Văorăženie prez chalkolita v bălgarskite zemi: = Weapons form the Chalcolithic period in Bulgaria
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Abschlussarbeit Buch |
| Sprache: | Bulgarian |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Sofija
Nacionalen Archeologičeski Inst. s Muzej - BAN
2014
|
| Schriftenreihe: | Disertacii / Nacionalen Archeologičeski Institut s Muzej na Bălgarskata Akademija na Naukite
9 |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Beschreibung: | In kyrill. Schr., bulg. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache |
| Beschreibung: | 231 S. zahlr. Ill. |
| ISBN: | 9789549472301 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1806960935148978176 |
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СЪДЪРЖАНИЕ
УВОД
.7
ГЛАВА
I.
ВЪВЕДЕНИЕ В ПРОБЛЕМАТИКАТА
.11
ГЛАВА И. ИСТОРИЯ НА ПРОУЧВАНИЯТА
.15
ГЛАВА
III.
ОРЪЖИЯ ЗА БЛИЗЪК БОЙ
.19
III.
1.
БОЗДУГАНИ
.19
III.
2.
БРАДВИ-ЧУКОВЕ
.25
III.
2.1.
КАМЕННИ БРАДВИ-ЧУКОВЕ
.27
III.
2. 2.
МЕДНИ БРАДВИ-ЧУКОВЕ
.49
III.
2. 3.
РОГОВИ БРАДВИ-ЧУКОВЕ
.61
III.
3.
ДВОЙНИ БРАДВИ
.70
III.
3.1.
КАМЕННИ ДВОЙНИ БРАДВИ
.70
III.
3. 2.
МЕДНИ ДВОЙНИ БРАДВИ
.70
III.
3. 3.
РОГОВИ ДВОЙНИ БРАДВИ
.71
III.
4.
ФУНКЦИЯ НА БРАДВИТЕ
С
ДУПКА
.71
III.
5.
ДВОЙНИ ЧУКОВЕ
.79
III.
6.
РАЗВИТИЕ НА ОРЪЖИЯТА ЗА БЛИЗЪК БОЙ ПРЕЗ ХАЛКОЛИТА
.80
ГЛАВА
IV.
ОРЪЖИЯ ЗА ДАЛЕЧЕН БОЙ
.84
IV.
1.
ПРАШКИ
.84
IV.
1.1.
ГЛИНЕНИ „ТЕЖЕСТИ ЗА ПРАШКА,,
.85
IV.
1. 2.
КАМЕННИ „ТЕЖЕСТИ ЗА ПРАШКА,,
.90
IV.
2.
ЛЪКОВЕ И СТРЕЛИ
.93
IV.
2.1.
ЛЪКОВЕ
.93
IV. 2.2.
КОСТЕНИ ВЪРХОВЕ ЗА СТРЕЛИ
.94
IV.
2. 3.
МЕДНИ ВЪРХОВЕ ЗА СТРЕЛИ
.106
IV
2. 4.
КРЕМЪЧНИ ВЪРХОВЕ ЗА СТРЕЛИ
.107
IV
3.
КОПИЯ
.118
IV.
3.1.
КРЕМЪЧНИ ВЪРХОВЕ ЗА КОПИЯ
.119
IV.
3. 2.
МЕДНИ ВЪРХОВЕ ЗА КОПИЯ
.123
IV.
3. 3.
КОСТЕНИ ВЪРХОВЕ ЗА КОПИЯ
.126
IV.
4.
РАЗПРОСТРАНЕНИЕ И ФУНКЦИЯ НА ВЪРХОВЕТЕ ЗА СТРЕЛИ И КОПИЯ
.127
ГЛАВА
V.
РАЗВИТИЕ И РАЗПРОСТРАНЕНИЕ НА ВЪОРЪЖЕНИЕТО И ДАННИ ЗА ВЪОРЪЖЕНИ
КОНФЛИКТИ ПРЕЗ ХАЛКОЛИТА
.133
ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ
.145
БИБЛИОГРАФИЯ
.147
РЕЗЮМЕ НА АНГЛИЙСКИ ЕЗИК
.163
ОБРАЗИ
.181
КАРТИ
.227
WEAPONS FROM THE CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD
IN BULGARIA
(SUMMARY)
Kamen Boyadzhiev
INTRODUCTION
A number of artifacts from the Chalcolithic period in Bulgaria have been defined in the
archaeological literature as weapons: stone mace-heads, battle axes of stone, copper and antler,
arrowheads and spearheads of flint and bone, slingshots of stone and clay. However, there are no
specialized analyses on most of these artifacts and especially on the problems of their function
and functionality. Studies regarding the development of weapons and possible armed conflicts in
this early period are also lacking.
In this study the term weapon is used to define a single artifact used in attack (against humans
in battle or against animals in hunting). There are no remains left of defensive equipment (ar¬
mours, shields, etc.) from the Chalcolithic in Bulgaria.
This study is concentrated on weapons which were probably designed especially for warfare
and on ones which may have had both combat and hunting use. Thus, an analysis was made on
all artifacts for which such a purpose had been suggested in the literature. Objects used in fishing
like harpoons and others are outside the scope of the research.
The study has three main goals:
To clarify which sorts of artifacts from the Chalcolithic maybe reliably regarded as specialized
weapons.
To determine, as far as it is possible, their particular function (for warfare or for hunting) and
thus to answer the question about the presence of specialized combat weapons in this period.
To trace out the chronological development and regional specifics in the distribution of
different sorts of weapons during the Chalcolithic and consequently to analyze the potential to
use them as cultural indicators and as source of information for possible armed conflicts.
The chronological frame of the work is naturally defined by the analyzed artifacts. Most of
them first emerged in the Chalcolithic and were among the typical objects for this period. During
the so called "transition period", which followed the end of the "classic" Chalcolithic cultures,
a number of changes in all spheres of culture are visible, including weaponry. Thus, this period
remained beyond the scope of the study.
In this research the tripartite periodization of the Chalcolithic proposed by H. Todorova is
used because of its applicability to the whole region concerned:
Early Chalcolithic:
4900/4850 - 4600/4550
cal.
ВС
Middle Chalcolithic:
4600/4550 - 4500/4400
cal.
ВС
Late Chalcolithic:
4500/4400 - 4100/3800
cal.
ВС.
The territorial span of the study covers nowadays Bulgarian lands. On one hand, the contact
zones between the main Chalcolithic cultures in the Balkans (especially the large Late Chalcolithic
cultural complexes Krivodol-Salkutsa-Bubani Hum la, Kodzadermen-Gumelnitsa-Karanovo VI
and Varna) are located on this territory. This provides good opportunity to see if there are cultural
specifics or extra-regional trends in the spread and development of the artifacts in question. On
the other hand, the choice of the territorial span is also conditioned by the possibility to gather
maximum information of the probable Chalcolithic weapons, including documentation and
analysis of a number of unpublished objects stored in different museums.
163
In the study the territory of Bulgaria is divided into several regions on the basis of geographical
features and, mainly, of cultural specifics. These regions are: Western Bulgaria; Central North
and Northeastern Bulgaria; Thrace and the Rhodope mountains; the Black sea coast.
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION IN THE PROBLEMATIC
Visibility of prehistoric weapons
This part examines the problems of recognizing prehistoric weapons. They are due both to the
lack of written sources and to the absence of parts of the artifacts, which were made by organic
materials like wood, hide, etc. It is possible that some of the weapons used did not survive in the
archaeological record at all (like wooden bows and arrows, spears, etc.). Another problem is that
artifacts, which are traditionally defined as tools, may have also served as weapons (like some flat
axes). In some cases even if the parts of the artifacts that we find clearly show that they belonged
to weapons it is difficult to ascertain the exact kind of these weapons. Typical examples are points
of arrows and spears, which can be very similar to each other.
