovered in the filling
of tombs, that, we believe, are even older than that. The silver applied ornament urWer no. 25 and the one under no.
63 made of pressed bronze sheet and flower shaped date to the 13th-14th centuries. This group also includes a piece
made of several fine sheets clasped together with a rectangular unit (95), dating from context 4. The pieces dated
back to the 14th century are the 14th-century leaf-shaped one (160), and most likely the heart-shaped one cast in
silver under no. 161. Other recorded applied ornaments under nos. 153 and 166 date to the 15th-16th centuries. The
piece in 211 is flower shaped and was recovered from a burnt material layer datable to the 16th century. The appl ied
ornament in pit 1 (/30) was cast in bronze, with a visible twist-shaped face and holes for clasping at ends. Its context
belongs to the 16th-17th centuries, but the piece can be even older. A belt applied ornament comes from the same
place (pit 1/29).
A book binding made of silver comes from the upper layers of S. 11, on top of pit no. 4, and may be dated to
the 16th-17th centuries (118). The fragment found in pit 2 may come from a book as well (/62).
Knives. Fragments of 24 items were discovered that can be dated to the 13*-17th century timeframe. This
13‘' -century context reveals a bronze knife end (27), a blade with a triangle-shaped cross section with the handle
rod (72) and a fragment of another blade (52). An iron and silver handle (24) and two fragments of blades (66, 75)
can be dated to the 13th-14th centuries. Several pieces from the foundation trench of the Gothic palace (173, 175
with a handle made of bone plates, 176 and 177) and a pip-shaped knife end from the same location (167) are dated
to the 14th century. A small knife (97) discovered in S.3, a knife from the northern cathedral tower (40) and a blade
from the filling of pit 33 (/112) are largely dated to the 14th-15 th centuries. Artefact no. 35 was discovered under the
tower’s stone slab flooring, in a context dated to the end of the 15th century. It is a large piece, with the handle made
of wooden plates fixed with studs and the blade provided with a groove for the blood to leak. A bronze sheet knife
handle has an outer engraving with vegetal and geometric motifs, and its context is suggestive of a 15-16th century
dating (168). The artefacts under nos. 200 and 201 belong to the same period of time. A series of 5 knives belongs
to the modem age (87, 88,112,119,133; pit 2/160), and the artefact under no. 187 cannot be associated to any date.
The complexes reveal 16th-17th century handle fragments made of metal (latrine 1/78, pit 2/58), bone (latrine
1/86), respectively by setting of bone small round pieces on a metal core (well/22). Fragments of a Haban or Stiria
knife were discovered in the latrine filling 1 (/79), and the decorated sheet in pit 1 (/31) probably served as a
coverage for a knife wooden handle.
The discovered iron tools are a reminder of the main activities carried out near the bishop’s palace in
various ages. Near the well, several tools of a stone mason’s kit were discovered: stone chisels (192, 193), a
hammer and a tip (194, 195), that can be dated to the 16th century. A fragment of a chisel was discovered in front
ofthe cathedral, near the southern tower (126), and another in latrine 1 (/82), dated to the 16th century. Two iron
wedges appeared in contexts dated to the 16th-17th centuries (112, 120). A small adze for carving wood (89) was
discovered in the layers related to the operation of the annex in the north-western corner of the palace and may
be dated to the 16th-17th centuries. An iron tool for carving spoons was discovered in the north-western tower, in
the fillings that are prior to its construction, which made us suggest dating to the 11th-13th centuries (48). Some
other tools discovered in the excavations are: an axe blade (92, the 14th- 15th centuries), an axe (182, the 16th-17th
centuries?)
488
The flint under no. 31 appeared in a context that compels us to 10th-12th century dating, but the one in no. 101
cannot be dated by context. Another flint appeared in the fillings of latrine 1 (/83), most likely belonging to the 16th
century.
As taylors’ instruments are a pair of scissors dated by context to the 13th-14th century (51) and a bronze
thimble that belongs to the modern age (203). In latrine 1 a fragment of an iron candle stick or snuffers (/80) was
discovered and dated to the 16th century.
Locksmith’s tools: a hollow lock key with elastic blade locking mechanism (41) was discovered in a 14th-
15th century context. The grooves of the key were plated with a copper sheet to prevent wear and tear. The same
category also includes a lock key with a rhombus-shaped handle and Gothic style curved sides (59), discovered in
the north-west as well, and dated to the 13th-14th centuries. Other two keys belong to the modern age (117,136). The
artefact under no. 45 may be related to the same group as far as its function is concerned.
