Osada w działaniu: osady ludności kultury przeworskiej w Polsce Środkowej od młodszego okresu przedrzymskiego do okresu wędrówek ludów
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Polish |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Poznań
Stowarzyszenie Naukowe Archeologów Polskich, Oddział
2014
|
| Schriftenreihe: | Biblioteka Wielkopolskich Sprawozdań Archeologicznych
7 |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Beschreibung: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Settlement - a dynamic reality |
| Beschreibung: | 251 s. il. (w tym kolor.). - Ill. 30 cm. |
| ISBN: | 9788393138852 |
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| 264 | 1 | |a Poznań |b Stowarzyszenie Naukowe Archeologów Polskich, Oddział |c 2014 | |
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Wprowadzenie
........................................................................................................................................7
ROZDZIAŁ I. Zagadnienia ogólne
..........................................................................................................17
1.1.
Uwagi metodyczne
......................................................................................................................17
1.2.
Dylemat obiektów niedatowanych i inne problemy chronologii
................................................20
ROZDZIAŁU. Analiza strukturalna osad na obszarze środkowej Polski
..............................................25
11.
1.
Młodszy okres przedrzymski do początków starszego okresu rzymskiego
................................25
II.
I.A.
Domy, pracownie i budynki towarzyszące
..........................................................................27
ll.l.B. Urządzenia produkcyjne i inne obiekty gospodarcze
..........................................................31
II.
l.C. Chronologia, organizacja przestrzenna i fazy zabudowy
....................................................40
11.2.
Od przełomu er do początków młodszego okresu rzymskiego
..................................................45
II.2.A. Domy, pracownie i budynki towarzyszące
..........................................................................45
II.
2.
B. Urządzenia produkcyjne i inne obiekty gospodarcze
..........................................................59
II.
2.
С
Chronologia, organizacja przestrzenna i fazy zabudowy
....................................................77
11.3.
Schyłek starszego okresu rzymskiego do początku okresu wędrówek ludów
...........................84
11.3.1.
Starsza grupa chronologiczna
..............................................................................................84
11.3.2.
Młodsza grupa chronologiczna
..........................................................................................137
ROZDZIAŁ III. Przestrzeń ofiarna i cmentarz w strukturze osad
........................................................153
111.
1.
Przestrzeń ofiarna
...................................................................................................................153
111.
2.
Osada i cmentarz
.....................................................................................................................156
ROZDZIAŁ
IV.
Przemiany strukturalne osad i kształtowanie się warstw społecznych u ludności
kultury przeworskiej w Polsce środkowej w okresie „długiego trwania
...............................173
IV.l.
Rejon Polski Środkowej na tle środkowoeuropejskiego Barbaricum
......................................173
IV.2.
Przemiany kulturowe w młodszym okresie przedrzymskim
...................................................176
IV.3.
Ogólna charakterystyka gospodarki
........................................................................................178
IV.4.
Przemiany w strukturze zabudowy osad
................................................................................180
IV.5.
Rozwarstwienie społeczne
......................................................................................................185
Podsumowanie
...................................................................................................................................193
Zestawienie osad badanych wykopaliskowo
.......................................................................................199
Tabele
..................................................................................................................................................201
Bibliografia
..........................................................................................................................................221
Legenda do rycin
.................................................................................................................................233
Summary
.............................................................................................................................................235
Indeks nazw geograficznych
................................................................................................................247
SETTLEMENT
-
A DYNAMIC REALITY.
THE
PRZEWORSK
CULTURE SETTLEMENTS IN CENTRAL POLAND FROM THE EARLY PRE-
ROMAN IRON AGE TO THE MIGRATION PERIOD
The presented book is intended as a
study of a settlement s functioning viewed as a
cultural and socio-economic phenomenon cre¬
ated by the
Przeworsk
Culture community. The
study material was derived mainly from the
area of Central Poland, as noted in the title of
this publication. This does not, however, indi¬
cate a resignation from the idea of a broader
perspective for research activities, by viewing
the whole area occupied by the
Przeworsk
cul¬
ture and sometimes including the adjacent terri¬
tories as well. Chronological scope of this study
determines a distinguishable cultural phenome¬
non which the
Przeworsk
culture constituted.
The study comprises the period from the origins
of the
Przeworsk
Culture dated to the second
half of the 3d century
ВС
until the disappearance
of its archaeological traits in the first part the 5th
century AD.
The choice of a research method was
the most essential aspect for this work concep¬
tion, or even, to put this in a wider perspective,
following a certain school of thoughts which
would foster the proper interpretation of ar¬
chaeological resources. (H. Mamzer, J. Ostoja-
Zagórski
2007).
The proper method to achieve
so could not be reduced to a merely formal
study in the material culture features, but it was
intended as an attempt to reconstruct, explain
and comprehend how the social groups, being
also the builders of their own settlements, were
functioning. Reconstruction of the past is always
a choice among the existing opportunities. Even
if the written sources are engaged, we cannot
trust in them entirely as they are inevitably fil¬
tered through the characteristics of the time in
which they came into existence as well as the
personality and the intentions of the author.
Our reconstructions of the past cannot then
escape from the impact of a certain amount of
theory which should be subjected to criticism
and it should also be verifiable, as an absence of
the possibility to falsify closes the scientific con¬
duct (K. Popper
2002, 29-41, 49).
In this context,
the research concepts of the cognitive-
processual archaeology must be noted (C. Ren¬
frew, P.
Bahn 2002, 468-473),
which is connect¬
ed with the research performed by the histori¬
ans emphasising the role of analyses of the so¬
cio-economic transformations in the „long-
term perspective (F. Braudel
1971, 2006).
The area of central Poland is a geo¬
graphically well-defined zone (fig.
1).
Coherent
character of the natural environment character¬
istics sharing similar features throughout the
whole terrain
-
mainly a lowland and, in some
places, a gently undulating area
-
is of great
importance here. This is an area stretching from
the longitudinally extending central
Warta
River
valley in the west to the left-bank part of the
Pilica
valley and the
Rawka
valley in the east.
