Polska w XIX i XX wieku - społeczeństwo i gospodarka:
Gespeichert in:
| Format: | Buch |
|---|---|
| Sprache: | Polish |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Kielce
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jana Kochanowskiego
2013
|
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | Na s. przytyt.: Księga jubileuszowa dedykowana Pani Profesor Reginie Renz |
| Beschreibung: | 559, [1] s. il. 29 cm |
| ISBN: | 9788371335778 |
Internformat
MARC
| LEADER | 00000nam a2200000 c 4500 | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | BV042201173 | ||
| 003 | DE-604 | ||
| 005 | 20150618 | ||
| 007 | t | ||
| 008 | 141121s2013 |||| |||| 00||| pol d | ||
| 020 | |a 9788371335778 |9 978-83-7133-577-8 | ||
| 020 | |z 8371335776 |9 8371335776 | ||
| 035 | |a (OCoLC)904719226 | ||
| 035 | |a (DE-599)BVBBV042201173 | ||
| 040 | |a DE-604 |b ger |e rakwb | ||
| 041 | 0 | |a pol | |
| 049 | |a DE-12 | ||
| 084 | |a 7,41 |2 ssgn | ||
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Polska w XIX i XX wieku - społeczeństwo i gospodarka |c red. Wiesław Caban [et al.] |
| 264 | 1 | |a Kielce |b Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jana Kochanowskiego |c 2013 | |
| 300 | |a 559, [1] s. |b il. |c 29 cm | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 500 | |a Na s. przytyt.: Księga jubileuszowa dedykowana Pani Profesor Reginie Renz | ||
| 648 | 7 | |a Geschichte 1800-2000 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Kobiety / Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 19 w |2 jhpk | |
| 650 | 7 | |a Kobiety / Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 20 w |2 jhpk | |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Wirtschaft |0 (DE-588)4066399-1 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Gesellschaft |0 (DE-588)4020588-5 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 651 | 7 | |a Polska / sytuacja gospodarcza / 19 w |2 jhpk | |
| 651 | 7 | |a Polska / sytuacja gospodarcza / 20 w |2 jhpk | |
| 651 | 7 | |a Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 19 w |2 jhpk | |
| 651 | 7 | |a Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 20 w |2 jhpk | |
| 651 | 7 | |a Polen |0 (DE-588)4046496-9 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
| 655 | 7 | |0 (DE-588)4143413-4 |a Aufsatzsammlung |2 gnd-content | |
| 689 | 0 | 0 | |a Polen |0 (DE-588)4046496-9 |D g |
| 689 | 0 | 1 | |a Gesellschaft |0 (DE-588)4020588-5 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | 2 | |a Wirtschaft |0 (DE-588)4066399-1 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | 3 | |a Geschichte 1800-2000 |A z |
| 689 | 0 | |5 DE-604 | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Caban, Wiesław |d 1946- |e Sonstige |0 (DE-588)1056139188 |4 oth | |
| 856 | 4 | 2 | |m Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027640052&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| 940 | 1 | |n oe | |
| 999 | |a oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-027640052 | ||
| 942 | 1 | 1 | |c 330.09 |e 22/bsb |f 0904 |g 438 |
| 942 | 1 | 1 | |c 306.09 |e 22/bsb |f 0904 |g 438 |
| 942 | 1 | 1 | |c 330.09 |e 22/bsb |f 09034 |g 438 |
| 942 | 1 | 1 | |c 306.09 |e 22/bsb |f 09034 |g 438 |
Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804152718186512384 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | The iron region.
Metallurgical centres of the Przeworsk culture
Summary
Iron production in the area influenced by the Prze-
worsk culture was on a greater scale than that sug-
gested by the conventional model of dispersed iron
smelting centres serving merely to satisfy current
needs of communities existing at the end of antiq-
uity in Europe. The presence, within one cultural
unit, of several large specialized production centres,
functioning on the basis of different organisation
models, is a unique phenomenon on the scale of the
whole north-eastern Barbaricum and must provoke
reflection on the reasons for their creation and the
significance of their activity for the neighbouring
lands. Moreover, because of the use of organised
production sites, it continued practically throughout
the whole period of the culture existence, reviving in
various regions in turn, first in Mazovia, then in the
Świętokrzyskie Mountains and finally in Silesia.
The causative role of the Przeworsk culture people
in popularising iron smelting technology in the Pol-
ish territories is practically unquestionable. Even if
there had been attempts to implement it within the
Pomeranian Bell-Grave complex, they were of hardly
any economic significance. The number of finds di-
rectly confirming the fact of such activity during the
older pre-Roman period is so small and questionable,
that it cannot be justified by the difficulties in identi-
fying the metallurgical objects used then or the insuf-
ficient state of research mentioned by some scientists.
Despite the constant development in archeo-met-
allurgical research, which has been noted in Poland
during the last fifty years, it is still very difficult to
indicate the main source of inspiration for the iron
smelting technology and methods of the Przeworsk
culture. Naturally, the most likely was the impetus
provided by the La Tene culture, although no direct
evidence of such an influence has been found so far.
The Celtic people inhabiting the Polish territories did
not carry out a wide-scale metallurgical activity and,
in this respect, might have been dependent on the
Trans-Carpathian centres, with which they were in
close contact with, and which guaranteed their safety
and independence. We do not know of any bloomery
furnaces from the Celtic settlements in Polish territo-
ries, and the discovered traces of metallurgical activ-
ity refer rather to the so-called post-reduction stages
of the metallurgical process, connected with the
smithing-forging stage (Krakow-Wyciąże, Sułków).