Ironware tools. Several fragments of hinges appeared in the fillings that cover the foundation trench of the
Gothic palace (171, 172), that can be dated back to the 14th-15th centuries. A leaf-shaped hinge end comes from
context 43 (96), and artefact no. 135 belongs most likely to the modern age. The artefact in latrine 1 (/77) is dated
back to the 16th century. An iron hinge was discovered in the upper part of the pit 33 (158,the 15th-16th centuries),
and a door hook from the filling of pit 2/65 is associated with a hypothetical date.
Weapons. Sporadically discovered, the weapons are illustrative of the technique in the field. The oldest
piece is a rhomboid-shaped arrow tip, with peduncle and a fastening shoulder; its contextual date is large enough,
to the 10th-12th centuries (32). In the fillings in the north-western tower, a fragmented spear tip with fastening tube
(50) and a crossbow bolt with pyramid-shaped tip and outer tube (49) appeared, both dated to the 13th century, at
the latest the following century. Two metallic tips, one made of bronze and the other made of iron, most likely
belong to this functional group and may be dated to the 14th-15th centuries (pit 33/105, 112). In a late 16th century
context, the filling of the round tower, revealed a spear tip (/82). Fragment no. 204 seems to have been part of a
riveting set, and dagger tip no. 134 was in an 18th-19th century context. In one ofthe crypt vents the metallic part of
a fire weapon was discovered that had been deposited there simultaneously with the burials in the crypts that took
place in the 18th century. A bullet was recorded under no. 139.
A fragment of a plate armour and links was discovered in the filling of pit no. 1; however, we proposed a
date timeframe prior to the context, to the 14th-15th centuries (pit 1/27). Two spurs with little wheels appeared in
14th- 15th century contexts (127, 156).
Harness pieces. A curb was discovered in a 13th-14th context (145). Two components that most likely come
from a saddle were discovered in the moved filling of S.2 and have not been clearly dated (83, 84), and the piece
under no. 68 seems to have been a saddle reinforcement. Piece no. 33 may belong to this group as well (the 10th- 13th
century, context date), alongside with the one under no. 47 (the 13th century). A strap buckle in S.27 may be dated
to the modem age (196).
Fragments of 7 horseshoes were discovered, dated back to the 13th-18th century timeframe
(34,37,104,155,174,197,210) alongside with a clout (206, the 17th-18th century).
The nail category is extremely varied, each and every piece being suggestive ofthe purpose and usefulness
it was meant for. Thus, quite a few hook nails were discovered, that had been used to close doors or tie up horses.
Carpentry nails have square or rectangular rod and irregularly flattened head. A more careful handiwork is noticed
at the item used for fixing parts that let the nail head to be seen. The 22 items from layers cover the entire 10th-18th
century timeframe. Mention must be made here of the decorative nails nos. 142 and 184, as well as spike no. 103,
dated to the modern age. Some other 11 items intended for analysis, coming from complexes, make this list of
artefacts richer; in terms of chronology, they are included in the 14th-27th interval of time. To put an end to the list,
note the bronze decorative head nail in pit 1 (/32).
Miscellanea. We include here two studs (53,102), a chain (154), lead bars (123), bronze thin nails
(130,131,188), an end of an decorative thin nail (169), a circular iron item (pit 2/63). Plenty fragments of iron and
bronze reinforcement fragments were used for various purposes in the 14th-17'h timeframe (42, 76, 106, 111, 124,
147,164,208,209; the roundtower/85; latrine 1/81; pit 33/102). Also, four fragments ofbronze pots were identified
and dated to the 14th-17th centuries (122, 178, 181, 189). A series of fragments belongs to objects that could not be
defined, given the state in which they were found, both in layers and complexes.
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3
Bone artefacts.
A bone needle was discovered in the upper layers of S. 18 and dated to the 16th-17th centuries (214). A button
is very recent (213), and a sequin may be dated the 17th-18th centuries.
Glass artefacts.
Among the 70 items recorded in this chapter, four of them belong to the Roman era and two of them to the
early Middle Ages. We related the fragments found in specific contexts, belonging to undefined pots (215-217), a
bowl respectively (262) to the Roman era. The glass-eyed bead under no. 222 appeared in the filling of the M-2
tomb layer, thus being dated to the 10th-12th centuries, most likely to the migration era. Chronological ly the segmented
bead under no. 251 is in the same situation.
Several jewellery items made of glass appeared in the filling of pit 33: an irregularly shaped bead (/116). a
porous glass fabric sphere (/115), and another spherical bead flattened on one side (/117). They are in the upper half
of the filling, so dating them to the 14th-15th century would seem more likely, however, we do not exclude the
possibility that the artefacts may have been older given the general features of the complex. Keeping in mind the
same dating reservations, mention must be made here of the jewel fragment made by covering a metallic core in a
yellowish glass fabric (/114). From pit 2 (/69) we kept for analysis a spherical pendant, with broken hanger, cast in
glass, brown in colour with blue shades. The artefact comes from the lower part of the filling, so the most likely
chronological classification is the modern age.