The region is bounded south by the extent of
the ice sheet in the
Warta
stadial
zone, from the
Oder
glaciation
period. Thus, it covers approxi¬
mately the area extending above the almost
latitudinal
Warta
River flow. The northern
236 ♦
Summary
boundary constitutes the maximum extent of
the ice sheet of the Main
Stadial
of the Vistulian
Glaciation,
which practically means the upper
part of the left bank basin of the
Bzura
river and
the lower course of the
Ner
River (K. Turkowska
2006, 11- 20).
The features of the natural envi¬
ronment in Central Poland promoted develop¬
ment of settlements. The abundant
hydrograph¬
ie
network caused that the human settlements
did not suffer from water scarcity (figs.
1-3).
The
close proximity to natural water reservoirs fa¬
voured development of the settlements for
economic reasons and probably for religious
and ritual ones as well. (J. Skowron
2005, 260).
Water, i.e. rivers or lakes, could also play a larg¬
er role in burial customs, which fact is men¬
tioned below in this study. The described type
of a settlement location was probably of great
importance for the whole Central European
Barbaricum. A remarkable role of the river may
be justly derived from the mention by Tacitus of
the conflict among two Germanic tribes: the
Hermunduri and Chatti, which arose between
them over the matter of the river s occupation
(Tacitus, R.
XIII, 57).
The victory was on the side
of the Hermunduri, and the river for them
proved equally important for both the utility
and religious sakes.
During the early Pre-Roman Iron Age
and the late Roman Period, the settlements in
the area of Central Poland were predominantly
founded in the possibly closest vicinity to the
rivers
(Rawa Mazowiecka,
site
3
and
38,
Krzyżanówek,
site
11,
Łęki Górne,
site
1,
Stobni-
ca Trzymorgi, site
2,
Wierzbowa,
site
1,
Kuców,
site
1,
Strobin, site 3/3A) Then, in the late Ro¬
man Period, the settlements were most fre¬
quently founded in the upland areas
(Chabielice, st.
12 -
Kolonia Chabielice,
sitell,
Wytrzyszczki, site
3,
Joachimów Mogiły,
site
2,
Janków,
site
40,
Mąkolice,
site
15)
but the set¬
tlements existing in the close vicinity to rivers
also continued
(Kamień,
site
2,
Przywóz,
site la,
Wiktorów,
site
1-4,
Toporów,
site
1).
At that
time, approximately coinciding with the II-
Subatlantic period, according to
L Starkel
(1999.
103-104, 126-127;
M. Ralska-Jasiewiczowa
1999, 175-180;
J.
Pawłowski
1999, 169-175)
a
gradual increase in water level took place, caus¬
ing occasional occurrences of floods even in the
area of higher terraces. This resulted in moving
agricultural activities to some higher places or
even leaving for different areas. Presumably,
the water level increase in the
Rawka
River,
which took place in the 2nd century AD, caused a
settlement retreat from that region. This view
can be supported by the presence of some re¬
mains of the lowest situated buildings in the
settlement of
Rawa Mazowiecka, site3
-
which
are very well preserved features as resting be¬
neath a layer of
fluvioglacial
sediments. With
the decline of the Roman Period, the level of
the water table began to subside and the set¬
tlements extended back towards the territories
of the rivers, as noted in the case of the
To¬
porów
settlement. A growing impact of
an¬
thropopression,
which accompanied the socio-
economic development, resulted in deforesta¬
tion and degradation of the floral habitats. This,
consequently, forced the need to adjust agricul¬
ture activities to the less favourable, as for the
soil quality, terrains. Supposedly, as a conse¬
quence, this also forced some intensification of
the non-agricultural craft production with the
aim of exchanging the produced goods for other
goods.
Settlements, that is
-
in the period of
their existence
-
simply villages, represent a
dynamic reality and they constitute the basic
warp in the image of the culture. Even a simple
refuse pit, in fact, proves a result of some pur¬
poseful activity. Thus, all finds recorded in the
settlements present a work of human endeav¬
our. Cemeteries, an equally important compo¬
nent of culture, is characterised by a static na¬
ture of reality. A grave, most often, is the place
established once for all. Hence in its case, there
appears an apparent „easiness to capture the
time i.e. an interval or a chronological perspec¬
tive. A settlement provides a contrary example
-
here, it is hard to even approximate the chrono¬
logical order of individual incidents or, in
fre-
Settlement
—
a dynamic reality
237
quent cases, it seems utterly impossible. Indi¬
vidual phases of spacial arrangement overlap
with one another and must be subjected to
detailed
stratigraphie
tests.
A settlement is not only an assemblage
of building elements, various utility structures
or other miscellaneous features whose function,
seem rather obscure in our times, but this is an
area which evidences effectiveness both of the
social organization system and the individuals as
well. Erecting a house, a human being encloses
the space and expresses the need for a personal
isolation. Establishing a settlement, people or¬
der their space and consequently begin to form
adherence to the influence of social instincts.
For this sake, the community has to already
possess a certain awareness of their needs and
interrelations. The Romans, setting their legion
camp, acted in guidance with the established
order. A military tribune was in charge of identi¬
fying the camp s centre, where the command¬
er s tent was to be erected. Nearby, the two
main camp axes ran, via
principális
and via prae-
toria, positioned at a right angle to each other.
(Polybius, D.VI:27-31). These words do not
equal a comparison, they are supposed to foster
a comprehension of how, in parallel to the de¬
velopment of human social transformations, a
specific dialogue between the human beings
and their space was developing. Therefore, here
we refer to the Anthropology of Space. Man s
use of space as a vital component of culture, is
defined by Proxemics, whose elements have
been used in the present work (E. T. Hail
2009,
11-19).
The obscure structure of a settlement,
gradually uncovered by archaeologists, provides
information about a constant and dynamic na¬
ture of the spacial arrangement processes. It is
also worth adding, that the plan and the forms
of settlements result from a natural reflex to
introduce an order to space, which is typical of a
human being (E. Leach
2010, 67-70).