General classification of weapons
In the large group of attacking weapons two classes have been differentiated: close combat
and distance combat weapons. In terms of the main goal of the study this classification provides
grounds to distinguish between artifacts, which were probably specialized for use in battle
("close combat weapons") and those, which may have been used both in hunting and in warfare
("distance combat or projectile weapons"). Each of the classes is subdivided into categories of
weapons, formulated on the basis of common shape and thus common function. The "close
combat weapons" class includes maces, hammer-axes, double axes and double hammers and
the "distance combat weapons" class includes bow and arrows, spears and slings. In some of the
categories subcategories are differentiated according to the material artifacts were made of.
Terminology
The main problems regarding use of different terms in the archaeological literature for
some of the artifacts, especially shaft-hole hammer axes, double axes and double hammers, are
discussed.
Database
The study is based on the analysis of over
1200
artifacts. A large number of them are
unpublished or the published information is very scarce. About
90%
of the finds come from
excavated Chalcolithic sites (settlements and cemeteries). The others are stray finds (collective or
singular), which may be dated in the Chalcolithic according to their morphological features and/
or other materials found with them.
CHAPTER II. HISTORY OF RESEARCH
The topic of the weapons used in the Chalcolithic in nowadays Bulgarian lands (their
appearance, development, spread and the problems regarding their use) has not been thoroughly
studied in the literature. Although a number of different artifacts have been defined as weapons
by many researchers usually there are no particular arguments used to prove such function. Most
of the categories of objects in question lack summarizing publications, with the exception of
copper hammer-axes and flint arrowheads and spearheads. The only two summarizing studies
regarding the topic of specialized weapons and evidences of armed conflicts in the prehistory of
nowadays Bulgaria are made by J. Chapman and M.
Ivanova.
164
CHAPTER III. CLOSE COMBAT WEAPONS
III.
1.
MACES
The mace is a close combat weapon made of wooden handle and head of harder material
(stone, metal), which has to increase the striking power. The objects attesting the existence of
such weapons in the Chalcolithic in Bulgaria are
36
(so far) stone mace-heads. The shape of all
of them is simple, usually close to sphere or cone. Round hole for attaching the handle is bored
in the middle. According to the morphological features
4
types have been defined: type I is close
to sphere; type II is rounded biconical; type III is rounded cylindrical-conical and type IV is
symmetrical biconical.
The earliest mace-heads attested in nowadays Bulgarian lands are dated to the Early Neolithic.
In the Chalcolithic increase in their number and territorial spread is visible. Type I is most largely
spread and attested in all cultural areas and all phases of the Chalcolithic. The small number
of artifacts from the other types (especially III and IV) does not provide grounds for outlining
trends in their territorial spread and cultural development.
This category of artifacts is defined by almost all researchers as specialized weapons and/or
symbols of status and prestige. Among the proofs for this presented in the current study is their
morphological similarity with the stone hammer-axes (battle axes), suggesting similar function.
The connection between these two categories of stone artifacts is most clearly shown by the
mace-like axes from Krivodol and Karnobat settlements. They are approximately spherical but
an edge is deliberately shaped.
The polished surface of the mace-heads, which has mainly visual effect, suggests the importance
they had, while the notches and breakages on a number of them show their real use. The use of
mace-heads as close combat weapons and may be as status symbols as well is also supported by a
number of later historical examples from Egypt, Mesopotamia, etc.
III.
2.
HAMMER-AXES
The hammer-axes (also known as shaft-hole axes) are artifacts made of stone, copper and antler
with a hole bored to insert a handle. In most of the cases one part (defined as the front part) of
the objects ends with a cutting edge parallel to the handle axis (like an axe) while the other has
a butt end (like a hammer). The sharp part of some artifacts, mainly antler ones, is shaped like a
perforating point rather than cutting edge. The diameter of the shaft-hole is usually small (between
17
and
25
mm), which suggests quite small and light handle. This assumption is supported by two
stone hammer-axes from the Varna I cemetery, found together with gold cylinders covering their
handles. The diameter of the cylinder (and of the handle, respectively) is approximately the same
as that of the hole and their total length is between
35
and
40
cm.
III.
2. 1.
STONE HAMMER-AXES
The conclusions made in the study are based on the analysis of about
400
stone hammer-
axes. Approximately
90%
of them come from excavated Chalcolithic sites, mainly settlements.
Whole or almost whole (the entire shape can be reconstructed) are about
Va
of the artifacts
analyzed. A classification of the stone hammer-axes from the Bulgarian Chalcolithic, based on
their morphological features, is presented in the study. According to the horizontal longitudinal
section (plan-view) of the objects
7
types have been defined:
Type I: The front part is triangular and the back is
trapezoid.
Type II: The front part is triangular and the back is
trapezoid.
The specific feature distinguishing
type II from type I is the edge that accentuates the turning point between the front and the back part.
Type III: The shape is close to oval. The sides are arch-shaped, without defined turning point
between the front and the back part. The maximal width (respectively the shaft-hole) is near the
middle of the artifact or slightly moved towards the butt end.
165
Type IV: The shape is close to that of type III but some particular differences are visible. The
maximal width is close to the butt end and the butt end itself is oval, without flat hammer.
Type V: The shape is close to triangle.
Type VI: The shape is close to type III. A specific distinguishing feature is the arch-shaped
widening ("protrusion") at the maximal diameter.
Type
VII:
The shape is close to rectangle with triangular part forming the front edge.
The vertical longitudinal section and the vertical cross section (at the maximal width, across
the shaft-hole) are both used as criteria to define subtypes.
21
subtypes have been attested.
According to the differences in the sharp part
4
variants have been distinguished: a
-
straight or
almost straight cutting edge;
b
-
arch-shaped edge;
с
-
triangular edge;
d
-perforating point.
Along with the morphological differences certain metrical ones are also visible and are
sometimes considerable. On this basis three groups have been defined. The main distinguishing
criterion is the thickness across the hole, which is usually the maximal thickness of the hammer-
axes as well. Group A includes massive artifacts with a thickness exceeding
40
mm. Group
В
covers
most of the hammer-axes known, between
15
and
40
mm thick. Group
С
comprises miniature
objects, with a thickness less than
15
mm, length less than
80
mm and width less than
35
mm.
Certain interconnections among the groups and types of stone hammer-axes have been
observed. In the most numerous group (B) all types (except VII); subtypes and variants are
attested. In group A both types II and IV and variants
с
and
d
are lacking. Group
С
is the less
numerous one, including mainly fragments of artifacts. The whole objects belong to type I.
The analysis of the chronological and territorial spread of the stone hammer-axes show that in
nowadays Bulgaria the first appeared in the beginning of the Chalcolithic, almost synchronously
in different cultural areas (as far as it can be attested so far). The situation in neighboring regions
is similar. Only for the
Vinca
culture area in nowadays Serbia earlier date for their appearance has
been suggested. However, the available data do not provide sure grounds to ascertain the center of
origin (if one) of stone hammer-axes. Anyway, they obviously spread quickly over vast territories.
Certain specifics are visible in the chronological and territorial spread of types and subtypes.
Type I (which is most numerous) and type III are attested in all regions. In Northwestern
Bulgaria they are presented from the Early Chalcolithic on. In the other regions there are no
surely dated whole artifacts from this period which hampers sure conclusions. Type II is spread
in Northeastern Bulgaria and the Black sea coast and is dated in the Late Chalcolithic. Its subtype
5
is attested only in the Varna lakes area. Types IV, V and VI are presented by a small number of
artifacts. So far there is no data for their spread in the Black sea coast area and for the existence
of type V in Thrace. Type
VII
is presented by only one object, from Northwestern Bulgaria.