The oldest artefacts discovered in the context are very thin-walled recipients, brown-grey in colour, with
complicated shapes, in particular in their upper part. Fragments of such artefacts appeared in the well filling (723,
25) and that of latrine 1 (/87-89) dated to the 16th century. The pot the shards of which were found under the round
tower flooring must be just as old (/86). Shards of similar artefacts were identified in various other locations of the
excavation, with a more general dating to the 16th-18th century. Large amounts of better quality glass shards from
17th and especially 18* centuries were found, which glass is transparent and white or greenish in colour; a variety
of pieces was made of it.
We should also mention plenty of small glass shards of circular and triangle shapes discovered in various
points of the excavation, in particular in the filling inside the north-western tower. Brown opaque glass shards, with
ring-shaped rim, were also discovered in the well filling (/24), alongside with fragments of lead frames in latrine 1
(/84) and in pit 33 (/103).
Special pottery artefacts
Two spindle rings appeared in contexts dated to the 13th- 14th centuries (273, 275), and other two can be dated
to the 14th-15th centuries, being recovered from the filling of pit 33 (/118, 119). In pit no. 1 four pipes appeared that
we can date to the 16th-17* centuries (pit 1/34-37). Other 4 pipes discovered in layers can be dated to the 17th-l 8th
centuries (274, 277-279).
Special stone artefacts
A semi-precious stone bead was found in S.24, in a quite unclear context, so its date remains uncertain.
XVI. 4. Coins
The 2000 campaign lead to the discovery of 12 mediaeval coins among which 10 come from the issues by the
Hungarian royalty in the 12th-14th centuries, as follows: Bela II (1131-1141), Bela IV (1235-1270), Stephan V
(1270-1272), Ladislas IV (1272-1290), Andrew III (1290-13 01) and Charles Robert (13 08-13 42). They are added a
Polish coin issued during Cazimir Jagello’s rule (1447-1492) and a dinar issued by Ferdinand I ofHabsburg (1526-
1564). The series of coin finds in this campaign ends with a modern issue by Francisc II (1792-1835), as King of
Hungary, in year 1800.
As to the 2001-2002 campaigns, the situation is very different. First, coins are issues of the Hungarian
Kingdom, which are added a limited number of issues in Transylvania (3), Wallachia (3), Poland (3), the Ottoman
Empire (1), the Greek Roman Empire (2) and Patriarchate of Aquileia (1).
The oldest coins are Hungarians and were issued by kings Koloman (1095-1116) and Bela II (1131 -1141);
they are followed by a numerous batch of dinars with no inscriptions on, issued during the 12th century. Starting the
following century, there are two coins found that belong to the rule of Andrew II (1205-1235) and Bela IV (1235-
490
1270). Charles Robert of Anjou’s rule (1308-1342) provides for an important increase in the discovered pieces
(16), as well as a variety of denominations. The same phenomenon is noticed as concerns the issues under his
successor, Louis I (1342-1382). Later, one may notice a reduction in the 14th and 15th century finds, except for the
reign of Matthias Corvinus (1458-1490) that is related to seven finds among which several forged coins of the time.
The following period is dominated by coins issued under Ferdinand I de Habsburg (1526-1564); 13 pieces come
from that period, between 1540 and 1555. His successors are represented by one ortwo issues: Maximilian (1564֊
1576), Rudolf II (1576-1608) and Mathias II (1608-1619). The list of finds ends with a piece issued under Maria
Theresa, as queen of Hungary, in 1763. The Principality of Transylvania is represented by two coins issued by
Gabriel Bethlen (1613-1629) and one by Francisc Rákóczi (1703-1711).
Foreign coins are, as already said before, limited in number and within what is known so far about money
circulation in Transylvania. The earliest coin in this category is a Viennese pfennig from the end of the 13th century
and early 14th century. We have three Wallachian coins from the following princes: Vladislav I and Radu I (approx.
1377), Dan I (1383-1386) and Mircea the Old (1386-1418). Two coins come from the 15th century, issued by the
Patriarchate of Aquileia, patriarch Anthonius II di Panciera (1401-1411) and the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Bayezid
II (1481-1512). The 17th century Polish coins are chronologically in line, issued by Sigismund III Wasa (1587-
1632) and loan Cazimir (1649-1668). The most recent foreign coin is a greschl issued in the Liegnitz-Brieg Principal ity
in year 1670.