A community is not a passive formation;
hence a relevant question appears
-
how a rela¬
tively small human gathering was functioning
within their village. Also, a question
-
how their
social communication with other communities,
both those existing in the close and further vi¬
cinities was realised, is of equally high im¬
portance here. The currently available research
material concerns
56
settlements, which were
excavated to various degrees. The reader will
find their complete list at the end of the book in
the Index of excavated sites as well as in the
tables providing data about the buildings, eco¬
nomic activity features and the chronological
order.
The primary aim of this dissertation is to
provide a description of a settlement as a dy¬
namic, changeable throughout time and formal¬
ized model of existence of an individual as well
as whole groups during the time of the
Prze¬
worsk
culture. The subsequent chapters of this
publication are meant to serve the above-
mentioned purpose. The present reasoning
begins with the methodology section, and aims
at a detailed description of the most vital con¬
stituents of the settlements viewed in chrono¬
logical order, (chapters l-ll). Some controversial
as well as rather rarely raised issues constitute a
vital part of this work; to exemplify: a method
differentiating between a construction with a
utility pit (often and insubstantially referred to
as dugout dwelling ) and the totally ground
constructions (fig.
4).
A role of economic oppor¬
tunities accessible to settlements dwellers as
well as the
interpretable
relics of spiritual cul¬
ture run throughout the whole reasoning of this
dissertation. Also, an attempt was made to pre¬
sent a possible pattern of
socio-
economic and
even, to some extent, global transformations
performed throughout a long duration period,
underlying the material remains of settlements
of the
Przeworsk
culture community based on
the archaeological excavations performed in
Central Poland.
Chapter II coveres the analysis of a set¬
tlement structure. Individual chronological peri¬
ods establish the order of the chapter, as fol¬
lows: from the early Pre-Roman Iron Age to the
beginnings of the late Roman Period (Chapter
II.
1),
from the turn of the eras to the beginnings
238 ♦
Summary
of the early Roman Period (Chapter
11.2),
from
the decline of the late Roman Period to the
beginnings of the Migration period (Chapter
11.3).
The older and younger chronological
groups of settlements are distinguished in the
last chapter. Each chapter also provides an indi¬
vidual description of constructions, economic
and productive tools both of agricultural and
outside agriculture characters. Figures
5-93
illustrate this analysis.
Chapter III provides an analysis of the
cult area (lll.l) and depicts an importance of the
cemetery in the structure of settlements (III.
2).
In some settlements in the area of Central Po¬
land the finds, whose form and location both
bear a character of sacrifice or sacrificial depos¬
its, were recorded. The sacrifices relate to reli¬
gious practices mainly and they were offered to
deities. The sacrificial deposits seemed to asso¬
ciate closer to magical practices, also dedicated
to the world of spirits. As it seems, human rem¬
nants found in the settlements can be associat¬
ed with both religion and magic. Religion lends
the practices their ritual character, whilst magic
comprises certain expectations and fulfilments
of some needs, acting on the principle of
ut des
(A. Szyjewski
2001, 98-99).
Sacrificial deposits
can be divided into two groups. The first group
comprises human and animal bodies deposited
in the form of burials or animal remnants which
bear no signs of rituals. The other group consti¬
tute artefacts intentionally arranged beneath,
inside or near some larger constructions.
The human bone finds recorded in the
settlements of
Przeworsk
Culture create a
unique phenomenon. They come from the early
Pre-Roman Iron Age exclusively, which is char¬
acteristic of them. The finds of human remains
of skull cups recorded in Central Poland come
from the area of the Witonia River Valley, in the
northern part of the
Bzura
valley settlement
zone. They are settlements in
Różyce
Stara
Wieś,
site
8
and also, in the same locality, at site
3
of the first phase of settlement. Both of the
finds were recorded near the homesteads with¬
in the cultural layer. A higher concentration of
finds containing human remnants appear in the
settlements located further north and north¬
west from Kuyavia. They were recorded, among
other things, in
Kruszą Zamkowa,
site
3,
Inow¬
rocław,
site
12,
site
95,
and in
Sławsko Wielkie,
site
12
(A. Cofta-Broniewska
1979, 196-210;
1989, 147-154;
J. Bednarczyk
1998, 78-79).
Some of the remnants were probably laid in the
form of burials
(Sławsko Wielkie,
site.
12),
oth¬
ers do not reveal this character due to the lack
of visible ritual features. The finds encompassed
some partial skeletons of adult men, women
and children. The discoveries from Kuyavia are
isolated cases and seem to be connected with
some larger, well organized ritual sites. As it
seems, they could be remains of some sacrificial
rituals. Human sacrifices, ascribed to the cult of
deities of the chtonic-agricultural character,
were present in many cultures of the Ancient
World (M. Eliade
1993, 328-340).
Interestingly,
such rites, even in highly developed civilisations,
could last for a long spell. Pliny the Elder is his
Naturális
Historia
provides his readers with
interesting information: It was not until the
657th year of the City
[ЭУВС]
that in the consul¬
ship of Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus and Publius
Licinius Crassus there was passed a resolution of
the Senate forbidding human sacrifice; so that
down to that date it is manifest that such abom¬
inable rites were practised .
„Naturalis
Historia
was completed by Pliny at the turn of
76-77
AD
and the described Senate resolution pertains to
the year
97
ВС.
Despite their sporadic applica¬
tion, human sacrifice rituals probably posed a
serious moral and legal problem at the down of
the Republic. It must also be remembered that
the history of Ancient Rome is predominantly
perceived as the history of a rural civilisation
and our knowledge of the rites typical of the
urban areas is much lower.
Also, gaining this knowledge through
the application of archaeological methods, pos¬
es difficulty due to the specifics, locality and,
most often, an incidental character of the ritual
human sacrifice conduct. In the case of our dis¬
cussion, presumably, the closest analogies lead
Settlement
a dynamic reality
239
towards the world of Celtic and Germanic
myths. In Great Britain, for example, there are
known some occurrences of deposits of human
remnants thrown into empty storage pits. Here,
discoveries in an
oppidum
in Danebury, Hamp¬
shire can be quoted {B. Cunliffe
2003, 233-239,
fig.
