Luxus ze vzdálených zemí: jantar doby bronzové ze sbírky Národního muzea = Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum
Gespeichert in:
| Hauptverfasser: | , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Czech |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Praha
Národní Muzeum [u.a.]
2013
|
| Ausgabe: | 1. vyd. |
| Schriftenreihe: | Editio Monographica Musei Nationalis Pragae
18 |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Abstract Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum |
| Beschreibung: | 172 Seiten zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 9788070364048 |
Internformat
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Luxus ze vzdálených zemí |b jantar doby bronzové ze sbírky Národního muzea = Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum |c Maria Tisucká ; Martina Ohlídalová |
| 246 | 1 | 1 | |a Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum |
| 250 | |a 1. vyd. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Praha |b Národní Muzeum [u.a.] |c 2013 | |
| 300 | |a 172 Seiten |b zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
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| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 490 | 1 | |a Editio Monographica Musei Nationalis Pragae |v 18 | |
| 500 | |a Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum | ||
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804152231405027328 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | l.Úvod
.................................................................................................7
2.
Jantar
................................................................................................8
3.
Jantarové předměty doby bronzové ve sbírce Národního muzea
........................................11
3.1.
Klasifikace
.....................................................................................12
3.2.
Analytický průzkum jantaru z archeologických nálezů
............................................21
4.
Rozšíření předmětů z jantaru v době bronzové
........................................................27
4.1.
Starší doba bronzová
...........................................................................27
4.2.
Střední doba bronzová
.........................................................................36
4.3.
Mladší a pozdní doba bronzová
.................................................................42
5.
Luxus ze vzdálených zemí
-
jantarová stezka
-
distribuce jantaru
.......................................45
6.
Soupis jantarových artefaktů ze sbírky Národního muzea
..............................................51
7.
Poškození a konzervace
............................................................................113
8.Závěr
..............................................................................................115
9.
Summary - Luxury from distant countries. Amber artifacts from the Bronze Age
in the collection of the National Museum
............................................................116
10.
Seznam literatury a archivních pramenů
............................................................130
11.
Kresebné tabulky
..................................................................................137
LUXURY FROM DISTANT COUNTRIES. AMBER ARTIFACTS FROM
THE BRONZE AGE IN THE COLLECTION OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM
AMBER FACTS
Amber is a fossil resin used as a precious stone since prehistoric times. Amber is a tree resin which
was originally soft and malleable. In the course of time this resin was transformed into a hard and
light substance
-
amber due to its partial polymerization induced by pressure and heat and sub¬
sequent gradual evaporation of volatile oils
(terpenes).
Unlike other precious stones, amber is an amorphous material that can be transparent
or opaque. Amber stones display a whole range of colours from a honey-like yellow colour being
the most common to orange, brown and red colours, the latter being less common. Black amber
contains fewer volatile substances. In fact, it is a type of fossilized coal. Amber of a milky colour
is called bony amber . Its cloudiness is caused by large amounts of bubbles in the structure. To
enhance the colour contrast, amber stones were often polished. Amber has a refractive index
1.53-1.55;
hardness
2-2.5
degrees on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Raw amber occurs in
a wide scale of shapes which partly depend on the part of a tree where it was formed
-
either
inside or outside the tree trunks. Amber finds are also found in the form of droplets, boulders etc.
As amber is a light material it floats in salty water. So in the past it was brought to the coast by sea
water and then collected by prehistoric people (Palavestra
-
Krstić
2006;
Dahlström
- Brost 1996;
Nlášová2011).
From a chemical perspective, amber is a mixture of hydrocarbons, succinic acid and amber oil.
Amber stones from various places slightly differ in their chemical composition due to different for¬
mation conditions. A. Palavestra and
V. Krstič
(2006)
report the following common element abun¬
dances in amber:
67-87%
carbon,
15%
oxygen and
5-11 %
hydrogen.The amber structure may also
contain a small portion of sulphur
(0.26-0.34 %).
Various amounts of sulfur as well as the content
of succinic acid are characteristic features enabling distinction of amber from different geographi¬
cal sites. Mainly the succinic acid is of particular importance because not all tree resins contain it.
It seems that this substance is a result of microorganism actions during cellulose fermentation in
amber. The content of succinic acid in amber may reach up to
8 %
(with Baltic amber containing
3-8 %
and other amber types with less than
3 %
(Guiliano,
et al.
2011;
Shashouna
2002;
Palavestra
-
Krstić
2006).