The monetary finds in Alba lulia start chronologically with a Hungarian coin issued during the rule of King
Koloman (1095-1116) and continue, increasing in quantity, with the coins issued by King Bela II (1131-1141). At
the end of the 12th century, the strong depreciation of the Arpadian coin made the dinars lose ground in favor of
western European coins that are preferred on the market. The 13th century is represented by merely two coins as
compared to the 13 coins of the previous century; they are two dinars of Andrew II (1205-1235) and Bela IV (1235-
1270). The Mongolian invasion meant a political and economic disaster for the Hungarian Kingdom, and the threat
of a new invasion was further felt in the following years. Under these conditions, the rarity of the coins can be fully
explained, in particular if one considered the precariousness of living standards at that time, which led to the
increase in the number of coin hoards coming from that age. Starting with the second half of the 13th century,
because of the pronounced depreciation of the Hungarian coin, the Viennese dinars start being used, issued by the
dukes of Austria and largely imitated by the Hungarian kings. Documentary sources certify Vienna’s long-lasting
commercial relations in the Transylvanian area. Since as early as the second half of the 14th century, there are
privileges given to Transylvanian cities by which they were offered the possibility to have commercial relations
with Vienna by means of the city of Buda. However, the Viennese coins appear earlier, such as the pfennig in our
finds, dated to the end of the 13th century or early 14* century, given the existence of commercial and political
relations. On the other hand, in year 1312 a customs fee is introduced at the river valley at Valea lui Mihai, that is
denominated in Viennese dinars. A Hungarian dinar unknown so far in the specialized literature belongs to this
stage of the Hungarian mint, that, however, falls perfectly within the coin typology of the mint of the era. It is a
dinar with a dragon to the left on its heads, and two birds with their heads facing each other with a lily flower
between them on its back (no. 16 in the catalogue). The piece has its tails similar to a coin issued during Stephan
V’s rule (1270-1272), with two birds in approximately the same position; between them there is the Hebrew letter
Alef (HL 357). The face is completely different.
Charles Robert of Anjou’s rule (1308-1342) meant a radical change in the monetary policy once the gold
coin was introduced, and equally in terms of the changes incurred by the silver coins. By the document issued in
Transylvania in early 1323, the king notifies the clerical council in Alba lulia of the decision he made at the request
of the aristocracy displeased by the monetary chaos in the kingdom. The introduction of a unitary coin was decided,
with a value generally accepted in the kingdom. Though two stages of steps were necessary, 1323 and 1338, the
reform was partially as successful as expected, as shown by the finds in Alba lulia as well where the coins issued
under Carol Robert are the most numerous and varied as far as the denominations are concerned. The presence of
these low-value coins shows an increase in the lesser trade, which is necessary in a developing city. These are
added the fact that a mint is founded in Alba lulia in this age.
The monetary activity is intense under the rule of Charles Robert’s successor, Louis the Great (1342-1382).
Though numerous, the coins minted under his rule are represented by a single monetary type: the “Sarasin head or
491
Moor head” dinars as they are known in the specialized literature. As they were the most frequent coins of the age,
it is but natural that they appear in Alba Iulia in large numbers as well. Most of them are probably the product of the
mint in Pécs.
Sigismund of Luxemburg’s long reign (1387-1437) is less represented in the finds of Alba Iulia though his
active participation in the anti-Ottoman wars required his long stay in Transylvania. Among the three coins related
to his rule, one is a forgery made at the time, another is minted in a negligent and non-centred manner. The galloping
devaluation of his coins was caused by the considerable financial effort made by the Hungarian Kingdom to support
the military operations at the Danube, which favoured the appearance of forgeries on the market, in particu lar low-
value coins {obol, quarting, dinar). Chronologically, the following coin belongs to the troubled era that followed
the death of King Albrecht. Though minted rather carelessly, the dinar was issued in Kosice (Kaschau) by Queen
Elisabeth and her underage son, Ladislas the Posthumous. John of Hunedoara’s rule, as governor of Hungary, is
characterized by two issues by the Transylvanian monetary workshops: Sibiu (Hermannstadt) and Baia Mare
(Nagybánya), both issued in 1446. The three decades that had lapsed between Sigismund Ts death and Matthias
Corvinus’ coronation were difficult in terms of money circulation. Besides the official issues, the right to mint
coins was assigned to private persons, so devalued coins minted for supporting the anti Turk campaigns invaded the
Hungarian market.
A new coin reform takes place in year 1467; new stable value silver coins are introduced being distinctly
represented by the Virgin Mary and Child. Among the finds in Alba Iulia here are pre- and post-reform coins. The
coins issued in 1458-1467 are clearly different from the subsequent ones because of the poor quality of the silver
used, negligent minting, illegibility of some coins; they were made of bronze, probably forgeries.
After Matthias Corvinus’ death (1490), there is a gap of over 50 years in terms of the analyzed coin finds.