That interesting phenomenon can be explained only
by major social and cultural differences between the
Celtic newcomers and the native inhabitants. An ef-
fective introduction of any technological changes is
possible only when the social group which is to re-
ceive them, is also ready for changes in its internal
structure.
While not questioning the immense role of the
Celts in the process of shaping the cultural image of
the Polish lands at the end of the antiquity, one should
be very careful when evaluating their contribution
to certain crafts of the Przeworsk culture, includ-
ing iron metallurgy. At least for now, the east-Celtic
inspiration in this respect seems most likely, though
some contribution into this field by the Jastorf culture
cannot be ruled out, either. Nevertheless, also in this
case it would be difficult to pin point the time and
place of the possible transfer of those technologies,
perhaps with the exception of the Gubin group of
that culture. So far no clear evidence has been found
to confirm the use of a slag-pit furnace during the
period preceding stadium Seedorf, the beginning of
which approximately corresponds to the beginning
of A2 phase in the Przeworsk culture, and that phase
can in turn be associated with documented traces
of iron smelting in the area under its influence. The
disappearance of the Oder and Gubin groups during
436
Summary
A2 phase of the younger pre-Roman period coincided
with a collapse in Przeworsk settlement in Lower Sile-
sia, which made further development of this type of
production practically impossible in that region, and
even more so its transfer to distant Mazovia which
has to be regarded as the cradle of mass production
of iron in Polish territories.
Therefore, Przeworsk culture metallurgy cannot be
regarded as a simple continuation of the east-Celtic
technological thought. The Przeworsk culture people
undoubtedly introduced new values to that field of
production, visible primarily in the perfect organisa-
tion of labour, the tokens of which were the large iron-
producing centres functioning in the Świętokrzyskie
Mountains, in Mazovia and Silesia. In other areas
such activity never reached beyond a local-scale pro-
duction, determined by the needs of a general eco-
nomic development. The belief in general knowledge
of metallurgical techniques in that period is based
on the false assumption that all slag found on settle-
ment sites proves that iron-smelting processes were
carried out there. Apart from the incorrect interpre-
tation of a part of such finds, as well as their dubious
chronological and cultural classification, we can as-
sume that in many cases they were connected with
post-reduction phases of the metallurgical process,
which might have been conducted elsewhere than the
smelting site. If the presence of smiths who made and
repaired farming tools and weapons seems fully justi-
fied in larger settlement centres because of social and
economic reasons, then the profession of a smelter,
which required a much more elaborate “setting” in
the form of an extensive infrastructure of his work-
shop indispensable in the complex bloomery process,
can’t have been realised everywhere. Outside the ar-
eas regarded as métallurgie centres, such objects as:
charcoal pits, ore calcination devices or various types
of forge hearths occur rather seldom.
The beginnings of the early-Przeworsk metallurgy
might have had the form of scattered and imminent
activity which, because of its specialised charac-
ter and specific technological and environmental
requirements, was the earliest to emerge from the
natural economy. The identification of archeo-met-
allurgical sources, which do not yield to traditional
methods of archaeological dating, results in their
chronology being based largely on the findings of
radiocarbon dating which are frequently contradic-
tory to evidence from archaeological sources. This is
particularly relevant in the case of the beginnings of
metallurgical production in the Przeworsk culture,
and the insufficient amount of tests carried out so far
makes following the process of implementing those
technologies very difficult. Dating of the furnace
from Milanówek to the turn of the C/D phases of
the Halstatt period is in total contradiction to the ac-
companying archaeological materials, and distinctly
diverges from other radiocarbon dating results which
indicate the end of the 3rd century B.C. (Ostrowiec
Świętokrzyski), the mid-2nd century (Polwica-Skr-
zypnik, Psary) or the end of the younger pre-Roman
period (Biskupice, Psary, Jeleniów).
As can be assumed on the basis of the research
conducted so far, the beginnings of metallurgical
activity of the Przeworsk culture people must have
been rather modest, and the lack of larger complexes
of production sites does not confirm the thesis con-
cerning the rapid surge in their quantity during the
older phases of the younger pre-Roman period. The
demand for iron was met by small smelting work-
shops, scattered within larger settlement complexes.
It seems that a certain number of those might have
already been concentrated in the vicinity of future
metallurgical centres.
It was characteristic, that a turn towards mass pro-
duction did not take place in the regions previously oc-
cupied by compact Celtic settlement complexes in Sile-
sia and southern Lesser Poland, but in remote Mazovia
where, probably at the end of the younger pre-Roman
period, metallurgical production on a scale exceeding
local demand was initiated in suitably organized set-
tlements (type I sites). They were multi-hectare settle-
ment-production complexes, among which there were
such sites as: Biskupice, Brwinów, Milanówek-Falęcin
or Reguły, with a clearly distinguished production
zone where certain still mysterious rules of locating
bloomery furnaces close to regular, oriented bor-
derlines were obeyed. The clusters consisted of a few
dozen up to even several thousand furnaces within
one settlement. The heyday of activity took place dur-
ing the early-Roman period, and then from about the
mid-2nd century it clearly slowed down and scattered.