Sites of natural amber can be found all over the world and based on their age they may be classi¬
fied as Mesozoic and Tertiary. Younger fossil resins, i.e. quaternary and recent resins, are called co¬
pals. The term copal may also designate harder resins with lower polymerization level than amber,
(lllášová
2011 ;
Prokop
2003).
Concerning the archaeological amber artifacts found in the Czech Republic it may be concluded
that so called Baltic amber is their most likely mineralogical source. Baltic amber is a Tertiary age am¬
ber class (Eocene
-
Oligocene)
which is undoubtedly the most widespread type of amber. Its name
is derived from the name of the geographical region with the most frequent occurrence of amber,
which is located at the shores of the Baltic sea (mostly in the Samland peninsula in the Russian Kali¬
ningrad region).The Baltic region also includes sites in Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Germany, the Fri¬
sian Islands, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, Switzerland, France
and Great Britain -see Fig
1.
Most of these regions are secondary as far as Baltic amber occurrence is
concerned and they were formed during iceberg sediment migration during Late Quaternary Period
and their subsequent deposition. According to L.
lllášová
et al.
(2011)
Baltic amber occurring in the
Czech Republic was brought by the iceberg up to the Moravian Gate.
The Baltic amber originates from extinct species of a coniferous tree called Pinussuccinifera pine,
which grew here in the Early Tertiary Ages
(50-35
million years ago).
С
N.
Miller
(1977)
notes the
Baltic amber biologically originates from a common predecessor of Pinaceae and Araucariaceae.
Contrary to the other amber types the Baltic amber contains a high portion of succinic acid
(3-8 %).
From the mineralogical perspective the Baltic amber class includes not only so called Succinite but
also gedanite, beckerite, allingite, delatynite, glessite, krantzite, almashite, ambrite etc.
(Dahlström
-
Brost 1996;
lllášová
2011;
Prokop
2003;
Langenheim
2003).
Besides the main Baltic region being the most significant mineralogical source of amber finds
in our region, other archaeological amber finds uncovered here may also originate from the below
listed important amber sites
(Dahlström
- Brost 1996;
lllášová
2011 ;
Prokop
2003;
Langenheim
2003;
Stout
- Beck -
Anderson
2000):
116
1.
France-
Amber stones from the
Aquitaine
basin. This is a Mesozoic amber type (Upper Cre¬
taceous) with greater amounts of pyritized inclusions. Their primary sources are
Araucarias
plants.
2.
Spain- Mesozoic amber from the
Alava
province is sometimes called the Alava amber .This
type of amber has a red colour and it is rich in insect inclusions. As is true for amber from the
Aquitaine
basin, the
araucarias
plants seem to be the most likely source of the
Alava
amber.
3.
Romania
-
a Tertiary period class of amber
(Oligocene
-
Miocene) with a wide range of co¬
lours, most often brown-yellow and dark brown, black and red and rarely yellow. The hi¬
ghest concentration of the Romanian amber is on the periphery of the Flysch range in the
Carpathian Mountains (region of
Buzăua,
Ploješť) andTransylvanian
Alps (Olenati).
E. C
Staut
étal.
(2000)
state that it is likely that the resin was transferred via river transport from its cen¬
tral source to the east into Moldavia, to the south into Wallachia and to the north and west
into Transylvania. This amber contains only
1 -5 %
of succinic acid. Its biological source has
not been determined yet. From the mineralogical perspective it is so called rumanite.
4.
Italy/Sicily
-
Tertiary period amber (Miocene) found in sediments of the Simetio river in
Catania containing almost no succinic acid. From the mineralogical perspective it is so called
simetite.
5.
Austria
-
minor occurrence of Tertiary amber (lower Cretaceous) from the Salzburg pro¬
vince. Its source is a resin from the Araucariacea tree family.
6.
Czechia
-
fossil resins closely related to the amber from primary sediments of Cretaceous
and Tertiary brown coal deposits. Colours of these resins range from brown-red, red and
orange to black and brown. J.
Prokop
(2003)
assumes that the source of these resins may
belong to the family of Angiosperms. From the mineralogical perspective it is either so called
walchowite or duxite.
Baltic amber was transported into the Central Europe via business routes where it was a very
popular commodity. The same way might also have been used for the transport of amber from other
European amber sites to the Czech lands. It is known
(lllášová
et al.,
201
1;Truicã
étal.,
2010;
Langen-
heim,
2003)
that the influx of Baltic amber from more distant parts of Europe became regular during
the Late Eneolithic period. Fig.
26
shows the hypothetic routes of the Amber road in the Bronze Age.