Regarding the variants of stone hammer-axes the lack of piercing points (variants
с
and d) in
Western Bulgaria and Thrace (with one exception from Krivodol) should be noticed. Differences
in the spread of the groups are also visible. Group
В
is most numerous and most widely spread
-
in all cultural areas. However, in Northwestern Bulgaria it is more poorly presented than
in the other regions. Comparatively large percent
(30%)
of the stone hammer-axes from this
region belong to group A. The number of the artifacts from this group sharply decreases in
Northeastern Bulgaria and in Thrace and the Black sea coast they have not been attested so far.
Group
С
is too scanty, especially in Western Bulgaria. There it is presented by a single find from
the Devetaki cave.
Important for the goals of this study is the analysis made on the morpho-metrical features of
the stone hammer-axes, the use-wear traces on them and the raw materials used. This analysis
is essential for clarifying the function of the artifacts. The objects from groups
В
and
С
have
rather narrow blades (between
20
and
25
mm for group B), often without a sharp cutting edge
(triangular, piercing or blunted). The blades of the artifacts from group A are wider but usually
with bigger sharpening angle.
The use-wear traces are usually similar on the two opposite "working" edges: small notches or
166
breakages on the blade edge and the butt end. They are quite the same on different artifacts, from
different groups and types, and differ mainly by intensity: usually the edges of the group A artifacts
bear more and bigger notches. There are also stone hammer-axes without macroscopically visible
use-wear traces. It should be noticed that all findings from type II, subtype
5
belong to this group.
The finding context of the stone hammer-axes from the Chalcolithic is also analyzed, with an
accent on the cemeteries.
III.
2. 2.
COPPER HAMMER-AXES
96
copper hammer-axes from the Chalcolithic in Bulgaria are known so far. All of them
are whole. The classification made by H. Todorova
(Тодорова
1986, 149;
Todorova
1981)
with
some corrections proposed by K.
Dimitrov
(Димитров
2007, 41)
is used in the study. Some
additional small changes are made. According to the overall shape of the artifacts
4
types have
been defined: Plochnik,
Vidra,
Varna and Devnya. In
Vidra
and Devnya types
3
subtypes have
been differentiated
(А, В
and C). Based on the shape of the sharp edge
3
variants have been
defined
-
a, b and c, corresponding to the respective variants of stone hammer-axes.
All copper hammer-axes with information about
stratigraphie
position or finding context date
to the II and III phase of the Late Chalcolithic. The available data do not allow sure conclusions
about the chronological development of different types. According to some data from neighboring
regions an earlier origin of the Plochnik type may be suggested.
On the other hand, certain differences in the territorial spread of the types are visible. The
Plochnik type has been found mainly in Western Bulgaria and Thrace and almost all known
finds from the first region belong to it. In Northeastern Bulgaria and the Black sea coast area
only few artifacts of the "classical" Plochnik type have been found so far. The
Vidra
type is the
most numerous one and is attested in all cultural areas. However, certain regional specifics in
the spread of its subtypes are visible. The
Vidra
В
subtype has been found only in Northeastern
Bulgaria and along the Black sea coast, being particularly numerous in the Varna lakes region.
In Thrace more massive artifacts of
Vidra
A and
С
subtypes were spread, close in dimensions
to the Plochnik type hammer-axes. The Varna type is typical of the Black sea coast area. Few
artifacts have been found so far in the inland of Northeastern Bulgaria. The Devnya type is the
least numerous and have most limited spread. Its "classical" shape is known only from the Varna
lakes region.
The analysis of the copper hammer-axes spread in wider territorial and cultural context
confirms the main observations made for the Bulgarian lands. The artifacts of the Plochnik type
are concentrated in the territories of Serbia, Western Bulgaria, Western Romania and Hungary,
i. e. the area of the Krivodol-Salcutsa-Bubani Hum la and Tiszapolgar cultures, while the main
region of the spread of the
Vidra
type includes Northeastern Bulgaria, Eastern Romania and
Moldova, i. e. the area of the Kodzadermen-Gumelnitsa-Karanovo VI, Varna and Cucuteni-
Tripolie cultures.
The analysis of morpho-metrical features of copper hammer-axes shows certain relations
between them and the types of hammer-axes. The most massive artifacts are those of Plochnik
and
Vidra
С
types (similar to group A of the stone hammer-axes). They have widest cutting edges
(of variants a and b) and widest butt ends. The artifacts of other types are definitely lighter and
more "graceful", with smaller edges and butt ends. Their sharp edges are mainly of variants
b
and
с
Some miniature copper hammer-axes have been also attested.
The use-wear traces are similar to the ones visible on stone hammer-axes. They have been
observed on artifacts of all types. Some objects with strongly deformed sharp edge and butt end
are worth noting.
The finding context of the copper hammer-axes is also analyzed. Most of them were found
in cemeteries and especially in one particular cemetery
-
Varna I. They were attested both
167
in inhumation graves (mainly male ones) and in cenotaphs. Some collective stray finds are
discussed as well.
III.
2. 3.
ANTLER HAMMER-AXES
Unlike the stone and copper hammer-axes, which have similar morphological features,
the antler shaft-hole artifacts show large variety. There are objects made of different parts of
the antler; with different shape of both ends: one being a sharp edge and the other butt (like a
hammer), both being sharp, one or both ends being hollow (sleeves?); with different shape of the
sharp edge (cutting or piercing); with different surface treatment; different shape and dimensions
of the shaft-hole; etc. All these differences in shape, often significant, suggest different function
of the artifacts as well: as agricultural tools, picks, axes, weapons, etc. The detailed analysis of all
antler shaft-hole artifacts and their use is beyond the scope of this study. It is also hampered by
the lack of publications and the fragmentary state of a large number of findings.
Regarding the main goals of the study special attention is paid to the possible use of some
particular antler shaft-hole artifacts as battle axes. This function is suggested on the base of both
their morpho-metrical features and the finding context. Most important are the "collections"
from cemeteries and especially the two most numerous ones: from the Durankulak and Varna
I cemeteries. Antler shaft-hole axes were found both in inhumation graves (mainly male ones)
and in cenotaphs. In the inhumation graves they were usually found in position as being hold in
one hand (like a large percent of the stone and copper hammer-axes). This suggests that they had
quite small handles, unsuitable for a hoe,
ard
or pick, for example.
Most of the antler shaft-hole artifacts from Chalcolithic cemeteries were found in poor
condition, but those which were better preserved share common features. One of their parts is
elongated, ending in cutting or piercing edge and the other is more massive, shaped as a hammer.
The shaft-hole is round or oval. The surface of the artifacts is well smoothed. The main differences
observed regard the shape of the sharp end. According to it three variants have been defined:
-
Variant
1:
Piercing edge (point).
-
Variant
2:
A cutting edge perpendicular to the handle is formed by cutting of the lower side
of the artifact. The edge is narrow and arch-shaped.
-
Variant
3:
A cutting edge is formed parallel to the handle. It is quite wide and slightly arch-
shaped.
Among the findings from cemeteries with preserved edge variant
1
significantly dominates.
The antler shaft-hole axes known from cemeteries appeared in the Early Chalcolithic but their
number largely increased in the Middle and Late Chalcolithic. Almost all of them (with a single
exception) are from the Black sea coast area. Antler hammer-axes with similar features are also
known from Chalcolithic sites in Northeastern Bulgaria. The finding context of some of them
(next to or in the fortifications of the settlements) also supports their possible interpretation
as weapons. There are also similar artifacts known from Thrace but there is no additional
information (regarding specific finding context or other) which may prove their use as battle
axes. It should be noted that so far I have no information of antler hammer-axes close to the ones
described from Black sea coast cemeteries coming from Northwestern Bulgaria.
However, the general problem regarding the determination of the function of the antler shaft-
hole artifacts hampers to a large extent the analysis of the chronological and territorial spread of
battle axes.
III.
3.
DOUBLE AXES
Double axes are shaft-hole artifacts with two ends shaped as sharp edges. In some of the cases
one or both of the edges are piercing but not cutting ones.
168
III.
3.1.