110),
as this was where, in one of such pits,
a human skeleton was recorded. A low occur¬
rence of the sacrifice ritual type in question
might serve an attempted explanation, through
the light of the intentions which accompany
taking an oath. As Gaius Julius Caesar puts it in
his book VI of his Gallic War , they were per¬
formed „in some danger to life
[...]
(Caesar
2003, 160).
However, the presence of human
remnants in the settlements, and particularly
some small fragments of bones can follow a
different cause. There exists a possibility that
the finds should be somehow associated with
with certain specific variations of the funeral
feast. These concern practices of
excarnation
i.e. removing the flesh and organs of the dead
by leaving the body out in the open in some
specially assigned sites. Eventually, the pres¬
ence of
-
precisely
-
some skull fragments in the
settlements in question might be explained by
the aspect existing in the tradition of Celtic reli¬
gion which is the idea of the head cult
(A. Bart¬
nik
2013, 57-80;
В.
Gierek
2013, 315-343).
We
quoted here, in our opinion, all interpretative
possibilities that might justify the presence of
some fragments of human skulls in the two
abovementioned settlements.
The discovery in the
Różyckie
settle¬
ments proves vital also due to their derivation,
precisely, from the
Bzura
River occupational
zone. Within the zone in question, alike in Kuya-
via, there have been noted numerous traces of
contacts with other culture circles dated to the
late La Tene
period, where their connections
with the
La Tene
culture and probably also a
direct contact with the Celts played a significant
role. There exist numerous indications pointing
to their strong correlations with the early Ger¬
manic culture circle, i.e. Jastorf culture, being
also under a strong Celtic impact (J. Skowron
2012, 94-101,
fig.
9).
Among the sacrificial deposits, some
dogs burials, usually situated near houses at¬
tract attention. The deposits of this kind are
known from the settlements in Central Poland
in
Łęczyca-Dzierzbiętowo,
site
1,
Różyce
Stara
Wieś,
site
3,
in
Śladkowo Górne,
site
2
and in
Wilkowice, sitel. These belong to the wide
ranging finds. Beyond the territory of
Przeworsk
culture such finds are recorded in the areas
which were inhabited by the Celto-Germanic,
the Germanic and the
Dacian
peoples. They are
recorded on the territories of the Lebus culture
circle, Jutland, the Czech Republic, Moravia and
the Chernyakhov culture in Ukraine as well as
the
Sîntana de Mureş
culture in the Lower Dan¬
ube area and in
Siebenbürgen.
Another group of
sacrificial deposits comprise the finds of arte¬
facts, predominantly vessels buried near the
husbandly walls or occasionally in the wall post-
holes. These artefacts were recorded in the
settlements in
Kamień,
site
2,
Rawa Ma¬
zowiecka,
site
3
(some deposited fragments of a
glass vessel and an iron punch tool were rec¬
orded under a clay plinth of the workshop no
4,
fig.
19),
Rawa Mazowiecka,
site
38
(figs.
21, 94),
Walków-Kurnica, site
1,
Monice-Sieradz, site
2.
Generally, it may be presumed that the sacrifi¬
cial deposits could serve as foundation offer¬
ings, and so perhaps they belonged to magic
rituals connected with worshipping some gods
of prosperity and fertility or, just like in the case
of dogs burials, they were of an apotropaic na¬
ture.
Also, interrelations between the settle¬
ment and the cemetery which was utilized by its
community, played a vital role. A possibility to
associate unambiguously the given, or several
given settlements, with a particular cemetery
happens very rarely. In the area of Central Po¬
land only a few such cases can be discussed (fig.
1);
these are, among other things, the settle¬
ment and the cemetery in:
Kuców, Różyce
Stara
Wieś, Siemiechów, Strobina and Wólka
Łasiecka. Siemiechowo, Strobin and Przywóz.
240 ♦
Summary
The Wiktorowo settlement sites
1-4,
makes a
spectacular example of the complex, where a
rather small cemetery is situated practically
within the settlement boundary (fig.
81).
In the
case of several settlements, a noticeable close
vicinity or even, some overlapping of the inhab¬
ited and cemetery areas is observed. It is closely
related to, on the one hand, its layout planning
and then utilization upon the prior delimitation
of the area intended for disposal of the dead
bodies, and, on the other hand, with the matter
of distance between the burial ground and the
settlement. Both longer and shorter-term occu¬
pation settlements were always and obviously
connected with an increase in the cemetery
area. The so far registered data reveal that the
area of the cemetery was usually increasing
outwards starting from the zone of the oldest
graves. Consequently, the newest graves were
situated on the outskirts. Occasionally though,
there were recorded some returns to the oldest
zones after a long period, as the newer graves
occurrence were recorded there. The burial
area extension was then associated with the
long-term existence and, at the same time, the
socio-economic development of the settlements
which could result in a not surely uncommon
spacial conflict in between them. The cemetery
is adjacent to the occupational zone of the set¬
tlements in
Różyce Stara Wieś, Siemiechowo
and Wiktorowo. In Różyce Stara Wieś,
site
3,
only as few as several metres separated the
settlement from the cemetery area. On the
edge between the settlement and the burial
zone a stone construction resembling a building
was recorded (fig.
95).
Inside, an urn burial site
coming from the
Przeworsk
culture was found.
The whole plan of the structure resembles a
division of a building into
2
chambers. Here, a
parallel appears to a similar stone construction
discovered at the cemetery in
Wola Błędowa
site
1,
Brzeziny
Commune (fig.
96: 1).
The enclo¬
sure in question from
Wola Błędowa
and the
probable enclosure form the cemetery in
w
Różyce Stara Wieś,
site
3,
belong to type
F
con¬
structions or the stone arrays not associated
with a single grave, typical of a discrete settle¬
ment area of the
Bzura
river valley (J. Skowron
2012,104, 109-110).
Probably, their appearance
resembling a two-chamber building was not at
all coincidental but was linking the occupational
settlement zone with the cemetery. The both
stone constructions can be dated to the early
phase of the early Pre-Roman Iron Age.