Given the early 16th century events, the situation seems natural. After the battle of Mohács, part of Hungary,
including the mint of Kremnica, gets under the rule of Ferdinand I of Habsburg, and the mint becomes the kingdom's
main coin mint workshop.
An important obstacle against coin issue, then coin spreading was produced by the fights for the throne
between John I Zápolya and Ferdinand of Habsburg. Small-value coin is minted in low amounts, that is why
Ferdinand’s coins will be sought after in Transylvania. This circulation will become more intense in the seventh
decade when in Sibiu the issue of dinars with Ferdinand’s effigy intensifies. The archaeological excavations that
we analyze here contain 14 coins issued by Ferdinand of Habsburg in Kremnitz between 1540 and 1555, which are
added several pieces in connection with each no issue year could be determined. One may notice that the coins are
made of poor-quality silver, some of them of silvery bronze. The issues of Hungarian dinars between 1526 and
1550 are, generally, very poorly represented because of the tensions between the Habsburg Empire and Transylvania
at the time. The number of Hungarian dinars increase towards mid-16th century. There is a connection between the
many dinars coming from the sixth decade of the 16th century and the occupation of Transylvania between 1551 and
1556 by the imperial troops, between the cessation of hostilities in the Principality and the Empire, the peace in
Satu Mare in 1565 and the treaty of Speyer in 1570.
The research on treasures previously discovered on the territoty of Alba Iulia certifies the manner the local and
foreign coin enters the market of the important Transylvanian city. One can notice the general absence of the
Transylvanian currency and the extended use of the Polish one and that issued by Ferdinand of Habsburg on behalf of
the Hungarian crown . Simultaneously with the decrease in the amount of Polish coins to the end of the 17* century,
one can see the gradual infiltration of the Austrian currency, and alongside with it, the silver coins from the German
provinces, such as, for instance, the onegreschlcoin belonging to the Liegnitz-Brieg Principality issued in year 1670
that we found. On the other hand, shortly after that (1675) this principality is joined to the Austrian Empire.
In the 17* century, one can see the frequent penetration of the Polish currency to the detriment of the Hungarian
dinar that ends up by being replaced by the small-value Polish currency. The two emissions, both minted in 1624.
are related to the climax of the monetary depreciation manifested in Transylvania at the time. Gabriel Bethlen’s
participation in the 30-year war increased the need for currency that resulted in the increasingly intense minting of
local coin, as the only Transylvanian coins in the 17th century in the Alba Iulia finds belong to his time, however, by
the penetration of depreciated foreign currency, in particular Polish. There is no Polish issue between the two
Sigismund III groşi in Wasa and the six loan Cazimir groşi, as such absence is caused by the restrictions imposed by
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Seim to improve the financial situation in Poland, and also Gabriel Bethlen’s endeavours to eliminate from circulation,
starting the end of year 1625, the devalued Polish groşi by replacing them with his own emissions of coins made of
good quality silver. The effect of his reform was only partially as expected as the local coins were permanently
withdrawn from the market owing to their superior quality.
As a result of the separation of Transylvania from Hungary, and its organization as a distinct state, the
Transylvanian princes, vassals of the Ottoman Empire, also enjoyed the right to mint money. Still, the Transylvanian
emissions are not present in discoveries but later on, in early 17th century and by means of two pieces only, which
proves the secondary role of low-value local coin in the first period of the monetary circulation in the Principality
under Turkish sovereignty, in particular if the Transylvanian princes were preoccupied with issuing high-value gold
and silver money, that was required to cover the expenses for the tax owed to the Ottoman Gate.
The coins issued in Wallachia are a scarcer presence in Transylvania, though explainable, if we are to consider
the late 14th century economic, political and military situation that Mircea the Old was an active participant in.
Moreover, in year 1395 there was an alliance treaty concluded with Sigismund I, King of Hungary, and Mircea the
Old, Prince of Wallachia, in the context of the anti-Ottoman crusade that was about to start. A secondary purpose of
this alliance was to protect the interests of the Magyar merchants on their way south and east, to the Danube and the
Black Sea. These can be added the much older economic relations of the Wallachian princes with the cities of Sibiu
and Braşov, among which mention should be made of the privilege given by Vladislav to the people of Brasov
based on ancient agreements.
We believe that the Ottoman coin may also be a proof of the close connections between Transylvania and its
southern neighbour. Though used in early times, simultaneously with giving up the minting of their own coins, the
Ottoman aspri are more frequently mentioned in the commercial transactions in Wallachia, and the customs fee
was paid in aspri as well at the end of the 10th century. Another source could be the Transylvanian mercenaries who
were requested by the Wallachian princes and probably paid in the same currency. The transit trade was particularly
important at the time. Spices and other eastern merchandise had an impressive route from India to the German
Empire, crossing the Ottoman Empire, Wallachia, Transylvania and Hungary. The frequent armed clashes in the
15th century never stopped this flourishing trade. After 1526, when the central part of the Hungarian kingdom got
under the Ottoman occupation, Transylvania’s role in the transit trade became even more important, as a mediator
of the merchandise circulation from central Europe to the Ottoman Empire, and vice versa.