STONE
DOUBLE AXES
The appearance of such artifacts in the Chalcolithic in Bulgaria is not surely proven yet.
It is suggested on the basis of two finds without clear context but with good similarities with
some stone hammer-axes from the Chalcolithic, regarding their morpho-metrical features and
especially the shape of the edges (variant
d
of the hammer-axes). Both objects come from the
Lovech
town region and are almost identical.
III.
3.2.
COPPER DOUBLE AXES
Two types of copper double axes have been differentiated on the basis of the shape of their
edges:
-
Type I: One part is an arch-shaped, almost triangular edge parallel to the handle and the
other is a long piercing edge. Two artifacts of this type are known so far. Only one of them has
sure finding context. It comes from the Late Chalcolithic Varna I cemetery.
-
Type II: Both parts are identical, ending in rather piercing than cutting edges. The shape
is similar to the stone double axes. The type is represented by only one stray find from Aprlitsi,
Stara Zagora
region. Some analogies with the Yasladani type shaft-hole axes suggest its dating in
the so called "transitional period" between the Chalcolithic and the Bronze age.
III.
3. 3.
ANTLER DOUBLE AXES
Two types of antler double axes have been differentiated among the Chalcolithic artifacts from
Bulgaria:
-
Type I: One end is shaped as triangular edge parallel to the handle and the other part (the
longer one) is cut from one side to form an arch-shaped edge parallel to the handle. Just a single
artifact from this type is known. It is found in the Late Chalcolithic layer of the Durankulak tell
(Varna culture).
-
Type II: One end is cut from one side to form an arch-shaped edge parallel to the handle
and the other is a piercing one. The shaft-hole is approximately in the middle of the artifact. The
shape of the edges (and especially the piercing one) and the small shaft-hole (thus, probably, small
handles as well) suggest possible use as weapons. However, there is no other data (as specific
finding context) to prove this hypothesis. Objects of this type are specific for the Kodzadermen-
Gumelnitsa-Karanovo VI culture.
III.
4.
FUNCTION OF THE SHAFT-HOLE AXES
Different opinions about the function of the shaft-hole axes made of stone, copper or antler
have been stated. They have been interpreted as agricultural or wood-working tools, as forging
hammers (some particular stone artifacts), as weapons or status symbols. These hypotheses are
analyzed in this study paying attention to all data, which may clarify the function of the artifacts:
morpho-metrical features, use-wear traces, finding context.
It should be noted that none of the hypotheses offered in the literature suggesting working
function of the hammer-axes includes at the same time those made of stone, copper and antler.
However, the similarities of the stone, copper and antler shaft-hole axes together with their
identical finding context in cemeteries suggest that they had identical function. All of the
data analyzed show that these were most probably weapons. Moreover, they can be referred to
specialized combat weapons since due to the small radius of action the shaft-hole axes are not
suitable for hunting.
Briefly summarized, the evidences are:
First: placing the handle in the head allows two separate functional parts to be formed: an
edge and a butt end (hammer-axe), two edges (double axes) or two butt ends (double hammers).
169
This is particularly convenient for the combat use of the artifacts since it facilitates the striking of
blows in different directions.
Second: the small size of the handles indicates that the items discussed are not very functional
either as heavy percussive tools (axes or hammers) or as farming tools. However, they have certain
advantages in combat use. The possibility for holding them in one hand releases the other, e.g.
for using a shield. Moreover, the thinner, short and light handles are more convenient both for
continued carrying (which is not necessary when using working artifacts) and for fast, sudden
movements as required in a combat situation.
Third: the specific use-wear traces, which are identical on the two different parts of the shaft-
hole axes, suggest their similar use. It is possible that they are result of a strike into defensive
armor or other similar weapon.
Forth: the specific morphometric characteristics of the edges of most items under discussion
and especially their piercing qualities.
Fifth: the finding context of the artifacts
-
both in cemeteries (where they are typically found
in adult male burials, usually having central position in the grave, including some of the richest
Chalcolithic graves) and the specific situation in which the copper hammer-axe from tell Hotnitsa
was found.
The sporadic use of some hammer-axes (especially more massive ones) as working tools
cannot be excluded but there is no evidence to assume that this was the main function of the
whole kind of artifacts (stone, copper and antler ones).
The central place which hammer-axes had in some very rich graves, as well as the polishing
and lack of use-wear traces on some of them suggest that they gradually acquired a representative
role as symbols of strength and power.
III.
5.
DOUBLE HAMMERS
Double hammers are shaft-hole artifacts with both parts shaped as butt ends
-
hammers. Only
stone items are known from the Chalcolithic in Bulgaria. They are quite rare. The earliest known
objects date to the Early Chalcolithic in Western Bulgaria. In the Middle and Late Chalcolithic
they have been attested in Northeastern Bulgaria and Thrace as well. In terms of morphology the
stone double hammers have intermediate position between mace-heads and hammer-axes. This
suggests their similar use, as weapons.
III.
6.
DEVELOPMENT OF CLOSE COMBAT WEAPONS IN BULGARIAN
CHALCOLITHIC
The analysis of the available data shows that the earliest specialized percussion weapons
for close combat which appeared in the Bulgarian lands are the maces (attested since the Early
Neolithic). During the Early Chalcolithic (the beginning of the 5th millennium
ВС)
the first
stone and antler shaft-hole axes and stone double hammers occurred. It is possible that the battle
axes originated from the maces, as a response to the decreasing effectiveness of the latter against
the developing protective armament (possibly leather and/or wooden) and the need for piercing
weaponry for close combat. Indeed, the maces did not lose their significance when the battle axes
appeared and their number even increased till the end of the Chalcolithic. However, both maces
and double hammers remained much less in number than stone hammer-axes, which obviously
dominated as preferred close combat weapons. The latter were scanty only in the Hamangia and
Varna cultures, for which antler battle axes were typical.
During the Middle and Late Chalcolithic the spread of close combat weapons and especially
of stone hammer-axes sharply increased. The shape of their percussion parts improved with a
tendency toward higher pierceability. The stone hammer-axes may be regarded as a prototype of
170
the copper ones, which started to be produced in the Late Chalcolithic as a result of the improving
metallurgical skills. The copper shaft-hole axes can be assumed as an improved version of the
stone and antler pieces: they are stronger, sharper, heavier at the same volume and as a result,
more piercing as well as more durable. Besides, they can be repaired and retreated. It seems that
their occurrence and development reflect the demand for more efficient close combat weapons.
However, the copper shaft-hole axes do not replace their stone and antler prototypes. Obviously,
due to the value of the material and the more complicated workmanship, they were affordable
only for certain individuals.
The development of the hammer-axes also resulted in the appearance of double axes in the
end of the Chalcolithic.
The Late Chalcolithic was the summit both in the spread of close combat weapons and of
their typological variety. Occurrence of certain "fashions" is also visible, probably reflecting the
increasing importance of these artifacts and their transformation into prestige items, symbols of
strength and power.
CHAPTER IV. DISTANCE COMBAT WEAPONS
IV.
1.
SLINGS
A sling is a device typically used to throw a blunt projectile such as stone, clay or lead "sling¬
shot". It has a small cradle in the middle of two lengths of cord. The use of sling as a projectile
weapon is attested historically and ethnographically since Antiquity till nowadays. Because of the
perishable materials slings are made of it is hard to expect them to be found in prehistoric sites
and there are no cases known so far. However, a number of researchers interpret stone and clay
artifacts from the Neolithic and Chalcolithic as "sling-shots".
IV.
1. 1.