The discussed features generate analo¬
gies to the so called mortuary houses or, in
other words, to what reflects on the essence of
the notion mortuary houses . Those construc¬
tions were erected, among other things, on the
Germanic and Scandinavian terrains. An idea of
this construction type dates back to the neolith¬
ic traditions and it is generally associated with a
dwelling assigned for the remarkable deceased.
The origin of the custom lies in the social and
wealth differences as well as in some concepts
of the supernatural world. The intended build¬
ings came in various forms, from large post con¬
structions to smaller ones erected in the shape
of a covered shed. They might vary in appear¬
ance, depending on the cultural traditions of the
region (fig.
97).
The mortuary houses served
both single and multiple burials (R.
Müller
2006).
An example of a rather unique location
of the cemetery in
Łęki Majątek,
site 2A, poses
some questions. The cemetery is situated in the
immediate vicinity (i.e.
85
m2) of the settlement,
at the site
2
in the above-mentioned locality (R.
Brzejszczak, A. Wybrzak
2012).
Burned bones in
layers were deposited there with no traces of
pyre together with the the accompanying arte¬
facts. The layer extended over the area of ca.
85
m2, which makes a rather insignificant number,
situated in the productive or the utility parts of
the settlement whose remains were recorded
several metres northward. Under the layer of
burned human bones some remains of a rettery
and a well were recorded (feature no
2).
Ac¬
cording to anthropologists, some bone rem¬
nants of ca.
20-30
individuals were present at
the cemetery. Within the distance of
20
metres
from the layered cemetery, some remains of
Settlement
dynamic reality
241
another rettery were excavated (feature no
29)
inside which a substantial amount of burned
human bones was preserved. The trees, which
served as a source of wood for the well discov¬
ered under the layer of burned bones, were
timbered between
245-247
AD and
301
AD. The
historical material excavated form the settle¬
ment allows for dating its origins to phase A3 of
the early Pre-Roman Iron Age period and its
decline to the late Roman Period. The greatest
number of artefacts comes from the last phase
of the settlements existence. The concentration
of data concerning the interrelation between
the cemetery and the settlement, derived from
the excavations
Łęki Majątek,
poses a consider¬
able challenge to their interpretors. The authors
exclude the possibility of existence of secondary
context relics (R. Brzejszczak, A. Wybrzak
2012,
116).
Analysing the matter of origin and localisa¬
tion of the layered burials discovered in
Łęki
Majątek,
it is worth recording that the settle¬
ment of
Przeworsk
culture type represents a
wide chronological scope in this area. Apparent¬
ly, the specific features of the exposed burials
emerge as a problem of association of certain
cultural phenomena, or the hitherto unknown
features of burial customs. The character of the
layer in which the burnt human bones occur at
this cemetery significantly differs from the so
far explored, different type layered cemeteries
of Dobrodziejski type. Therefore, this is likely to
be a demonstration of a different custom. Prob¬
ably, it was a specific second part of the crema¬
tion custom, bearing an aquatic character,
which can be indicated by instances of placing
burned bones together with the equipment
remains in the places connected with water,
undoubtedly exemplified with the presence of
the well and the rettery. This stands in the logi¬
cal connection with the two primary elements:
fire and water, which might respectively reflect
on the idea of purification and life as well. In
this point then, the hypothesis put forward by T.
Makiewicz, by the way of the well find reoccurs,
regarding the cases of similar treatment appar¬
ently given to some portion of burnt bones (fea¬
ture no
1535)
in Konarzewo, site
5,
in Greater
Poland (T. Makiewicz,
W. Kaczor,
M.
Krąpiec, D.
Makowiecki, E.
Miłosz,
M. Polcyn
2008).
This
explanation also justifies the sometimes scant
amount of bone remains in creation burial pits
coming from the
Przeworsk
culture community
time as well as from the chronologically younger
stages (T. Makiewicz
2008,
J. Skowron
2008,
144-145).
A part of the burned bones could be
placed in the grave pit whilst the other part
could undergo some, not yet defined, aquatic
custom.
Some miscellaneous features discov¬
ered at cemeteries and associated with burials,
such as: hearths, post-holes, for example, create
a separate issue. As it appears, these features
were also completing the image of a cemetery.
Some graves were marked with wooden steles
(pales)
-
most probably it was a fireplace, a part
of sacrifice rites. They are accompanied by the
presence of some stone pavements, some pits
of unknown function and other features, occa¬
sionally inflicting some interpretative problems.
On the basis of the above enumerated finds, it is
concluded that a necropolis was in those times,
alike today, in a specific way a living space,
where sacrum and profanum met without bor¬
ders. A number of features of this kind were
registered, among other things, at the cemetery
in
Kuny,
site
4,
in the eastern part of Greater
Poland (J. Skowron
2008, 142-152).
Similar finds
were also noted in Central Poland at some cem¬
eteries in Patoki on
Bzura,
site
1.
To exemplify, a
very specific feature no
23
was encountered
beneath a flat bifacially trimmed stone:
3
small
cups arranged close together were recorded
there. The feature in question was neither a
grave nor was it directly associated with any of
the interments (fig.
99).
Another very interesting phenomenon
discovered at the cemetery in
Wólka Łasiecka
sitei
in the
1950s,
consists of a sequence of
holes arranged in two or three rows (fig.
100).
Fortifications of this type were known both in
Barbaric Europe and the Antique World; Similar
traces were left by defensive facilities recog-
242
Summary
nized in certain Danish settlements dated to the
late Pre-Roman Iron Age. As an example, in the
settlements in Gr0ntoft and Braendgaards Hede,
situated in the western Jutland, multi-row forti¬
fications left alike traces. They occurred in the
form densely distributed holes provided with
some sharpened stakes projecting from the
trenches upward (P.O. Rindel
2010, 258-260,
Figs.
11-12;
E. Schlosser-Mauritsen
2010).
They
served as a specific „mine field set in case of an
enemy approach (fig.
101).
The fortifications of
this type were known both in Barbarian Europe
and and in the Ancient World. Julius Caesar
used them during the Battle of Alesia in
52
ВС.
Some traps of this kind were provided with, as
Caesar put it, polished logs of the thickness of
a man s thigh and others were smaller pegs.