Reasons for the decline of the Mazovia metallurgical
centre are sought in ethnic transfers associated with
migrations of Goth tribes and their appearance on
the right bank of the Vistula in Mazovia and Podlasie,
in the direct vicinity of the metallurgical zone. It can-
not be ruled out that it was determined by other fac-
tors connected with depletion of suitable ore deposits
or trans-regional political decisions which led to the
deployment of such production beyond the borders
of Mazovia. A clear decline that occurred in the east-
ern part of the Błońska Plain did not however cause
a complete abandonment of metallurgical activity in
this area. However, late-Roman metallurgy represents
a completely different manufacturing trend (type II
sites) and alludes rather to work of similar type carried
out in other Przeworsk culture centres.
Summary
437
The region where the mass production tendencies
revived were the Świętokrzyskie Mountains. Like in
Mazovia we do not know what factors determined
establishing a highly specialised metallurgical centre
here. The level of settlement development in the early
phases of the Przeworsk culture was fairly modest,
and main settlement complexes were then concen-
trated in the valley of the Vistula and on the east edge
of the Sandomierz Upland. The range of metallurgical
production in that region did not exceed comparable
activities undertaken in the neighbouring territories.
A turn towards mass production was associated with
the creation of a very original form of organization
of labour, previously not encountered in this envi-
ronment, carried out within large sets of bloomery
furnaces constituting the so-called organised slag-pit
furnace clusters. That particular kind of production
workshop might have appeared already in the 1st cen-
tury A.D., but its particularly dynamic development
occurred probably in the mid-2nd century. Its most ad-
vanced form were two-row furnace clusters, consisting
of two almost identical sets of furnaces separated by
a free space of the so-called aisle. The geometric regu-
larity of those arrangements was determined by rows
encompassing 3, 4, and sometimes even 5 bloomery
furnaces. The commercial character of the production
conducted within workshops of that type is beyond
question, and their number is estimated at almost
5900, with an average number of 89 furnaces in one
such set, which leads to the conclusion that altogether
over 550 000 smelting processes were carried out in
almost 2000 unorganised slag-pit furnace clusters.
Two currents of metallurgical production, the mu-
tual relationships of which are difficult to define clearly,
can be distinguished in the Świętokrzyskie Mountains.
The former, considered the older, was associated with
furnace clusters laid out on a geometrically unor-
ganised plan, while the latter represented the already
mentioned organized furnace clusters. More recent
research has revealed the fact the both organisation
forms co-existed within larger settlement-production
complexes, which in a way contradicts a clear-cut di-
vision of their activity. Although some small unor-
ganised furnace clusters should be associated with the
beginnings of bloomery processes in this area, they
still functioned at the heyday of the centre existence,
as well as after abandonment in the later phases of the
Przeworsk culture. The fact that such type of work-
shops occurring outside the settlement context, in
mountainous areas, is particularly interesting.
However, the specificity of mass production in the
Świętokrzyskie metallurgical centre was determined
by its unique kind of spatial organisation, since the
basic manufacturing activity had been moved outside
the settlement. It is believed that location of work-
shops was determined primarily by availability of raw
materials. After their depletion the workshop was
moved to another place offering suitable conditions
for continuing production. In some regions, like the
north-east slopes of the Łysogóry range, the activity
could have taken the form of seasonal exploration of
a previously uninhabited area.
The collapse, or rather gradual decline of the mass
metallurgical production in the Świętokrzyskie
Mountains might have taken place in the beginning
of the 3rd century, and it is quite difficult to define its
direct causes. Closing of external markets, to which
the output of organised furnace clusters from the
Świętokrzyskie Mountains had been sent, seemed to
be of crucial importance. However, like in Mazovia, it
did not mean complete abandonment of production
which, adapted to local demand, survived here until
the end of the Przeworsk culture settlement.
Parallel to the activity of organised furnace clusters
in the Świętokrzyskie Mountains, at the turn of the
early and younger Roman period, intensive bloomery
production started to develop in Silesia. Previously,
that land had remained on the margin of the main-
stream iron production in the Polish territories, which
had resulted from the crisis of local settlement in the
end of the younger pre-Roman and the beginning of
the early Roman period. It should be assumed, that
the primary stimulant to spreading those technologies
was settlement dynamically developing since the B2-
C1 phase. Traces of metallurgical activity have been
discovered in almost all excavated settlements from
that period. Overall, more than 40% of all settlement
sites in which relics of such activity have been found
are associated with phase C of the younger Roman
period. The phenomenon reached the greatest extent
in Upper Silesia - in the production regions near Str-
zelce Opolskie and Głubczyce. Numerous groups of
such sites also occurred on the middle Oder river, in
the regions of Bystrzyca-Oława, Brzeg, Widawa and
further west - on the Lower Barycz and Oder.
Bloomery production in Silesia, however, dif-
fered diametrically from metallurgical production
in the previously discussed bloomery centres which
operated within compact settlement macro-regions,
probably corresponding to concrete social-political
organisms. In Silesia particular production regions
might have been elements of several separate ter-
ritorial units, which complicates the evaluation of
relations existing between them. The term “Silesian
bloomery centre” comprises a sum total of achieve-
ments from several production regions, functioning
in the environment representing widespread knowl-
edge of iron smelting technologies. Therefore, we are
438
Summary
dealing here not with one but with several independ-
ent production regions.