CLAY "SLING-SHOTS"
According to differences in the shape of the so-called "sling-shots" two main types may be
defined: rounded biconical (type I) and spherical (type II). They have similar dimensions: the
length varies between
35
and
60
mm for type I and the diameter of the type II artifacts is between
25
and
45
mm; the weight varies between
25
and
65
g. The baking degree varies from unbaked
to very well baked ones. Such artifacts have been found in quite few Chalcolithic settlements
in Bulgaria but their spread covers all periods and cultural regions. Different interpretations
regarding their function have been offered so far: sling-shots (used as weapons or for chasing
birds away from the crop, or for driving in astray sheep); objects for testing the temperature in
pottery kilns; grain models with specific role in agricultural rituals (regarding type I) and game
balls (regarding some artifacts of type II).
Because of the main goals of this study the research is concentrated on their possible use as
weapons. This hypothesis is based mainly on the parallels with lead sling-shots from Antiquity
(especially of the type I artifacts) and on the similar shape and dimension of the clay objects, which
would provide grounds for training and achieving better accuracy than the use of accidentally
collected pebbles. However, the material they are made of questions their use in battle or big game
hunting, while small gate hunting would require too high accuracy. The historical evidence show that
the use of clay sling-shots was rather sporadic than widely spread. The stone ones were much more
preferred, being easily available and far more functional. The specific features of some finds of type
II also reject the "weapon hypothesis": one of them is hollow and the other two are decorated.
IV. I.
2.
STONE "SLING-SHOTS"
Stone objects defined as "sling-shots" have been found in all periods of the Chalcolithic and in
all cultural regions. Most of them are roughly spherical. Stones with suitable natural shape were
171
used but in most of the cases additional hammering is visible. The diameter of the artifacts vary
between
45
and
80
mm (in few cases even larger) and the weight
-
between
220
and
670
g (but
in
one case almost
2,5
kg). In a number of artifacts a flat platform was attested.
In my opinion, some arguments question the interpretation of these artifacts (or at least
some of them) as weapons. First, the artificially made flat platforms are useless for a sling¬
shot but suitable for a hammer-stone. Indeed, on most of them use-wear traces (notches and
small breakages) are visible. The second obstacle is the big dimensions of some of the artifacts
(heavier than
500
g). The historical data show that the sling-shots used were lighter. Such weight
is suitable neither for carrying (in a battle campaign or in hunting) nor for precise shooting.
Besides, there is no information for accumulation of such stones in settlements, which may
suggest possible defensive supply.
Theoretically, the use of some smaller stone balls (not heavier than
300-400
g) with roughly
spherical shape and no flat platforms as weapons is more probable. However, when just a few
artifacts are found in settlement or domestic context their interpretation is also doubtful.
All these observations do not mean that sling was not known and used as a weapon in the
Chalcolithic in Bulgaria. However, the projectiles used may have been simple stones, either
additionally shaped or not, which are very difficult to distinguish as weapons in the bulk of
archaeological finds. It is also probable that sling-shots were not accumulated or made in
settlements but gathered "on the way" in cases of hunt or battle march.
IV.
2.
BOWS AND ARROWS
IV.
2. 1.
BOWS
The bows used in the Chalcolithic in Bulgaria were probably entirely made of wood. The
only evidence of them we have so far is from the Varna I cemetery. These are golden "cylinders"
found in four of the graves, which were probably decoration of such weapons. This interpretation
is most surely confirmed by the position of the golden fittings in grave
43.
They were found in
symmetrical pairs (the bigger in the middle, the smaller in the ends) forming a light arch along
the body of the buried man. This position suggests that they decorated quite short (about
1,20
m)
simple symmetrical bow.
IV.
2. 2.
BONE ARROWHEADS
Bone artifacts with different morphological and metrical features have been defined as
arrowheads in Bulgarian archaeological literature. They may be generally divided in two large
groups: objects with both ends thinned out and sharpened (double points) and artifacts with one
sharp and one butt end (the butt one being the epiphysis of the bone). At the same time items
from both groups have been identified as awls by some researchers. Thus, special attention is paid
in this study on the criteria for discriminating between arrowheads and tools (awls, needles, etc.).
Different possible data have been analyzed: the features of the artifacts (morphological specifics
and use-wear traces, especially breakages), the finding context of some of them, historical and
ethnographic data, experiments conducted.
The analyses show that most of the double-pointed bone artifacts may be regarded as
arrowheads: mainly the items with a marked tang but probably also the symmetrical ones. The
points of some objects are blunt.
The bone double points analyzed have close dimensions. About
2/3
of the artifacts for which
metrical data is available are between
40
and
65
mm long and usually about
2-3
g
heavy. Five
types have been defined according to differences in the longitudinal shape of the objects:
-
Type I: It is characterized by a marked tang.
-
Type II: The artifacts of this type do not have a marked tang but the whole body thins out in
the back part to facilitate inserting into the shaft (asymmetrical double points).
172
-
Type III: Symmetrical double points. Both ends are identically shaped which hampers
discrimination between front and back part.
-
Type IV: Approximately rhomboid shape. The front part is shorter than the tang.
-
Type V: The type is presented by only one item. It differs significantly from the other bone
arrowheads. The body is triangular and flat, with two side notches, probably for binding to the
shaft.
7
subtypes have been differentiated according to the shape of the cross-section and
4
variants
according to the shape of the point (piercing; rounded; flat
-
blunt; cutting edge).
Type I is the most numerous one, including almost
2/3
of the finds analyzed. It is the only type
in which all subtypes and variants have been attested.
The earliest bone arrowheads from Bulgaria which may be surely dated belong to the Early
Chalcolithic. Their spread sharply increased in the Late Chalcolithic. Over
90 %
of the finds date
to this period.
The analysis of the territorial spread shows almost complete absence of bone arrowheads
(at least according to the information available so far) in Western Bulgaria and the Black sea
coast, as well as in Greece. It seems that these artifacts were typical mainly for the Kodzadermen-
Gumelnitsa-Karanovo VI culture, where they developed continuatively from the respective Early
and Middle Chalcolithic cultures.
No certain chronological trends or territorial differences are visible in the spread of types,
subtypes and variants. Probably the morphological differences reflect rather some functional
specifics (use of different arrowheads for different purposes) than local phenomena.
The finding context of bone arrowheads is also analyzed. Almost all of them were found in
settlements. Among the very few finds from cemeteries one is especially intriguing. This is a
point from the Golyamo Delchevo cemetery, found between the ribs of a woman's chest. It is
possible that the arrowhead was not part of the grave goods but the weapon that caused the death
of the woman and remained stuck in her body.
Belemnites
According to R. Popov some artificially shaped belemnites, close in shape to the bone double
points, were also used as arrowheads. However, the analysis of the morphological features of these
objects and the finding context of some of them question such a use. Considering a number of
historical and ethnographic examples it is more probable that belemnites were respected as "darts
from the heaven" because of their natural shape, than actually used as weapons. It is possible that
they served as amulets of hunters and warriors.
IV.
2. 3.
COPPER ARROWHEADS
Symmetrical or slightly asymmetrical double-pointed copper artifacts, similar to types II
and III bone arrowheads, are known from the Bulgarian Chalcolithic. However, unlike the bone
artifacts, the tang of the copper ones was necessary for inserting into any kind of handle (short
or long) and thus is no sure argument in determining their function. The finding of some copper
double points inserted in short bone handles shows that they were used as awls. This may have
also been the function of the other similar objects.
Worth noting is one double point with marked tang, very close to type I bone arrowheads
(from Telish-Luga settlement). However, there are no arguments showing that it was used as a
projectile point. Generally speaking, the use of copper arrowheads in this very early period of
metallurgy is questionable, because the risk of losing the rare material objects was great, while
bone and flint tips were absolutely functional as well.
173
IV.
2.4.
FLINT ARROWHEADS
Flint arrow- and spearheads are a distinct group of artifacts, which differ from the other flint
objects both by morphological specifics and, usually, in terms of manufacture. Their shape is
usually close to isosceles triangle. The lateral edges are sharp and cutting and join into piercing
point. In most of the cases the base is thin, ending in sharp edge facilitating insertion into the
shaft. Most of the projectile heads are bifacially retouched.