This presentation of the coin finds ends with a 10 poltura piece issued during Francisc Rákóczi (1703-1711)
and the emission (1 kreuzer) of the Roman German Empire for Hungary in year 1763. The dramatic events in
Transylvania in early 18th century were marked in Alba lulia in terms of coins by the hiding of several treasures.
The anti-Habsburg revolt led by Francisc Rákóczi reached it climax when the city of Alba lulia was occupied and
the insurgents’ leader was proclaimed prince of Transylvania. On the other hand, by the peace in Satu Mare, that
consecrated the defeat of the revolt, the Habsburg Empire consolidated its positions in the principality and opened
the way for the access of its coins.
The Austrian coin gradually infiltrated since early the 17th century, and the Ottoman wars led to the increase
in such penetration by means of the armies of King Leopold I. This status quo was confirmed by the diet in Făgăraş
(February 14 - March 14 1682) that admitted the circulation of the imperial currency, that later became the official
Transylvanian currency. In the 18th century the mints in Alba lulia and Baia Mare issued coins for the Austrian state.
A kreuzer from Maria Theresia comes from the mint in Smolnik (Szomolnok, Schmöllnitz) that would mint copper
coins for the Roman German Empire for over 50 years between 1761 and 1816.
XVI.5. Study of the archeozoological material in M.80 (Florentina Chiu)
The fauna material subject to analysis includes the bones of the appendicular and cephalic skeletons of two
individuals of the Equus Caballus species. Besides this skeletons, several other bones were identified, namely a
fragment of a left metatarsus and a fragment of a right proximal radius belonging to a 2.5 - 3 year old individual of
the Bos Taurus species, as well as other splinters of the same species, with no particular significance.
The bones of the appendicular skeleton come from the left inferior limb, believed to belong to a mature
individual based on specific measurements and the bone epiphysation degree. In the second horse we identified
493
4
merely splinters of the cephalic skeleton (fragments of the frontal and temporal bones and the oral region), mandible
and jaw walls, as well as isolated teeth. Equally, several fragments of a left tibia and a piece of the third phalanx
seem to come from the same individual. However, based on teeth, the individual’s age was estimated at 18-24 years,
and the presence of canines is indicative of the fact that it was a male. Its slaughtering was probably done from
economic reasons as it was old, used for horseback riding and other utilitarian activities.
CONCLUSIONS
Beyond the prevention and rescue nature of the 2000-2002 archaeological research, its outcome was substantial:
many vestiges, be them ruins, tombs, layers, complexes or artefacts, were taken out from the ground, thus bringing
out to light parts that were less known, if at all, in the complex history of the south-western corner of the Alba lulia
fortress, from the Roman era to early 18th century. This area seems to have been permanently a preference of
builders, so many structures overlap and replace one another, making ages hard to delimit. In such dense habitation,
we had the chance to identify several segments of undisturbed stratigraphy based on which a somewhat accurate
reconstruction of the overall evolution of the site can be made. We believe that this is the most important achievement
of the third archaeological site around the Roman Catholic Cathedral in Alba lulia.
A fragment of the western side of the Roma age castrum was investigated and it was discovered to have been
provided with an slightly protruding intermediate tower. We came to the conclusion that the curtain wall had been
maintained as a fortification until at least as late as the 14th century, when the defence system was extended outside
it. The almost complete demolition of these vestiges was caused by some intervention in early 18th century. Inside
the castrum the traces of two rectangular Roman buildings, long axis east-west, and several wall segments that
were oriented north-south or east-west were outlined; their planimetry remains to be made complete by future
research.
The migrations phase is poorly represented by several metallic artefacts and pottery shards dated to the 5th
-6th centuries. A tomb with animal offering most likely dates to the 9th -10th centuries; it was partially uncovered
on the last day of the 2002 campaign, in S.23, at the limit of the current parking lot. A closed complex (pit 4)
belongs to the same period of time; a rather large amount of pottery shards was recovered from it.