Due to the fragmentation of production and re-
lated lack of organisational homogeneity caused that,
unlike in the Świętokrzyskie Mountains or Mazovia,
original systems of labour organisation did not form
here. In this region, a typical bloomery workshop was
established in the settlement, and grouped between
a few and several furnaces operating in order to sat-
isfy current demand of its inhabitants or of the near-
est settlement complex. However in some regions,
independent specialised bloomery workshops were
created, whose economic targets reached beyond lo-
cal needs. In the north, in the Lower Barycz-Oder
region, such sites as Psary or Tarchalice can be listed
in this group. In the centre this production trend is
represented by furnace clusters in Polwica-Skrzypnik,
Domaslaw, Lizawice (?), Ploski or Wrocław-Żerniki,
belonging to the largest bloomery region located be-
tween Bystrzyca and Oława. Such sites in Upper Sile-
sia are much rarer. We know them mostly from the
region of Strzelce Opolskie, and they are to be found
in such sites as Opole-Malina, Daniec or Pruszków.
In Silesia only the Brzeg region, by its scale and
character of production, alludes to the previously
discussed bloomery centres. It seems that, like them,
it was established to realized concrete production tar-
gets, and its functioning was not connected to settle-
ment development and local demand for iron. A very
specific type of settlement network, established ‘in
cruda radice, was probably to support highly spe-
cialised bloomery workshops. What is more ֊ it func-
tioned mostly during the late-Roman times and the
early Migration Period, which makes it the longest-
functioning bloomery region of the Przeworsk cul-
ture. It was the only one in the Polish territories to
continue the trend of specialised production which
was significantly reduced and fragmented elsewhere.
The technology of iron smelting during the exist-
ence of the Przeworsk culture is characterised by dis-
tinct conservatism manifested by lack of activity in
order to implement new solutions which would allow
for increasing the effectiveness of technical devices
used. Such a scale of production, seeking more effi-
cient techniques of obtaining iron would have seemed
a natural phenomenon, especially since such mod-
els must have been available both in barbarian Eu-
rope (the Cotini), and in the provincial-Roman zone.
Meanwhile, both within specialised bloomery centres
and beyond them, only one type of a bloomery device -
the slag-pit furnace - was used throughout the Roman
period. This device, though simple in construction
yet requiring careful handling, did not undergo any
major alterations for over 6 centuries, except perhaps
except for attempts at increasing its volume. Moreover,
after eliminating some solutions such as e.g. the pit
canal, it becam even more simplified with time, which
confirms almost perfect mastering of the reduction
process. Handling the furnaces with theoretically
more complicated construction, with the system of
tapping the slag outside, is much easier than conduct-
ing the process in an enclosed structure where chan-
nelling the slag from the reduction zone to the pit even
now poses a serious problem for experimenters.
Furnaces for multiple smelting recorder sporadi-
cally in various regions (Igołomia, Dobrzeń Mały (?),
Mechlin) were a sort of technological ephemera
among the mass of uniform bloomery objects almost
devoid of regional solutions. Certain changes in their
construction could have occurred only during the de-
cline of the Przeworsk culture existence when, in the
Brzeg region in Silesia, there appeared new structures
using other construction solutions. They have been
recordet on the sites in Buszyce and Przylesie Dolne,
where they were interpreted as surface immediate-
use furnaces. Their poor state of their preservation
does not allow for their reconstruction, and it is im-
possible to make any claims concerning their struc-
ture until new such discoveries have been made.
It is believed, that a production model in which no
new technical solutions meant to limit the workload
were used, is typical for communities whose elites did
not participate directly in the manufacturing pro-
cess. They ensured higher profits thanks to a better
organization and intensification of labour of their
subordinates. Only fragmentation of production and
its individualisation provide motivation for seek-
ing solutions allowing for reducing the eifort of the
manufacturer. However, we believe that in the case of
metallurgy lack of interest in implementing innova-
tive technologies could also have been determined
by other than economic or social factors, connected
with the sphere of beliefs and customs.
The massive character of metallurgical produc-
tion in the analysed bloomery centres indicates, that
whole communities inhabiting a given area had to
participate in it. It seems, however, that because of
specialist skills, definite technical requirements and
complex tools, inaccessible to the whole community,
production was supervised by specific profession-
als. We assume the existence of a limited group of
specialists - masters, possessing arcane knowledge
and experience indispensable to conducting com-
plicated technological processes, and workers per-
forming only elementary auxiliary tasks. It was also
connected with the issue of job specialisation which,
at least in the case of mass production, resulted in
a clear division between the profession of a smelter
Summary
439
- dealing with preparing and carrying out the proper
reduction process - and that of a blacksmith manu-
facturing ready-made goods. We cannot rule out the
possibility of existence of specialised groups of ore
miners and charcoal burners responsible for prepar-
ing raw materials for iron production.
It should be assumed, that large bloomery centres
of the Przeworsk culture were not at the same time
huge manufacturers of finished products. It is con-
firmed by lack of smith-type processing on bloomery
sites where there was only initial compacting and
cleaning of iron sponge. The articles for sale was prob-
ably iron in the form of refined bars, shaped to meet
the recipient’s requirements. In such form it reached
a blacksmith’s forge outside bloomery centres, where
it was worked into various objects of everyday use.
It cannot be ruled out, however, that some categories
of products requiring complicated processing tech-
niques, might also have been manufactured on site.