The rows of this type were called by the Romans
Lilies due to their resemblance to the flower
of the same name (Caesar
WG VII
73).
As it results from the conducted analy¬
sis, the mutual overlapping of the the living and
burial zones was only apparent. A certain defi¬
nite distance, dividing the world of the living
from the necropolis was kept as a rule, not nec¬
essarily was it a vast distance, though. It seems
that originally, after the establishment of a
cemetery, its distance from the settlement
might be larger. Depending on the length of
inhabitance of the given area, the distance be¬
tween the settlement and the cemetery might
vary in time. The above quoted examples depict
one aspect of this issue in which the population
of one settlement utilizes only one cemetery,
even if, with time, they select another
-
differ¬
ent
-
place to bury the deceased. The usual
number of this type of cemeteries does not
exceed several tens of graves, and they exist
within the spell of one or two chronological
phases, i.e. withinlOO years maximum. The situ¬
ation of large cemeteries counting several hun¬
dred of graves, which existed during the period
of several phases, is completely different. They
could be in use for not fewer than several hun¬
dred of years. Thus, two basic models of interre¬
lations between the settlements and cemeteries
can be distinguished. First of them portrays a
settlement with a cemetery as one settlement
assemblage
(Kolonia Orenice,
site
1-4,
Kuców,
site
1,
Wólka Łasiecka,
site
2).
Another variation
of this model is a settlement and a cemetery
established, throughout time, in various new
places
(Siemiechów,
site
2,
maybe also
Wiktorów,
sites
1-4).
In the former case of the
described model, a village forms the centre of
the settlement area, while the latter described
model presents an opposite situation
-
the
cemetery is a permanent establishment, and
the villages exist around it (the cemetery in
Patoki, site
1
and probably in
Gledzianówek, site
1).
Currently, it is difficult to answer the ques¬
tion which objective reasons were used in the
selection of any from the presented solutions.
The topic of derivation of the layered
burials as well as some utterly atypical burials
such as in retteries, for example, which were
located in Central Poland, among other things,
remain intriguing issues. This question relates to
the totality of changes observed in the funeral
custom, practised by the population of the
Przeworsk
culture. The conservative sphere of
the burial customs tends to undergo transfor¬
mations only under heavy pressure due to some
external events. All possible changes connected
with the spiritual sphere require a thorough and
rational justification. Therefore, they should
conclude a general existential situation of the
given society. The source of the changes should
be perceived not only in the sphere of beliefs
but also, or even predominantly, they should be
contextualized as a result of the socio-economic
transformations. The economic development
and changes in the settlement forms observed
in the decline phase of the older and the begin¬
ning of the early Roman Period, most probably
caused the resignation from frequent moving of
the settlements into new territories. An indirect
evidences are, among other things, some multi¬
phase, long-inhabited buildings, such as the
examples recorded in
Toporów,
site
1.
With
time, agriculture was gradually developing into
an intensive type, which was facilitated by tech-
Settlement
—
a dynamic reality
♦ 243
nological progress. This can be exemplified by
the popularisation of the iron coulter. All the
mentioned reasons could influence the demo¬
graphic population growth, which, as the re¬
searches reveal, had its commencement as early
as at the end of the the 1st year AD (S. Kurna-
towski
1992, 77-99).
In consequence of the
changes, the issue of extension and transfor¬
mation of the cemeteries into large burial areas
emerged. Archaeological researches, as a rule,
reveal the very last stage of transformations in
the funeral custom. Their evidences have been
recorded since around the second half of the
3rd
AD. In the case of that time, a decline of
single burials is noted and, consequently, the
cemeteries pose more interpretative problems.
Moreover, it seems that the transformations in
the burial custom did not follow a steady pat¬
tern in the whole area occupied once by the
Przeworsk
culture population. Today, as in the
past, the lack of cemetery space resultant from
development of urban agglomerations influ¬
ences a gradual popularisation of cremation,
which obviously stands in opposition with the
practice of, obligatory in the Christian Culture,
ritual of inhumation.
The conclusions emerging from the re¬
searches in the
Przeworsk
Culture settlements
in Central Poland allow to further scrutinize
their contemporary community and the dynam¬
ics of its development (chapter IV). From the
origins of the
Przeworsk
culture existence, in¬
cluding the period of its formation, agriculture
-
and mainly soil cultivation
-
provided the basis
for survival. The erected settlements were char¬
acteristic of a planned internal structure, thanks
to the application of, from the very beginning,
highly advanced carpentry techniques in the
building process, which enabled to build both
large houses and other different building con¬
structions, directly on the ground. Also, some
smaller structures of diverse functions with a
dwelling pit, shallowly resting or encaved into
the ground and being their internal construction
part were built. The successive phases of the
structural development of settlements were
closely related with the socio-economic trans¬
formations. Within the agricultural community,
there existed specialised groups of people en¬
gaged, in addition to some agricultural produc¬
tion, in the production of semi-raw goods as
well as handicraft activities.
Entrepreneurship,
which resulted from the need for community
action, gave rise to the emergence of occupa¬
tions (O.
Spengler 1990).
The diversity of handi¬
craft activities is sometimes very difficult to
distinguish in the archaeological sources for the
following reasons at least: the occupational
structure among the craftsmen is unknown to
us, the craftsmen were probably both men and
women as well; as for the women
-
the occupa¬
tion of a weaver should be probably distin¬
guished here and also, some women were
probably occupied with pottery activities.
Amongst the occupations which required spe¬
cialist skills were: glass-workers, smith-
foundrymen and carpenters. Moreover, it can
be presumed that some of the skills also en¬
compassed the elements of others. An example
of
3
buildings with production workshops, dis¬
covered in the
Rawa Mazowiecka
settlement,
site
3,
testifies on the existence of at least sev¬
eral specializations: antler production, non-
ferrous metalwork and smithery (figs.
18, 19-2,
32).
Predominantly, they were producing orna¬
ments for the purpose of exchange trade. Pro¬
duction of semi-raw goods could distinguish
similar specialisations requiring high specialist
knowledge needed for such activities as, for
example: lime baking, iron smelting, or charcoal
acquisition. According to researches, in other
antique societies marked by a more advanced
technological level, such as the Greeks in the
Classical period or the Romans in the era of
Triumph of the Republic, it appears that the
population of common craftsmen was not very
numerous and yielded to the population of free
farmers as well as the elites derived from them
(J.-P. Morel
1997).