The distinction between arrowheads and spearheads in the total absence of their shafts is very
problematic. It is additionally hampered by the fact that the dimensions of the head depend to
a large extent on the specifics of each particular weapon and may vary a lot both for arrows and
spears. Both different criteria for this discrimination (length, weight, etc.) and different values of
the criteria used have been proposed in the archaeological literature.
The main criterion used in the current study to discriminate between flint arrowheads and
spearheads is the length of the artifacts. The analysis of the metrical features of all available finds
shows that among the length values there are certain intervals with concentration of artifacts and
an intermediate interval almost lacking objects: between
51
and
57
mm. Although approximately,
the length of
51
mm is considered a border between arrowheads and spearheads. Additionally
the weight of the projectile points and a border value of
10
g
is used.
The classification of the flint arrowheads is based on the shape of their horizontal longitudinal
section. According to the symmetry of the artifacts two groups are differentiated:
-
Group A: Symmetrical points. The items of this group are usually bifacially retouched.
-
Group B: Asymmetrical points. These are the so-called geometric microliths. Their shape is
asymmetrical
trapezoid
or, rarer, asymmetrical triangular (close to right-angled triangle). These
artifacts are also discernible for their small size (between
15
and
33
mm long) and manufacture
(on bladelets).
11
types have been defined among the group A arrowheads on the basis of the shape of lateral
edges and base:
-
Type I: Both the lateral edges and the base are straight or almost straight. The overall shape
is of isosceles (or in few cases equilateral) triangle.
-
Type II: The lateral edges are straight and the base is concave.
-
Type III: The lateral edges are straight and the base is convex.
-
Type IV: Both the lateral edges and the base are convex and the transition between them is
smooth, with no angles.
-
Type V: The lateral edges are convex and the curve of the arch is closer to the base. The base
is concave.
-
Type VI: The lateral edges are convex and the curve of the arch is closer to the base. The base
is also convex, with angles between it and the lateral edges.
-
Type
VII:
The lateral edges are convex and the curve of the arch is closer to the point. The
edges are almost parallel in their proximal part. The base is straight.
-
Type
VIII:
The lateral edges are convex and the base is concave.
-
Type IX: The lateral edges are straight. In the middle of the base there is an arch-shaped notch.
-
Type X: There are side notches on the lateral edges, placed closer to the base. The base is
straight.
-
Type XI: The lateral edges form an obtuse angle. The overall shape is almost rhomboid.
The artifacts with straight lateral edges without side notches (types I, II and III) dominate
among the analyzed flint arrowheads, followed by those with convex lateral edges (types IV-
VIII). Types X and XI are represented by few finds.
The projectile points of group
В
are much less in number and typological variety. According
to their shape and position towards the shaft, respectively the way they "work", two types have
been differentiated:
174
-
Type I (piercing points): The shape is asymmetrical
trapezoid
or almost triangular. The short
cathetus was inserted into the shaft.
-
Type II (cutting points): The shape is symmetrical
trapezoid.
The short base of the trapeze
was inserted into the shaft and the long base was the functional part of the artifact. The way
such point worked was thus cutting but not piercing. Only one such find is known from the
Chalcolithic in Bulgaria.
Certain differences in the chronological and territorial spread of the two groups are visible.
The group
В
arrowheads appeared in nowadays Bulgaria in the Late Neolithic. In the Chalcolithic
they are attested only along the Black sea coast, mainly in the Hamangia culture (Early and Middle
Chalcolithic). It seems that during the Late Chalcolithic they were replaced by the symmetrical
points.
The group A arrowheads appeared in the Early Chalcolithic. Few finds from Thrace, Western
and Northeastern Bulgaria are known from this period. Types I, II and III have been attested. In
my opinion the available data do not support the hypothesis suggested by some authors that these
artifacts appeared in nowadays Bulgaria as a result of influence from the Aegean and Adriatic
areas. Both significant morphological differences between the arrowheads from these regions and
the lack of finds from the intermediate territories (Eastern Macedonia, Southwestern Bulgaria
and Aegean Thrace) confute it.
The spread of symmetrical arrowheads expanded in the Late Chalcolithic and covered all
cultural regions in nowadays Bulgaria. The typological variety also increased. Some specifics in
the territorial spread of different types are visible. The greatest variety is observed in Northeastern
Bulgaria.
Regarding the finding context it is worth noting the large collection of flint projectile points
from
Madara.
It includes artifacts in different manufacturing stages, showing that this was a
workshop specialized in their production. It is also interesting that all finds from grave context
are from cemeteries from the Black sea coast area and belong to group B.
IV.
3.
SPEARS
The spears can be used both by throwing at a distance (throwing spear or javelin) or for
thrusting, hold in the hand (pike). However, there are no shafts of spears preserved from the
Neolithic and Chalcolithic in the Balkans, which could give more information on the dimensions
and specific function of these weapons. The only source
ofinformation
about their existence and
use are the heads made of flint, bone or antler
(?)
and copper.
IV.
3. 1.
FLINT SPEARHEADS
On the basis of the analyses mentioned, symmetrical and usually bifacially retouched flint
points longer than
51
mm and heavier than
10
g
are regarded in this study as spearheads. Their
classification is based on the same principles as the classification of symmetrical flint arrowheads.
13
types have been differentiated:
-
Type I: Both the lateral edges and the base are straight or almost straight. The overall shape
is of isosceles triangle.
-
Type II: The lateral edges are straight and the base is concave.
-
Type III: The lateral edges are straight and the base is convex.
-
Type IV: Both the lateral edges and the base are convex and the transition between them is
smooth, with no angles.
-
Type V: The lateral edges are convex and the curve of the arch is closer to the base. The base
is straight or almost straight.
-
Type VI: The lateral edges are convex and the curve of the arch is in the mid-part or closer to
the point. The edges are almost parallel in their proximal part. The base is straight.
175
-
Type
VII:
The shape is similar to type IV. Both the lateral edges and the base are convex. The
specific feature defining the type is two small symmetrical "barbs" on the edges, close to the base.
-
Type
VIII:
The lateral edges are straight. In the middle of the base there is an arch-shaped
notch.
-
Type IX: There are side notches on the lateral edges, placed closer to the base. The base is
straight.
-
Type X: There are side notches on the lateral edges, placed closer to the base. The base is
convex.
-
Type XI: There are side notches on the lateral edges, placed closer to the base. The base is
concave.
-
Type
XII:
Wide notches in the proximal part of the spearhead form a kind of tang, which is
wider in the base. The lateral edges are straight in the distal part.
-
Type
XIII:
Tanged spearhead. The distal part is triangular, with straight edges. The tang is
almost rectangular.
Most of the types of spearheads are identical with arrowheads types. However, some
differences are visible. The "simplest" types (with straight edges and no notches: I-III), which
are most numerous among the arrowheads (almost
60%)
cover just about
13%
of the spearheads
known. The types with convex lateral edges are best represented among the spearheads: almost
60%.
Leader among them is type IV, which includes
30%
of all spearheads analyzed. Another
visible difference is the high percentage (about
20%)
of points with side-notches (types IX-XII).
Obviously these points were typical for spears (probably for securing better attachment of the
heavier point to the shaft) and were used on arrows rather as an exception.
The earliest flint spearheads among the finds with
stratigraphie data
from Bulgaria can be
dated in the Middle Chalcolithic. Most of the artifacts belong to the Late Chalcolithic and mainly
to its phases II and III. In this time flint spearheads spread in all cultural regions of Bulgaria. The
situation in Southern Romania is similar.
J. Lichardus and M. Lichardus-Itten proposed that the spearheads in Cucuteni-Tripolie,
Kodzadermen-Gumelnitsa-Karanovo VI, Varna and Krivodol-Salcutsa-Bubani hum la cultures
spread from the northeast, as an influence by the steppe cultures
Średni
Stog
II,
Novodanilovka
and Hvalinsk (Lichardus, Lichardus-Itten
1993).