Attempts at defining the size of the output of the
Przeworsk culture bloomery centres will always
be merely estimates. It is due to the impossibility
of precisely specifying the basic initial parameters
for those calculations, and thus the real number of
smelting cycles carries out, as well as their output.
Using single-smelting furnaces with standardised
parameters eliminates those problems, to a certain
extent, allowing for accepting some theoretical as-
sumptions concerning the amount of iron produced
during a single smelting process. Considering the
availability and quality of raw materials, an indica-
tion of the production was assumed to be on the level
of 15-18 kg of iron in the form of cleaned iron sponge
for one smelting during which about 100 kg of slag
was produced. Such a bracket encompasses produc-
tion of all the regions of our interest that used various
types of iron ore the quality of which was decisive for
the amount of obtained iron.
The long-lasting research of the Świętokrzyskie
metallurgical centre yielded the most data con-
cerning the discussed issue. In recent years, after
the detailed inventory of bloomery sites had been
completed, the number of furnaces was estimated
at about 550000 - 600000, which allows to evaluate
the overall production at the level of 9000 to 10 800
tons of iron. Those calculations refer to the whole
period during which the Świętokrzyskie bloomery
centre functioned, though undoubtedly the turn of
the early and younger Roman period was its heyday
when a distinct settlement development and general
economic boom occurred in the region.
More problems in this respect are posed by the
Mazovia bloomery centre, where between 120 000
and 150 000 furnaces might have worked. Evaluating
the scale of production is made more difficult by huge
differences in the sizes of furnaces discovered here.
Assuming the average weight of slag during the pre-
Roman and early-Roman phase to be between 60 and
80 kg, and the generally poorer quality of the iron
ore used here, iron production can be estimated at
the level of 1440-1800 tons of iron. For comparison
it should be added that the best identified bloomery
complex in Biskupice, where about 5000 furnaces
worked, was likely to produce 45-60 tons of iron.
It is even more difficult to make similar calcula-
tions for the bloomery regions in Silesia. However, it
is worth trying in order to estimate, even approxi-
mately, the scale of that phenomenon in comparison
to the other regions. We suppose, that in the majority
of small bloomery sites operating within Silesian set-
tlements production must have been comparable to
that calculated for Dobrzeń Maly, i.e. about 0.5 ton.
Because of large size of the pits discovered there, the
given amount of iron corresponds to the output of
about 30-40 smelting processes carried out in a typi-
cal pit. Therefore, they must be maximum amounts,
since only a few up to several furnaces were discov-
ered in the majority of such sites. We do not know
what per cent such smelting settlements as Polwica
or Tarchalice may have constituted, with their pro-
duction reaching a mere few tons of iron, but it must
have been rather insignificant. When we assume the
existence of about 630 bloomery sites associated with
the Przeworsk culture, we obtain about 315 tons of
iron altogether. Even if several dozen sites of Polwica
type with their production reaching 3 tons of iron
functioned in that group, it would add several dozen,
maybe 100 tons more. Adding it to the output from
the Brzeg bloomery region estimated at 132 tons we
reach, at best, the amount of about 500 tons of iron.
Comparing that result with the output from the
Świętokrzyskie and Mazovia bloomery centres, we
can notice what a great gap separated those two phe-
nomena and what serious implications they might
have for the socio-economic situation within each of
those regions. The overall production from Silesian
sites might have been three times smaller than the
amount of iron manufactured in Mazovia, and even
twenty times smaller when compared to the output
from the Świętokrzyskie Mountains region.
Identifying markets for that output is an equally
difficult task. It is a complicated issue and impos-
sible to clarify without working out methods for
identifying iron manufactured in particular regions.
The concept of the so-called ‘świętokrzyskie iron’
has shown how difficult a task it might prove to be.
It seems the easiest to define potential recipients for
the bloomery regions in Silesia. Significant surplus
440
Summary
could have been produced only in some of them -
primarily the Bystrzyca-Olawa or the Lower Barycz-
Oder areas, and also the Brzeg region at a later period.
Since the beginning of the younger Roman period,
Upper Silesia was not only self-sufficient in this re-
spect, but was also able to supply neighbouring areas.
Dynamic development of settlement occurring here
towards the end of the early-Roman period ensured
ready local markets for Silesian bloomery regions,
which stimulated the development of this field of
production. It is supposed, that a part of the produc-
tion must have gone outside the region, mainly to
southern Greater Poland and western Lesser Poland.
The range of influence of the Mazovia bloomery
centre must have been much wider. It operated at the
end of the younger pre-Roman and early-Roman pe-
riod, which puts it in the position of the only impor-
tant bloomery production centre functioning at that
time. The huge settlement complex on the Bzura river,
and through it the region of a settlement complex near
Łódź in central Poland, must have been within the
range of its direct influence. Accumulation of the
early-Przeworsk culture sites along the Vistula river
might also imply connections between Mazovia and
the Sandomierz Upland. The Mazovia centre must
have been of immense significance for the economic
development of the Przeworsk culture territories at its
early stages, especially since the foundations of organ-
ised production were only just beginning to emerge
in the region of the Świętokrzyskie Mountains, and
Silesia was suffering from settlement regression. Con-
sumers of the iron produced in that region could have
been not only the inhabitants of the north-eastern
territories of the Przeworsk culture, but also of other
lands at that time deprived of local sources supplying
that precious raw material, including eastern Great-
er Poland, possibly some parts of Silesia, as well as
northern Lesser Poland. It is very likely that bloomery
ironworks in Mazovia played the role of an economic
stimulant for the development of the Przeworsk cul-
ture, being a cornerstone of its long existence.