It can be assumed, on the
basis of the burials with weapon excavated at
some cemeteries, that a certain number of
farmers were more occupied with military
activ-
244 ♦
Summary
¡ties than other individuals. The both popula¬
tions coexisted, most probably, next to the third
and least archaeologically recognised group
who were solely farmers. In the result of the
economic development and the defined system
goods distribution, the described population
groups created some distinguishable social stra¬
ta. The development of occupational specialisa¬
tions within the population of farmers-
craftsmen, reflected by establishment of work¬
shops and then also numerous concentrations
of workshop buildings discovered in some of the
settlements, indicates that from some point of
time, representatives of the described social
stratum could not give equal consideration both
to food production and handicraft activities as
well. In this way, the development of handicraft
and, generally, the non-agricultural production,
could create a long term situation of depend¬
ence of this community stratum on the other
strata in some definite way. The concentrations
of handicraft workshops distinguished in the
zone type settlements indicate the beginnings
of a tendency among the craftsmen towards
selecting such areas for settlements which pos¬
sessed some specific topographic features. This
tendency is observable in some well-developed
antique civilisations, where whole groups of
craftsmen gathered in some particular quarters
(e.g.: Kerameikos in the Athens), through the
Middle Ages till the Modern Times.
The part of population producing food
and supporting defence was establishing pre¬
dominance over the others in the social struc¬
ture. Starting from as early as the early Pre-
Roman Iron Age, we can speak of the existence
of the clearly distinguished group of farmer-
warriors, and most probably also, of some other
part of the population
—
the mere farmers who
were joining them at times. It seems that the
mentioned social strata probably gave the origin
to the creation of the power elites. The division
of social rules formed in this way, remained
closely connected with the issue of the stability
of the security system which was a prerequisite
for achieving an economic growth. A nearly
complete absence of any traces of protective
fortifications in the settlements supports the
presented view. The only recorded relic of this
type is the sequence of holes arranged in two or
three rows with some sharpened stakes discov¬
ered on the edge of the cemetery in
Wólka
Łasiecka,
site
1.
On the one hand, it could per¬
form defensive functions but, more probably,
this feature was older than the already formed
Przeworsk
culture settlement type. This results
in the conclusion that it was the community
organisation itself that supported the basic de¬
fensive functions in the settlement. Even the
long-lasting Migration of Germanic tribes (the
Goths), taking place in the neighbourhood, did
not leave a huge impact on the
Przeworsk
cul¬
ture type settlement. Moreover, the turmoil of
the Marcomannic Wars also performed nearby
in the second part of 2nd century AD, resulted in
the revival of trade and an influx of new tech¬
nologies. As early as with the beginning of the
late Roman Period, the existence of well-shaped
social strata become noticeable in archaeologi¬
cal sources, first from cemeteries and then also
from the settlement materials. On the one
hand, social stratification caused some stabilisa¬
tion in the existence of the zone type settle¬
ments inhabited mainly by the farmer-
craftsmen and possibly also by the farmers. On
the other hand, concurrently, some single iso¬
lated homesteads occurred, where the living
space of the most palatial houses quite com¬
monly exceeded
100
m2, and they were occu¬
pied by the elites
-
this is exemplified by isolat¬
ed farmsteads discovered in
Rawa Mazowiecka,
site
38
(fig.
20),
in
Mąkolice,
site
15
(fig.
79)
and
in the Wytrzyszczki settlement, site
3
(fig.
82).
The expansion of groups of farmer-craftsmen
enabled a creation of a new social stratum,
whose development was leading towards the
establishment of the farmstead type setttle-
ments. The data accessible nowadays seems not
sufficient enough to claim so, but considering
the finds derived from the excavations per¬
formed in the area of stretching between the
Oder and the
Elb
rivers and the Elbe culture
Settlement
—
a dynamic reality
♦ 245
zone, it may be presumed that some social dif¬
ferences were also present within the commu¬
nities inhabiting the settlements composed of
farmsteads. This lengthened the ladder of
social differences, making the farmer-craftsmen
more and more dependent, as well as was mak¬
ing a probable social transfer from the lower
strata to the higher ones certainly increasingly
difficult. In this point, the opinion on some di¬
verse non-agricultural occupations, including
handicraft, presented by the landowners from
the Roman Empire seems worth mentioning
—
the attitude they presented was dismissive and
those jobs were described as unworthy of a free
man (Cicero, OP, I,
42).
Therefore, it seems like¬
ly that the beginnings of stratification of the
Przeworsk
culture people, recorded in the ar¬
chaeological sources derived from Central Po¬
land, could facilitate similar social relations. The
social situation of the craftsmen probably start¬
ed to deteriorate as early as in the late Antiquity
period. Finally, it should be pointed out that,
with high probability, there existed one more
community group (rather than stratum), scarce¬
ly mentioned in archaeological sources concern¬
ing Central Poland or other areas
-
namely
-
the
slaves. Tacitus gives some evidence of their
existence, saying that slaves were given a good
treatment and were placed in separate premis¬
es. Presumably, they were located in separate
huts or in some separate parts of villages; they
were only obliged to pay tribute. Nevertheless,
there exist mentions, that some of the slaves we
shackled
(T., G.
25).
Some fragments of shackles
and chains discovered in the territories of north¬
eastern Germany seem to justify this infor¬
mation (J. Schuster
2009).
It is important to emphasize that the
materials from the cemeteries and the settle¬
ments as well may evidence an existence of
strong and well organized power of elites in the
territory of Central Poland in the discussed pe¬
riod. The existence of the two types of spatial
organization among the people of the
Prze¬
worsk
culture settlements type in Central Po¬
land displayed in the form of the settlements
divided into zones and specializing in specific
handicraft production, and others composed of
farms of mostly agricultural kind, seems to be a
part of some greater socio-economic and possi¬
bly even political, changes. As it results from the
so far undertaken research, the diffusion of
settlement in the late Roman Period was proba¬
bly caused by the structural reorganization tak¬
ing place throughout the whole
Przeworsk
cul¬
ture time. It seems that some settlement units
may have united, in the course of occurring
changes, into larger groups, better adapted to
survive. One may assume that the integration of
smaller settlements into larger groups might
concern mainly the farmstead types, as they
were more susceptible to natural environment
degradation caused by
anthropopression.