Several arguments confute this hypothesis.
First, in nowadays Bulgaria artifacts similar in shape and technique of manufacture, namely
flint arrowheads, appeared in the Early Chalcolithic. Second, the
Średni
Stog
II, Novodanilovka
and Hvalinsk cultures are synchronous rather to the end of the Chalcolithic in Bulgaria. Third,
besides the similarities between the spear points from the Northern and Western Black sea coast
certain morphological differences are visible as well. The data available so far rather suggest local
origin of the spearheads in the Balkans (in nowadays Bulgaria and Romania), probably on the
base of already developed arrowheads manufacture.
The lack of
stratigraphie
information for most of the flint spearheads hampers tracing of
possible chronological development. However, certain territorial specifics are visible. The flint
spearheads are most numerous in Northeastern Bulgaria (over
40 %
of the finds) and the greatest
typological variety is observed there. This variety is also large in the Black sea coast area but most
of the types are presented by singular or very few finds. In Northwestern Bulgaria and Thrace
types IV and V largely prevail while those with side-notches are lacking. It seems that the latter
ones are specific for the Northeastern Bulgaria and the Black sea coast. Types
VII
and
XIII
are
attested only in the Varna culture. The latter one (presented by one find from tell Durankulak)
suggests influence from the North
Pontic
steppes. Such an influence is also confirmed by the only
arrowhead of type XI from Bulgaria, found in the same building level (IV) of the same tell.
The analysis of the finding context shows almost complete lack of flint spearheads in
cemeteries. A concentration of stray collective finds in the
Lovech
region is also noticeable. It
suggests the presence of local production center.
176
III.
3. 2.
BONE
SPEAR-HEADS
Finds of bone or antler "spearheads" are mentioned in the publications of a number of
Chalcolithic sites in Bulgaria. In most of the cases these are artifacts with a sharp point and a butt
end, which is the epiphysis of the bone (sometimes smoothed). This shape of the proximal part
hampers the secure fixing of the point to a shaft but offers good support to grip and push with a
hand. In my opinion the use of such artifacts as spearheads is too questionable. This function is
more probable for objects with thinned proximal part. However, just a few finds of this kind are
known which impedes further conclusions on their use and spread.
IV.
3. 3.
COPPER SPEARHEADS
Four copper artifacts defined in the literature as spearheads are known from the Late
Chalcolithic in Bulgaria. Three of them share similar morphological and metrical features. The
front part is widened (leaf-shaped or rhomboid), ending in piercing point; the tang is long and
thin; the total length is between
26
and
33
cm. Two of them were found in the Varna I cemetery
and the third one is part of a stray find from the city of Varna, known as "Second grave
43".
Their
function as weapons is confirmed both by the specific morpho-metrical features and the finding
context of the Varna I finds
-
each one together with a flint spearhead.
The fourth artifact was found in the Peklyuk settlement, Western Bulgaria. It differs significantly
from the other three and is closer to the bone arrowheads of type I. However, more or less similar
copper objects have been found in short bone handles which show their use as awls. Thus, the
finding from Peklyuk cannot be surely determined as a weapon.
IV.
4.
SPREAD AND USE OF THE ARROWHEADS AND SPEARHEADS
The earliest sure data about the use of bow and arrows among the sedentary agricultural
communities in nowadays Bulgaria come from the Late Neolithic and are connected with the
appearance of geometric microliths. However, it is possible that the lack of evidence of these
weapons in the earlier periods of the Neolithic is due not to their real lack but to the use of
entirely wooden or other archaeologically "invisible" arrows.
The spread of arrow- and spearheads in the Chalcolithic and their gradual increase in number
show the elaboration and increasing importance of these weapons. At the same time the variety
of materials used, shapes and dimensions suggest certain specialization and differences in their
particular use. A number of ethnographic data show differentiation in the use of organic and stone
projectile points depending on the specifics of each material and the potentialities it provides. Bone
or antler arrowheads are preferred for hunting small animals while flint ones are usually used when
larger deadly wounds should be inflicted, i. e. against large game or in battle. Blunt bone or wooden
points are designed for hunting small animals with valued fur or birds. It is possible that similar
differentiation existed in the Chalcolithic. However, there is no data which may surely prove it.
When considering this hypothesis the almost total lack of bone points in Western Bulgaria should
be held in mind. In this region their function may have been served by entirely wooden arrows.
On the other hand, bone arrowheads may have been also used against people, which is suggested
by the artifact found in the chest of a woman from the Golyamo Delchevo cemetery (such cases
are also known from the Mesolithic in the Iron Gorge, for example).
In traditional societies spears are used mainly for hunting large game or in warfare. In some
tribes a differentiation has been attested between the heads used for javelins (stone points) and
for pikes (entirely wooden). It is explained by the risk of breaking the stone point in close combat,
which would disarm the warrior using it. The available data do not provide grounds to conclude
whether differentiation between javelins and pikes and between the heads used for both kinds of
spears existed in the Chalcolithic. To some extent this hypothesis is supported by the finding of
177
both flint and copper spearheads in two graves of the Varna I cemetery. It is possible that the larger,
heavier and more valuable copper heads were used on pikes while the flint ones were for javelins.
It is difficult to answer surely the questions whether bows and arrows and spears were used
in armed conflicts in the Chalcolithic and whether there were specialized combat weapons of
these kinds. Indirect evidence supporting this hypothesis is provided by the analysis of the role
of hunting in the Chalcolithic. According to the archaeozoological researches no significant
difference in the domestic/wild animals ratio is visible neither between Neolithic and Chalcolithic
nor between Late Chalcolithic and earlier periods. Thus, it is possible that the large increase in
number of the arrow- and spearheads in the Late Chalcolithic reflects their battle function.
CHAPTER
V.DEVELOPMENT
AND DISTRIBUTIONOFWEAPONSAND EVIDENCES
OF ARMED CONFLICTS IN THE CHALCOLITHIC
In the last chapter of the study a summarizing analysis is made of the development and
distribution of all artifacts, which may be regarded as weapons and especially specialized combat
weapons. The observations are afterwards discussed in the context of other evidences of possible
armed conflicts in the Chalcolithic in nowadays Bulgaria. It is namely in the Chalcolithic when
(together with the appearance and spread of weapons) a trend towards defense of the settlements
is visible in all cultural regions
-
both through their relocation on a naturally defended places
or by building fortifications around them. Skeletal remains with violent traumas have been also
attested, although not numerous. Especially indicative is the situation in the last Chalcolithic
building level of tell Yunatsite. A large number of its inhabitants have been found under the burnt
houses' debris. On the skulls of some of them traumas have been observed, which according
to the anthropologists were caused by blows with hard and heavy sharp-edged objects
-
most
probably copper hammer-axes. Similar situation is observed in tell Ruse.
General analysis of all possible evidences of warfare in terms of time and place is especially
tempting, as it may shed light on ethno-cultural processes in the Chalcolithic as well. The accent
in this analysis is put on Northeastern Bulgaria and the Black sea coast because almost all totally
excavated tells and explored cemeteries from the Chalcolithic as well as most of the weapons
with information about
stratigraphie
position and finding context come from these regions.
The first weapons and fortifications in Northeastern Bulgaria appeared almost synchronously,
in the II-III phase of the Early Chalcolithic. This suggests that the situation in the region was
tense and the population was prepared for armed conflicts. However, direct evidence of such
conflicts is lacking: there are no violent skeletal traumas, burnt settlements or other attested. The
situation changed in the Middle and the beginning (I phase) of the Late Chalcolithic. Increase in
the number of weapons is clearly visible as well as burnt settlements (building levels in tells) all
over. The settlements of the Hamangia culture (its IV phase) were also fortified in this period.