The traces of the first medieval mortar constructions, probably belonging to basilica lb the ruins of which are
inside the current church, have survived from the 11th century. The site of the church was most likely started at the
end of the 12th centuiy and extended all along the following century, as suggested by the comparative analysis of the
data recorded in excavation. The most important new aspect related to Saint Michael’s Cathedral is, nevertheless,
the Gothic sacristy abutting the southern side of the choir in the 13th century. The sacristy where the Saxons stopped
when they attacked in 1277 was not the chapel that is an extension of the transeptto the west, but this very building
the ruins of which were revealed by the excavations. Some other new information concerns the north-western
tower, the Gothic choir and the Baroque sacristy. The study of the 82 tombs enabled us to delimit five chronological
timeframes corresponding to a time interval between the second half of the 9th century and the modern age.
As concerns the northern building of the Bishop’s palace, four independently built segments were identified,
coming from distinct historical moments, starting at the end of the 12th century until the 20th century. The most
important component is the Gothic palace (II) that may be dated to late 14th century. Later, this building was
provided with various extensions (well, latrine, staircase tower) and extended to the west by means of a bastion in
the form of a jutty, included in the modem fortification system.
Outside the Roman curtain, the most ancient materials that were recovered belong to the 14lh-l 5th centuries.
We assume that in the 14th century the fortification system extended outside the curtain, in some form that we
cannot indicate as, for the time being, we are familiar with an east-west oriented wall only, perpendicular on the
castrum wall. It could have belonged to an outer tower, with a wooden superstructure that was later destroyed in a
fire and that collapsed near the curtain. This wall was later used for a gate, and the construction system got crowded
before the Vauban phase; however, at this stage of the research, the topography of the late and pre-modern medieval
fortifications stays a potential goal of future investigations.
The excavation revealed many artefacts, mostly pottery and stove tiles as well as metal, bone and glass items,
and over 200 coins. The very large amount of materials for such a wide timeframe was problematic when it came to
494
identifying the best solution for processing and restoration. The coins, the metal, bone, glass artefacts and tile
shards were fully processed, but, for the other pottery shards, we resorted to representative selection. In processing
this materia], an essential aspect was the delineation of limited chronological groups, coming from contexts dated
by means of chronological indices that were direct or deducted from the analysis of the excavation. We should note
the 13th century pottery group, the groups of the second part of the 14th and 16th centuries, the tiles of the round
tower filling (the second half of the 16th century) that can be added many others that will be important benchmarks
in the future for the study of the Transylvanian material culture. Besides them we had to equally include materials
that were more widely dated, i.e. two or three centuries, given the compelling uniform nature of the artefacts or the
absence of some context and the inconsistency of the identified analogies. Of course, the processing of such a
complex batch, such as the one in Alba lulia, most of it coming from layers, was rather difficult and some results are
most likely debateable, however, even so, they can stand fora starting point in developing specialized research.
In comparison to the previous excavations it is obvious that the current site was much more modest, in terms
of the investigated area, and it did not have access to the strategic points of the site. This is why we believed that we
should refrain from extrapolating the results of these excavations and emitting conclusions of deep historical
implications, as we have noticed in our predecessors and as it is, at times, still fashionable to do. We believe that the
detailed publication of the results is more useful so as such results should be accessible to any researchers, historians
and archaeologists, as well as anyone who is interested in the evolution of this fascinating residential complex. The
extent of our success will only be confirmed by our readers.
The difficult task of turning an excavation of maximum complexity into history is hard to express in words
It is, however, expressed in itself by the reduced number of the archaeological publications that provide all information
so as we can have a direct contact with the site, beyond the partially subjective presentation by the person writing
about it. Given the destructive nature of archaeological excavations and the fact that no one can actually check the
excavations after they have been completed, we tried to provide as much recorded information as possible. Thus,
most excavation drawings, plans and sections profile, were included in this volume. As concerns the materials, with
few exceptions, all catalogue entries are also illustrated by drawings and/or photographs.
Conducting and processing the 2000-2202 excavations would have been much easier if the outcome of
previous excavations had been published. However, now that we have reached the end of this phase, I can say that
I perfectly understand why Radu Heitel never completed the processing of this excavation and why, in general, no
excavations in the Alba lulia fortress are published. It is such a dense, complicated, difficult-to-interpret site that,
most of the time, uncertainty prevails, making room to so numerous possible interpretations. In such cases, under
no circumstances are fragmented excavations the solution; I can only regret, once more, that this site was not
included in a national scientific research strategy.
XVII. CATALOGUE OF TOMBS
This chapter includes the description of tombs, organized based on the following scoring:
1.: age category, depth under the current occupation layer at the time of the excavation and/or as to the
W(agriss). 2.: shape and filling of the pit; other structures. 3.: conservation state. 4.: disturbances. 5.: orientation.
6.: position. 7.: list of artefacts. 8,: stratigraphic relations. 9.: chronological classification. 10.: other remarks.