At that time, amber was used for the manufacture of beads for necklaces, often in combination with
other materials (bronze spirals being the most frequent).
In the collection of the National Museum there are
320
amber artefacts originating from
43
sites.
Detailed data are shown in the summarising table (see fig.
4). 306
finds from
35
sites dating to the
Early Bronze Age are the most frequent here, followed by
10
artefacts from
5
Middle Bronze Age
sites. The Late Bronze Age is then the least frequent being represented by just
4
objects from
3
sites.
Most amber objects deposited in the collection come from the funeral context. These are
204
objects from
31
different sites of the Early Bronze Age and
5
amber artefacts from
4
funeral sites of
the Middle Bronze Age. No funeral find is documented for the Late Bronze Age.
Amber objects were a part of
5
hoards.Two mass findings originate from the Early Bronze Age
-
in Prague-Suchdol
(Kozí hřbety)
and
Stará Boleslav. A Křenovice
hoard containing
618
amber pearls
and an amber disc is from the Middle Bronze Age and a hoard from
Jenišovice
is dated to the Late
Bronze Age No amber finds of the collections are documented to be coming from the settlement
context.
Among the studied amber objects there are some artifacts for which it is difficult to tell, from the
chronological viewpoint, whether they belong to the funeral or residential context or a hoard. This
mainly applies to the finds with unverifiable history of finding, particularly the finds from the
1
9th
century and the pre-war period.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMBER OBJECTS
For the purpose of this research study a typological classification of amber objects was devised
covering the main variations of amber objects from the analysed collection. Amber objects in the
collection are usually in the form of jewellery or its components
-
pearls, spacer plates, pendants etc.
Amber is also found here as a raw material
ora
component of objects composed of several materials.
117
ι
Amber jewellery
1)
Pearls with simple drilling
2)
Spacer plates with multiple drilling
3)
Rings, discs and other shapes
)
Raw material
I) Components of bronze objects
I) AMBER JEWELLERY
Jewellery made of the amber type, which can be drilled easily, occurs among the Bronze Age jewel¬
lery most frequently. The range of amber jewellery is actually very wide-from pearls with a simple
type of drill to more complicated necklaces made up of various materials
-
tiny bronze pendulous
elements, sea shells and conches, teeth and other small decorations. Due to the way the amber
jewellery is deposited in graves, most often around the neck and shoulders of the deceased, it is
assumed to have been originally connected with a string forming a necklace.
AMBER PEARLS
a) Pearls with simple drilling
A pearl or a bead is a small pendulous decoration of various shapes and sizes drilled through its
centre mostly, which, when on a string, constitutes a part of a necklace, a pearl is a type of amber
objects with the highest frequency of occurrence.
Pearls with simple drilling can be classified into several basic categories and their versions.
This classification of pearls with simple drilling is based on research of E. Sprinz and
C. Beck
(Sprincz
-
Beck
1981)
and it was then adjusted for the purpose of this work. During the classification most
attention was mainly paid to cross-section, diameter, thickness and length of individual beads.
Types of amber pearls (fig.
5):
la Flat and thin disc-shaped pearls with sharp edges
-
L
=
rectangular cross section
Ib Flat and thin disc-shaped pearls with oval edges
-
L
=
rectangular cross section with oval
edges
II Ring pearls
III Flat spherical pearls
-
L
=
elliptical cross section
IV Irregular oval pearls with a drop-shaped longer side
-
L
=
drop-like cross section
V Lens-like pearls
-
L= lens-like cross section
VI Spherical pears
-
L
=
spherical cross section
Vila Short cylindrical pearls with sharp edges
-
L= rectangular cross section
Vllb Short cylindrical pearls with oval edges
-
L
=
rectangular cross section with oval edges
Vile Standard and long cylindrical pearls
-
L
=
rectangular cross section with oval edges
VIII
Cylindrical or tube-like beads
IX Biconical and conical pearls
-
L
=
irregular cross section or in a shape of regular hexagon
X Olive-like pearls
Evaluation of amber pearl types is shown in Fig.
7.
Several special types of pearls were found among the amber beads: a pearl of the
Allumiere
type
predominantly occurring in the region of the Adriatic Sea (Bouzek
1997,122)
and beads of hexago¬
nal diameter occurring in rare artefacts only. Diameter of individual pearls was found to range from
5
to
20
mm. Significantly bigger beads made of dark brown amber come from
Přeštice
(Tab.1
8:13330
dating back to the Late Bronze Age. Distribution of individual pearl types in different stages of the
Bronze Age is illustrated in Fig.