Naturally, the purpose of the enormous produc-
tion of the Świętokrzyskie bloomery centre seems to
arouse most controversy. Until we have worked out
more credible methods of identifying iron manufac-
tured in particular regions, the problem will remain
basically insoluble. However, while one can accept the
view that exporting the Świętokrzyskie iron to the
lands of Roman provinces was impossible for a variety
of reasons, one cannot rule out its presence in the lands
of the Marcomanni or the Quadi. A bloomery centre
situated in remote parts of their territories at certain
periods might have constituted a perfect supply re-
source for barbarians entangled in a lengthy conflict
with Rome. Particularly towards the end of the 2nd
century, after the fall of the Cotini, iron from the
Świętokrzyskie Mountains might have been a source
of strategic raw material for the fighting confederacy.
A significant part of the output is supposed to have
remained in the Polish lands, complementing the pro-
duction of smaller bloomery regions. The fact that dat-
ing of organized slag-pit furnace clusters coincide with
a shift of the Wielbark culture towards the south-east,
which led to the collapse of metallurgy in Mazovia,
might indicate that a certain part of Świętokrzyskie
Mountains production could have been sent to that
region to satisfy the growing demand of the Prze-
worsk culture people, driven out by Goth tribes.
Great achievements of large iron production cen-
tres are probably obscured by local manifestations
of such activity in other areas inhabited by the Prze-
worsk culture people. However, contrary to popular
belief, bloomery production was rather modest and
very scattered there. The image has not been altered
by the huge amount of work conducted in recent
years, which significantly enriched our knowledge
concerning settlement sites of that culture in many
regions. Recordet traces of iron production are sur-
prisingly rare and imply its advanced regionalism.
Only a few settlement regions of the Przeworsk cul-
ture showed greater activity in this respect. One of
them was Greater Poland, where at least three com-
plexes of bloomery iron works can be distinguished
located in the river basin of the upper and middle
Warta, and its tributaries the Prosną and the Wełna
(Przywóz, Strobin, Skrzynno, Piwonice, Zadowice).
A local centre of bloomery production, of mixed
Wielbark-Przeworsk character, might also have exist-
ed in the northern part of the region in the Gniezno
Lake District (Goślinowo, Stoszki, Imielno).
Kuyavia is also regarded as an active region of met-
allurgical production, particularly its eastern part,
where in the valleys of the Zgłowiączka, the Bachórz
and the Noteć river traces of such sites have been re-
cordet. However, discoveries of bloomery furnaces are
fairly rare (Zgłowiączka, Kruszą Zamkowa, Lachmi-
rowice) and it should be surmised, that despite its very
favourable raw material conditions the region did not
play an important role in bloomery production.
It would be difficult to pinpoint signs of bloomery
activity in central Poland, apart from the complex-
es of bloomery ironworks on the Krępianka and
the middle and upper Iłżanka river considered to
be the northern enclaves of Świętokrzyskie Moun-
tains metallurgy. Traces of unidentified slag which
might suggest carrying out local bloomery produc-
tion have been recordet only on the middle Radom-
ka river (Brudnów, Domaniów, Gulin, Borki) and
Summary
441
along the middle and lower course of the Pilica river
(Wyśmierzyce, Brzeście, Brzuza).
The almost complete lack of bloomery sites on the
upper Vistula, in the area with very old and stable
Przeworsk culture settlement in the vicinity of Kra-
kow, seems quite puzzling. Besides multiple-smelting
bloomery furnaces in Igołomia, alien to this environ-
ment, and vestigial traces of bloomery practices in the
settlements in Zofipol, Krakow - Cło, Stanisławice
and Zagórz on the Raba river, the region is practically
devoid of any traces of such activity.
They are even more rare to encounter east of the
Vistula. Beyond the mouth of the Wieprz river (So-
bieszyn), the areas of the Sandomierz Valley and
the Lublin Upland still remain a blank space on the
bloomery chart of the period.
A comparable situation in this respect could be
noticed outside the Przeworsk culture zone, in other
Polish territories. Larger complexes of such type of
sites have only been found in the northern and north-
eastern part of the region, in the lands occupied by
the Wielbark culture, on the Parsęta and the Reda
in Kaszubach (Głuszyn, Konikowo, Rumia, Gościn).
A sensational find is the recently discovered bloomery
site in Rogow, consisting of 441 furnaces. It is the only
such site in Polish territories, located outside any of
the iron-producing centres.
More recent research has yielded some interesting
discoveries in the Luboszyce culture lands in Lower
Lusatia. Several large bloomery sites, whose char-
acter indicates a trans-regional scale of their influ-
ence, have been found in the Żar region (Bogumiłów,
Drozdów and Królów).
It is also difficult to estimate the scale and kind
of bloomery production on the upper Narew river.
Traces of iron-producing activity (Kotłówka, Kutowa,
Klewinów), discovered already in the inter-war period
during research on the Rostołty-type burial mounds,
are associated with the post-Zarubintsy culture. Still
less is known about the few traces of bloomery activity
among west-Baltic tribes (Wyszembork, Bałów).