In the totally excavated cemetery at Durankulak a decrease of the percentage of buried men
and increase of the symbolic graves has been observed, together with a decrease of the men's
age (only one being older than
40
years). Battle axes appeared among the grave goods. They
have been attested in
Vi
of the male burials and
Уг
of the cenotaphs. Altogether, these data bear
record of armed conflicts, which affected the whole region in question. It is possible that the
conflicts were result of the gradual expansion of the Hamangia culture people to the south, to
the Varna lakes and
Provadia
area. It seems that their settling in this area caused clash with the
neighboring cultures. Further on, it may be suggested that these conflicts led to the consolidation
of larger ethno-cultural (or may be even political?) unities, which are archaeologically attested
in unification of the culture on large regions: the so-called cultural complexes Kodzadermen-
Gumelnitsa-Karanovo VI, Varna and Krivodol-Salcutsa-Bubani hum la.
During the II and III phases of the Late Chalcolithic the situation in Dobrogea became more
stable but the tension continued in the neighboring regions between Varna and Kodzadermen-
178
Gumelnitsa-Karanovo VI
cultures.
Significant
increase in the number and variety of potential
combat weapons is visible in the Varna lakes area. The data from cemeteries suggest change in
the social structure, related to increasing power and importance of warriors. A concentration of
weapons has been also attested in some settlements and cemeteries of this period from the inland
of Northeastern Bulgaria. The life in most of the tells in this region ended with burnt building
levels. However, in some of them this happened still in the II phase of the Late Chalcolithic.
Although the available data do not provide grounds for sure conclusions, the existence of local-
scale conflicts in certain areas may be suggested.
The quantity and quality of the information available for the other regions of nowadays
Bulgaria hamper detailed observations about the chronology of possible armed conflicts and
the reasons for them. However, some general trends similar to the situation in Northeastern
Bulgaria and the Black sea coast are visible: small number of weapons in the Early Chalcolithic
and increase in the Middle and especially in the Late Chalcolithic; fortification of settlements;
concentration of burnt building levels around the middle of the V millennium
ВС.
The observations made provide grounds to suggest that the transition between Early and Late
Chalcolithic was related to armed conflicts, which more or less affected all cultural areas in nowadays
Bulgaria and the neighboring regions. Probably they were result of different reasons: movement of
people in some areas, increased settlements density, development of the trade with different valued
materials and consecutively aspiration for control over their sources and trade routes, etc.
Armed conflicts have been surely attested in the very end of the Chalcolithic in Northeastern
Bulgaria and Thrace. The evidences include not only the eloquent situations in tells Yunatsite,
Ruse and Hotnitsa but also the burnt last building levels of most of the tells, which were inhabited
until the III phase of the Late Chalcolithic. A number of researchers have stated that the end of the
Chalcolithic cultures in the Balkans was caused by an invasion of nomadic tribes from the North
Pontic
steppes. However, the question whether the devastations attested in Northeastern Bulgaria
and Thrace were inflicted only by this nomadic tribes or were also a result of "inner" movement
of people caused by their pressure (or by other factors as well) cannot be surely answered so far.
It should be noted that the skull traumas on the dead inhabitants of tell Yunatsite (and probably
of tell Ruse as well) testify for the use of copper hammer-axes, which were not typical for this
steppe region but rather for Northeastern Bulgaria and the Western Black sea coast. Anyway, it
is obvious that the end of the Chalcolithic cultures in Bulgaria was more or less accompanied by
armed conflicts, in which close combat weapons played an important role.
CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of the artifacts from the Chalcolithic in Bulgaria, which have been defined in
the literature as weapons, shows that most of them were weapons indeed: stone mace-heads,
hammer-axes and double axes of stone, copper and antler, stone double hammers, bone and
flint arrowheads, flint and copper spearheads. This is confirmed by their specific morphological
and metrical features, use-wear traces, and the finding context of some objects (especially in
cemeteries). Some of them maybe interpreted as specialized battle weapons: mace-heads, shaft-
hole axes and double hammers. It is possible that the spears with copper and flint heads were
also designed mainly for warfare. The hypothesis that the so-called "sling-shots" and "bone
spearheads" were indeed used as weapons is questionable.
The tracing of the chronological development and territorial spread of the weapons shows
both general trends (like appearance of most of them in the Early Chalcolithic and maximal
spread and variety in the Late Chalcolithic) and territorial and cultural specifics in the spread of
different types, subtypes and variants.
A concentration of weapons (as a whole or of certain kinds) in particular regions and periods
has been also observed. Usually it coincides with other evidences of possible armed conflicts.
The complex analysis of all these data provides grounds to trace out certain events during the
Chalcolithic.
179 |
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| author | Bojadžiev, Kamen 1981- |
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| building | Verbundindex |
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| spelling | Bojadžiev, Kamen 1981- Verfasser (DE-588)1059948249 aut Văorăženie prez chalkolita v bălgarskite zemi = Weapons form the Chalcolithic period in Bulgaria Kamen Bojadžiev Weapons form the Chalcolithic period in Bulgaria Sofija Nacionalen Archeologičeski Inst. s Muzej - BAN 2014 231 S. zahlr. Ill. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Disertacii / Nacionalen Archeologičeski Institut s Muzej na Bălgarskata Akademija na Naukite 9 In kyrill. Schr., bulg. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache Zugl.: Sofija, Nacionalen Archeologičeski Institut s Muzej, Diss., 2011 Chalkolithikum (DE-588)4138001-0 gnd rswk-swf Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd rswk-swf Waffe (DE-588)4064228-8 gnd rswk-swf Bulgarien (DE-588)4008866-2 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4113937-9 Hochschulschrift gnd-content Bulgarien (DE-588)4008866-2 g Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 s Waffe (DE-588)4064228-8 s Chalkolithikum (DE-588)4138001-0 s DE-604 Nacionalen Archeologičeski Institut s Muzej na Bălgarskata Akademija na Naukite Disertacii 9 (DE-604)BV022862779 9 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027585428&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027585428&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Bojadžiev, Kamen 1981- Văorăženie prez chalkolita v bălgarskite zemi = Weapons form the Chalcolithic period in Bulgaria Chalkolithikum (DE-588)4138001-0 gnd Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd Waffe (DE-588)4064228-8 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4138001-0 (DE-588)4071507-3 (DE-588)4064228-8 (DE-588)4008866-2 (DE-588)4113937-9 |
| title | Văorăženie prez chalkolita v bălgarskite zemi = Weapons form the Chalcolithic period in Bulgaria |
| title_alt | Weapons form the Chalcolithic period in Bulgaria |
| title_auth | Văorăženie prez chalkolita v bălgarskite zemi = Weapons form the Chalcolithic period in Bulgaria |
| title_exact_search | Văorăženie prez chalkolita v bălgarskite zemi = Weapons form the Chalcolithic period in Bulgaria |
| title_full | Văorăženie prez chalkolita v bălgarskite zemi = Weapons form the Chalcolithic period in Bulgaria Kamen Bojadžiev |
| title_fullStr | Văorăženie prez chalkolita v bălgarskite zemi = Weapons form the Chalcolithic period in Bulgaria Kamen Bojadžiev |
| title_full_unstemmed | Văorăženie prez chalkolita v bălgarskite zemi = Weapons form the Chalcolithic period in Bulgaria Kamen Bojadžiev |
| title_short | Văorăženie prez chalkolita v bălgarskite zemi |
| title_sort | vaorazenie prez chalkolita v balgarskite zemi weapons form the chalcolithic period in bulgaria |
| title_sub | = Weapons form the Chalcolithic period in Bulgaria |
| topic | Chalkolithikum (DE-588)4138001-0 gnd Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd Waffe (DE-588)4064228-8 gnd |
| topic_facet | Chalkolithikum Funde Waffe Bulgarien Hochschulschrift |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027585428&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027585428&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV022862779 |
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