8.
One specimen was found among the amber beads from
Cinetice
to be of the
Allumiere
type (tab.
27:227628).
This type is usually found in Greece and Italy dating back to the end of the Bronze Age
together with amber beads of the Tiryns type. Both of the types are mainly spread in the area of the
Adriatic Sea and they mostly come from the late period of the second millennium
ВС
(Bouzek
1997
122;
Palavestra
-
Krstić
2006; Steinhauser - Primas 1987, 203-204).
118
b)
Flat pearls
Flat pearls are of an approximate square shape where the hole for a string is drilled through the
thinner side or they can have a shape of a rough triangle. Examples of such shapes can be seen in
necklace beads from
Dřínov
(tab.
2:47858),
Únětice
(tab.
29:48146),
or in a bead from a necklace
of Noutonice (tab.
16:48032).
Two broken flat beads of an almost triangular shape were documented
in
Zvoleněves
(tab.
35:11935, 11036).
a distinctively different shape ¡s found in a bead of a rough
trapezoid
shape with slanted drilling from the
Tursko
region (tab.
23:11416).
c) Pearls of irregular shape:
Also beads of irregular shape are present among the amber artefacts of the National Museum.
However, this type of beads is the least frequent, a bead made of coarsely processed dark brown
amber comes from Minice (tab.
10: 43078).
Three beads come from
Zvoleněves
(tab
35:11932, 34:
11933),
one is with one hole drilled in a slanted manner (tab.
34:11934).
SPACER PLATES
-
BEADS WITH MULTIPLE DRILLING
Flat amber tablets with multiple drilling are rarer than amber pearls with drills usually being on their
thinner side. These tablets are referred to as ^pacer plates in the scientific literature
(Bernsteinschie¬
ber)
(see e.g Hachmann
1957; Rottländer; ßartelheim 1998).
Spacer plates were used to separate and
stabilize individual threaded strings of a necklace. They were recorded in Mycenaean shaft graves
(16th century B.C.), but the main region, where spacer plates were used, is located in Western Europe,
particularly in the south of England. Here, they are frequently found in the graves of the Wessex
culture (Gerloff
1975).
Their similarity to the finds from Mycenaean shaft graves is considered to be
a sign of cultural relations between these two centres of culture and is often discussed in theses on
absolute chronology and typology (e.g.
Milojčic
1955;
Hachmann
1957;
Bartelheim
1998,76).
a) Spacer plates with parallel drilling
The most frequent type is represented by a spacer plate of a flat amber tablet shape with multiple
drilling led in parallel and drilled through its thinner side. It is usually of a quadrangular shape more
or less carefully processed to tetragonal or oval shapes with two drilled holes being most common,
a spacer-plate from
Velká Dobrá
(tab.
32:48276)
is of an unusual shape among flat spacers with mul¬
tiple parallel drilling, a flat spacer plate of a triangular shape with two preserved drills led in parallel
was found in Krnsko (tab.
7:45368).
It is very rare to find spacer plates of glasses-like shape with the
cross section being in the form of number eight.
b) Spacer plates with drilled pattern
Among amber spacer plates it is possible to identify artefacts of different shapes with drilled holes
creating a regular pattern. Spacer plates with drilled holes in the form of a cross come from
Bezdě-
dice (tab.
1
:33461). a spacer plate in the shape of a spherical pearl drilled with a cross-like pattern
comes from
Malé
Číčovice
(tab.
9:12168)
and a spacer plate of an oblong olive-like shape with cross-
drilling is from the very same area (tab.
9:12243).
There was also recorded a drilled
T
pattern from
Dřínov
(tab.
2:47788)
and
Malé Číčovice
(tab.
8:12254).
RINGS, DISCS AND OTHER SHAPES
In contrast to beads, amber rings have a significantly greater diameter and mainly the central hole is
distinctively bigger, see e.g.
a ring fromTřebovle
(tab.
21
:1
1686),
Zvoleněves
(tab.
34:11943)
or
Praha
-Bubeneč
(tab.
14:17943).
An amber ring with only one half intact, with a visible tiny hole drilled in
it, comes from
Únětice
(tab.
29:48129).
Amber discs have also a considerably larger diameter than
pearls but a very small central hole, a cut through disc grows thinner when reaching the edge. An
illustration
ofthat
can be seen in an amber disc from
Hladoměř
u
Blovic (tab.
3:13650)
or
Křenovice
[tab.
8:13394).
As far as the artefact dimensions are concerned a disc from
Holubice
is the smallest
(tab.