Finally, it is worth answering the question as to
how the Przeworsk culture bloomery centres fit into
the overall picture of iron production in the barbar-
ian part of Europe. R. Pleiner emphasises the ex-
tensive and immediate character of iron metallurgy,
clearly distinguishing it from the centralised and in-
tensive model of production preferred by the Romans.
However, he points out some regions where the size
of such activity exceeded local demand. At the cur-
rent stage of research, 10 such regions can be distin-
guished, among which as many as 3 were associated
with the Przeworsk culture. None of them, however,
could rival iron output produced by the bloomery
centres in the Polish lands. Symptomatically, the
majority of those regions were located a consider-
able distance away from the Roman limes - between
the Elbe and the Vistula, which indicates a strategic
importance of their production. Outside the Prze-
worsk culture area, two more bloomery regions can
be distinguished - one in Germany (north-western
Mecklenburg, Lower and Upper Lusatia, Schleswig-
Holstein), and the other in Denmark (South Jutland).
Beside them, iron was also produced on a larger scale
in Norway (Trøndelag region) and Sweden (Jämtland
region in southern Lapland). In eastern Europe, only
complexes of bloomery sites in the vicinity of Zhy-
tomyr and Uman in Ukraine are worth mentioning.
It is characteristic, that the majority of them devel-
oped most dynamically during the 3rd - 4th century
and later. At an earlier period, during which the larg-
est Przeworsk culture centres flourished, it would
have been very difficult to find a similar economic
enterprise in the area of the whole north-eastern
Barbaricum. Nowhere had this activity taken similar
forms or sach a massive character as in the Polish
lands. Deployment of production sites and adoption
of some organisational solutions, previously occur-
ring in the Przeworsk iron-producing centres, might
have been related to the new configuration of forces
that formed in Europe at the time. After the domi-
nation of the Marcomanni and their allies had col-
lapsed, centres of power moved further north and
then to the west, where powerful tribal unions of the
Alamani and Franks were created.
The achievements of the Przeworsk metallurgists,
fully manifested in the functioning of specialised iron-
producing centres, constitute one of the most original
features of that culture. Enormous concentration of
production, which has no analogy in the whole area of
Barbaricum, must have had significant consequences
for the socioeconomic and political relations in that
part of Europe. In an era of intense political fragmen-
tation, such undertakings related to iron which was
the key raw material for economic development might
bear evidence of unifying tendencies existing within
the barbarian world. It also indirectly implies the ex-
istence of broader, trans-regional politics whose eco-
nomic and political aims reached beyond particular
regional arrangements. Including, or rather reinstat-
ing archaeo-metallurgy in the mainstream research
on the broadly understood Przeworsk culture would
allow us to better understand the lesser known as-
pects of its technical and technological heritage. We
hope, that the study presented will draw professional
attention to that area of research and contribute to its
greater popularisation.
(Translated by Violetta Marzec)
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1056139188 |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV042201173 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)904719226 (DE-599)BVBBV042201173 |
| era | Geschichte 1800-2000 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1800-2000 |
| format | Book |
| fullrecord | <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><collection xmlns="http://www.loc.gov/MARC21/slim"><record><leader>02302nam a2200553 c 4500</leader><controlfield tag="001">BV042201173</controlfield><controlfield tag="003">DE-604</controlfield><controlfield tag="005">20150618 </controlfield><controlfield tag="007">t</controlfield><controlfield tag="008">141121s2013 |||| |||| 00||| pol d</controlfield><datafield tag="020" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">9788371335778</subfield><subfield code="9">978-83-7133-577-8</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="020" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="z">8371335776</subfield><subfield code="9">8371335776</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(OCoLC)904719226</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="035" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">(DE-599)BVBBV042201173</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="040" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-604</subfield><subfield code="b">ger</subfield><subfield code="e">rakwb</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="041" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">pol</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="049" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">DE-12</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="084" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">7,41</subfield><subfield code="2">ssgn</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="245" ind1="1" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Polska w XIX i XX wieku - społeczeństwo i gospodarka</subfield><subfield code="c">red. Wiesław Caban [et al.]</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="264" ind1=" " ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Kielce</subfield><subfield code="b">Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jana Kochanowskiego</subfield><subfield code="c">2013</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="300" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">559, [1] s.</subfield><subfield code="b">il.</subfield><subfield code="c">29 cm</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="336" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">txt</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacontent</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="337" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">n</subfield><subfield code="2">rdamedia</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="338" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="b">nc</subfield><subfield code="2">rdacarrier</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="500" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Na s. przytyt.: Księga jubileuszowa dedykowana Pani Profesor Reginie Renz</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="648" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Geschichte 1800-2000</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Kobiety / Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 19 w</subfield><subfield code="2">jhpk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Kobiety / Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 20 w</subfield><subfield code="2">jhpk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Wirtschaft</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4066399-1</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="650" ind1="0" ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Gesellschaft</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4020588-5</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="651" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Polska / sytuacja gospodarcza / 19 w</subfield><subfield