XVIII. CATALOGUE OF MATERIALS
This chapter includes the catalogue of materials. The first part presents the artefacts in complexes (stove
tiles, pottery and special metal, bone and pottery artefacts), numbered separately per each and every complex. The
second part refers to artefacts found in layers, grouped topographically (by trenches, squares and depths) and
chronologically. The record number corresponds to the temporary site artefact list, drafted separately per each of
the 3 excavation years, which is indicated by the last two digit of the relevant year: 00, 01, and 02.
495
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Acta
ActaArchHung
ActaHistArt
ActaMP
AIIA
AHA Iaşi
AISC
Aluta
AMM
AMN
AnalBan
Angustia
Apulum
ArchÉrt
ArhMed
ArhMold
ArsT
Banatica
BAR
BCMI
BMI (A)
BRGK
BSNR
BudRég
Buridava
Carpica
CA
CCA
CercNum
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431 |
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| language | Romanian |
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| publisher | Ed. Altip |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Marcu Istrate, Daniela 1964- Verfasser (DE-588)1063223415 aut A Gyulafehérvári római katolikus székesegyház és püspöki palota régészeti kutatása (2000 - 2002) Catedrala romano-catolică "Sfântul Mihail" şi palatul episcopal din Alba Iulia cercetări arheologice (2000 - 2002) Daniela Marcu Istrate The roman catholic cathedral and the bishop's palace of Alba Iulia the 2000 - 2002 archaeological research Alba Iulia Ed. Altip 2008 710, XXXII S. zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: The roman catholic cathedral and the bishop's palace of Alba Iulia the 2000 - 2002 archaeological research Geschichte 2000-2002 gnd rswk-swf Archäologie (DE-588)4002827-6 gnd rswk-swf Bischofspfalz (DE-588)4424386-8 gnd rswk-swf Ausgrabung (DE-588)4129464-6 gnd rswk-swf Kathedrale Karlsburg Karlsburg (DE-588)7581933-8 gnd rswk-swf Karlsburg (DE-588)4084851-6 gnd rswk-swf Karlsburg (DE-588)4084851-6 g Bischofspfalz (DE-588)4424386-8 s Kathedrale Karlsburg Karlsburg (DE-588)7581933-8 g Archäologie (DE-588)4002827-6 s Ausgrabung (DE-588)4129464-6 s Geschichte 2000-2002 z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027764706&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027764706&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Literaturverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Marcu Istrate, Daniela 1964- Catedrala romano-catolică "Sfântul Mihail" şi palatul episcopal din Alba Iulia cercetări arheologice (2000 - 2002) Archäologie (DE-588)4002827-6 gnd Bischofspfalz (DE-588)4424386-8 gnd Ausgrabung (DE-588)4129464-6 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4002827-6 (DE-588)4424386-8 (DE-588)4129464-6 (DE-588)7581933-8 (DE-588)4084851-6 |
| title | Catedrala romano-catolică "Sfântul Mihail" şi palatul episcopal din Alba Iulia cercetări arheologice (2000 - 2002) |
| title_alt | A Gyulafehérvári római katolikus székesegyház és püspöki palota régészeti kutatása (2000 - 2002) The roman catholic cathedral and the bishop's palace of Alba Iulia the 2000 - 2002 archaeological research |
| title_auth | Catedrala romano-catolică "Sfântul Mihail" şi palatul episcopal din Alba Iulia cercetări arheologice (2000 - 2002) |
| title_exact_search | Catedrala romano-catolică "Sfântul Mihail" şi palatul episcopal din Alba Iulia cercetări arheologice (2000 - 2002) |
| title_full | Catedrala romano-catolică "Sfântul Mihail" şi palatul episcopal din Alba Iulia cercetări arheologice (2000 - 2002) Daniela Marcu Istrate |
| title_fullStr | Catedrala romano-catolică "Sfântul Mihail" şi palatul episcopal din Alba Iulia cercetări arheologice (2000 - 2002) Daniela Marcu Istrate |
| title_full_unstemmed | Catedrala romano-catolică "Sfântul Mihail" şi palatul episcopal din Alba Iulia cercetări arheologice (2000 - 2002) Daniela Marcu Istrate |
| title_short | Catedrala romano-catolică "Sfântul Mihail" şi palatul episcopal din Alba Iulia |
| title_sort | catedrala romano catolica sfantul mihail si palatul episcopal din alba iulia cercetari arheologice 2000 2002 |
| title_sub | cercetări arheologice (2000 - 2002) |
| topic | Archäologie (DE-588)4002827-6 gnd Bischofspfalz (DE-588)4424386-8 gnd Ausgrabung (DE-588)4129464-6 gnd |
| topic_facet | Archäologie Bischofspfalz Ausgrabung Kathedrale Karlsburg Karlsburg Karlsburg |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027764706&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027764706&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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