It is
worth taking this occasion to note the issue of
chronology concerning the declining periods of
existence of the
Przeworsk
culture settlements,
at the turning point between the late Roman
Period and the early Migration periods. As the
so far taken research reveals, the beginning of
the 5th century, at the latest, marks the decline
of the
Przeworsk
culture in Central Poland. The
existence of settlements in that period is
marked by few stray artefacts, or hoard which
are hard to associate with any particular settle¬
ments (M.
Mączyńska
2005, 158,
map
1).
It is
possible that in the given period, some settle¬
ments in Central Poland were still existing, for
example in
Toporów,
pl, Olewin, pl
or Monice-
Sieradz. In the later period, more or less from
the second half of the 5th century, no clear indi¬
cations of the the
Przeworsk
culture races have
been recorded. As such, it does not mark any
disappearance of settlements or depopulation
of that area, but about the yet another, this
time a more profound, cultural transformation.
As it appears, the territories occupied by
the
Przeworsk
culture peoples in central Poland,
as being far enough removed from the areas of
key political events, were privileged in respect
of stability in the settlement activity for most of
the given time. Therefore, they could develop
without any greater interference, which is per-
246 ♦
Summary
ceivable by their long period of existence. It suddenly only as the period of extremely strong
seems almost certain that structural transfor- and still intensifying perturbation started, mark-
mations of the settlements and the community ing the beginning of the Migration period,
itself, as described above, were stopped rather
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Skowron, Justyn |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1166269035 |
| author_facet | Skowron, Justyn |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Skowron, Justyn |
| author_variant | j s js |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV041966517 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)895256924 (DE-599)BVBBV041966517 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Mittelpolen (DE-588)4282110-1 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Mittelpolen |
| id | DE-604.BV041966517 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T01:09:26Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788393138852 |
| language | Polish |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-027409250 |
| oclc_num | 895256924 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 251 s. il. (w tym kolor.). - Ill. 30 cm. |
| publishDate | 2014 |
| publishDateSearch | 2014 |
| publishDateSort | 2014 |
| publisher | Stowarzyszenie Naukowe Archeologów Polskich, Oddział |
| record_format | marc |
| series | Biblioteka Wielkopolskich Sprawozdań Archeologicznych |
| series2 | Biblioteka Wielkopolskich Sprawozdań Archeologicznych |
| spelling | Skowron, Justyn Verfasser (DE-588)1166269035 aut Osada w działaniu osady ludności kultury przeworskiej w Polsce Środkowej od młodszego okresu przedrzymskiego do okresu wędrówek ludów Justyn Skowron Poznań Stowarzyszenie Naukowe Archeologów Polskich, Oddział 2014 251 s. il. (w tym kolor.). - Ill. 30 cm. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Biblioteka Wielkopolskich Sprawozdań Archeologicznych 7 Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Settlement - a dynamic reality Siedlung (DE-588)4054858-2 gnd rswk-swf Przeworskkultur (DE-588)4176107-8 gnd rswk-swf Mittelpolen (DE-588)4282110-1 gnd rswk-swf Mittelpolen (DE-588)4282110-1 g Przeworskkultur (DE-588)4176107-8 s Siedlung (DE-588)4054858-2 s DE-604 Biblioteka Wielkopolskich Sprawozdań Archeologicznych 7 (DE-604)BV019852912 7 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027409250&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027409250&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Skowron, Justyn Osada w działaniu osady ludności kultury przeworskiej w Polsce Środkowej od młodszego okresu przedrzymskiego do okresu wędrówek ludów Biblioteka Wielkopolskich Sprawozdań Archeologicznych Siedlung (DE-588)4054858-2 gnd Przeworskkultur (DE-588)4176107-8 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4054858-2 (DE-588)4176107-8 (DE-588)4282110-1 |
| title | Osada w działaniu osady ludności kultury przeworskiej w Polsce Środkowej od młodszego okresu przedrzymskiego do okresu wędrówek ludów |
| title_auth | Osada w działaniu osady ludności kultury przeworskiej w Polsce Środkowej od młodszego okresu przedrzymskiego do okresu wędrówek ludów |
| title_exact_search | Osada w działaniu osady ludności kultury przeworskiej w Polsce Środkowej od młodszego okresu przedrzymskiego do okresu wędrówek ludów |
| title_full | Osada w działaniu osady ludności kultury przeworskiej w Polsce Środkowej od młodszego okresu przedrzymskiego do okresu wędrówek ludów Justyn Skowron |
| title_fullStr | Osada w działaniu osady ludności kultury przeworskiej w Polsce Środkowej od młodszego okresu przedrzymskiego do okresu wędrówek ludów Justyn Skowron |
| title_full_unstemmed | Osada w działaniu osady ludności kultury przeworskiej w Polsce Środkowej od młodszego okresu przedrzymskiego do okresu wędrówek ludów Justyn Skowron |
| title_short | Osada w działaniu |
| title_sort | osada w dzialaniu osady ludnosci kultury przeworskiej w polsce srodkowej od mlodszego okresu przedrzymskiego do okresu wedrowek ludow |
| title_sub | osady ludności kultury przeworskiej w Polsce Środkowej od młodszego okresu przedrzymskiego do okresu wędrówek ludów |
| topic | Siedlung (DE-588)4054858-2 gnd Przeworskkultur (DE-588)4176107-8 gnd |
| topic_facet | Siedlung Przeworskkultur Mittelpolen |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027409250&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027409250&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV019852912 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT skowronjustyn osadawdziałaniuosadyludnoscikulturyprzeworskiejwpolscesrodkowejodmłodszegookresuprzedrzymskiegodookresuwedrowekludow |