code="2">jhpk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="651" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Polska / sytuacja gospodarcza / 20 w</subfield><subfield code="2">jhpk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="651" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 19 w</subfield><subfield code="2">jhpk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="651" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 20 w</subfield><subfield code="2">jhpk</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="651" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="a">Polen</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4046496-9</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd</subfield><subfield code="9">rswk-swf</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="655" ind1=" " ind2="7"><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4143413-4</subfield><subfield code="a">Aufsatzsammlung</subfield><subfield code="2">gnd-content</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="0"><subfield code="a">Polen</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4046496-9</subfield><subfield code="D">g</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="1"><subfield code="a">Gesellschaft</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4020588-5</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="2"><subfield code="a">Wirtschaft</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)4066399-1</subfield><subfield code="D">s</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2="3"><subfield code="a">Geschichte 1800-2000</subfield><subfield code="A">z</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="689" ind1="0" ind2=" "><subfield code="5">DE-604</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="700" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="a">Caban, Wiesław</subfield><subfield code="d">1946-</subfield><subfield code="e">Sonstige</subfield><subfield code="0">(DE-588)1056139188</subfield><subfield code="4">oth</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="856" ind1="4" ind2="2"><subfield code="m">Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment</subfield><subfield code="q">application/pdf</subfield><subfield code="u">http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027640052&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</subfield><subfield code="3">Inhaltsverzeichnis</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="940" ind1="1" ind2=" "><subfield code="n">oe</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="999" ind1=" " ind2=" "><subfield code="a">oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-027640052</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="942" ind1="1" ind2="1"><subfield code="c">330.09</subfield><subfield code="e">22/bsb</subfield><subfield code="f">0904</subfield><subfield code="g">438</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="942" ind1="1" ind2="1"><subfield code="c">306.09</subfield><subfield code="e">22/bsb</subfield><subfield code="f">0904</subfield><subfield code="g">438</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="942" ind1="1" ind2="1"><subfield code="c">330.09</subfield><subfield code="e">22/bsb</subfield><subfield code="f">09034</subfield><subfield code="g">438</subfield></datafield><datafield tag="942" ind1="1" ind2="1"><subfield code="c">306.09</subfield><subfield code="e">22/bsb</subfield><subfield code="f">09034</subfield><subfield code="g">438</subfield></datafield></record></collection> |
| genre | (DE-588)4143413-4 Aufsatzsammlung gnd-content |
| genre_facet | Aufsatzsammlung |
| geographic | Polska / sytuacja gospodarcza / 19 w jhpk Polska / sytuacja gospodarcza / 20 w jhpk Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 19 w jhpk Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 20 w jhpk Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Polska / sytuacja gospodarcza / 19 w Polska / sytuacja gospodarcza / 20 w Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 19 w Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 20 w Polen |
| id | DE-604.BV042201173 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T01:15:10Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788371335778 |
| language | Polish |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-027640052 |
| oclc_num | 904719226 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 559, [1] s. il. 29 cm |
| publishDate | 2013 |
| publishDateSearch | 2013 |
| publishDateSort | 2013 |
| publisher | Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jana Kochanowskiego |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Polska w XIX i XX wieku - społeczeństwo i gospodarka red. Wiesław Caban [et al.] Kielce Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jana Kochanowskiego 2013 559, [1] s. il. 29 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Na s. przytyt.: Księga jubileuszowa dedykowana Pani Profesor Reginie Renz Geschichte 1800-2000 gnd rswk-swf Kobiety / Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 19 w jhpk Kobiety / Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 20 w jhpk Wirtschaft (DE-588)4066399-1 gnd rswk-swf Gesellschaft (DE-588)4020588-5 gnd rswk-swf Polska / sytuacja gospodarcza / 19 w jhpk Polska / sytuacja gospodarcza / 20 w jhpk Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 19 w jhpk Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 20 w jhpk Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4143413-4 Aufsatzsammlung gnd-content Polen (DE-588)4046496-9 g Gesellschaft (DE-588)4020588-5 s Wirtschaft (DE-588)4066399-1 s Geschichte 1800-2000 z DE-604 Caban, Wiesław 1946- Sonstige (DE-588)1056139188 oth Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027640052&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Polska w XIX i XX wieku - społeczeństwo i gospodarka Kobiety / Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 19 w jhpk Kobiety / Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 20 w jhpk Wirtschaft (DE-588)4066399-1 gnd Gesellschaft (DE-588)4020588-5 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4066399-1 (DE-588)4020588-5 (DE-588)4046496-9 (DE-588)4143413-4 |
| title | Polska w XIX i XX wieku - społeczeństwo i gospodarka |
| title_auth | Polska w XIX i XX wieku - społeczeństwo i gospodarka |
| title_exact_search | Polska w XIX i XX wieku - społeczeństwo i gospodarka |
| title_full | Polska w XIX i XX wieku - społeczeństwo i gospodarka red. Wiesław Caban [et al.] |
| title_fullStr | Polska w XIX i XX wieku - społeczeństwo i gospodarka red. Wiesław Caban [et al.] |
| title_full_unstemmed | Polska w XIX i XX wieku - społeczeństwo i gospodarka red. Wiesław Caban [et al.] |
| title_short | Polska w XIX i XX wieku - społeczeństwo i gospodarka |
| title_sort | polska w xix i xx wieku spoleczenstwo i gospodarka |
| topic | Kobiety / Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 19 w jhpk Kobiety / Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 20 w jhpk Wirtschaft (DE-588)4066399-1 gnd Gesellschaft (DE-588)4020588-5 gnd |
| topic_facet | Kobiety / Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 19 w Kobiety / Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 20 w Wirtschaft Gesellschaft Polska / sytuacja gospodarcza / 19 w Polska / sytuacja gospodarcza / 20 w Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 19 w Polska / sytuacja społeczna / 20 w Polen Aufsatzsammlung |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027640052&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT cabanwiesław polskawxixixxwiekuspołeczenstwoigospodarka |