3:13958)
in the entire collection. Another atypical artefact is a disc with two drilled holes from
Kostelec nad Labem
(tab.
6:11756)
with the smaller hole being closer to the edge.
A biconical amber button is then a truly unique piece having been found in grave no.
5
at the
funeral site in Osluchov (tab.
14:11697).
119
Surface
decoration
Surface
decoration has survived in just few artefacts up to present days. The decoration usually
consists of carved lines on the surface of beads which is visible e.g. on a spacer plate from
Únétice
(tab.
29:48194)
or a flat bead from
Holubice
(tab.
4:13963).
II) RAW MATERIAL
Amber in its unprocessed raw form is rare. Three greater unprocessed pieces of amber are deposited
in the collection part related to the region of
Cinetice
(tab.
27:229851-229853).
Ill) COMPONENTS OF BRONZE OBJECTS
Amber was used to manufacture bronze objects as proved by scarce artefacts. A good illustration is
the use of amber applied as a component of a dagger which is a part of a hoard of bronze daggers
from Praha-Suchdol
(Kozí hřbety).
The bronze triangular dagger is composed of a decorated blade
and a hollow corrugated handle with the head decorated by a cross cut lined with three amber seg¬
ments copying the convex head shape (tab.
15:37493).
Amber also fills small cuts below the perime¬
ter of the head. The blade and the handle of the dagger are connected together with
5
rivets with
two of them being supported by golden plate rings.The three remaining holes are filled with amber
bars slightly sticking out plastically. It is difficult to find corresponding finds to this dagger because
it seems to be a unique artefact in the context of Europe. However, amber incrustation may also be
found e.g. on a dagger from
Castrone dei Marchesi
or a dagger from
Baalberge
(Divac
-
Sedláček
1999, 61-62).
The whole complex of the finds from Praha-Suchdol was investigated in detail by
V. Moucha,
G.
Divac and
Z. Sedláček
(Divac
-Sedláček
1999;
Moucha
2000).
ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS OF AMBER FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS
Research studies of amber cover a huge area of interdisciplinary fields. As far as the archaeological
amber is concerned the research subjects usually involve its geographical origin, amber bartering
and trading, relations of amber occurrence and its utilization with the nature of respective societies
or ways of amber processing.
For research of amber it is possible to use a wide range of analytical methods frequently descri¬
bed in the scientific literature
(Truicã
et al.
2012;
Stout
et al.
2000;
Teodor
et al.
2010;
Brody
et al.
2001;
Guiliano et al.
2007).
L lliášová
(2011)
notes
that early analyses of amber were realized by
means of gas chromatography followed by determination procedures based on paper chromato-
graphy on thin plates or liquid chromatography with mass detection (LC-MS). Consequently, ther¬
mal analysis started to be applied as well as pyrolysis gas chromatography with mass detection
(Py-GC/MS). Modern research studies mainly apply spectroscopic methods such as infrared spec-
troscopy with Fourier transformation (FTIR) or Raman spectroscopy with Fourier transformation. To¬
day, there are also used methods of magnetic resonance, X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence ana¬
lysis and electron microscopy scanning. Due to the rare occurrence of archaeological amber finds,
only the non-destructive methods of those listed above may be applied to study amber artefacts.
The identification of amber artefact origins can provide our archaeologists with information
about amber distribution and processing ways in the geographical region of the Czech Republic.
That is why the Czech National Museum systematically carries out research studies using infrared
spectroscopy with Fourier transformation. The method of infrared spectroscopy is a convenient
means for determination of different amber classes because of different chemical composition of
amber coming from different geographical locations (mainly due to different content of succinic
acid and its esters). Many authors have already published information on using various FTIR analysis
procedures to identify the geographical origin of amber. E.
S.Teodor
et al.
(2010)
and
G.
I.
Truicã
at
al.
(2012)
compare geological Baltic amber with rumanites in their work. E.
Peñalver
(2007)
compares
Baltic amber with paleontological and archaeological Spanish amber.Then, M. Guiliano
et al.
(2007і
spectroscopically compared copals with Baltic amber and amber from France. However, no study
has been realized so far comparing archaeological and geological amber of different origin with
respect to the amber finds uncovered in the region of the Czech Republic.
120
Studies of geographical origin of archaeological amber in collections of Historical Museum
of the National Museum
Methodology enabling the origin identification of archaeological amber finds was elaborated by
comparing infrared spectra of geographical amber samples with the known places of origin with
the literature already published
(Brody
et al.
2001;
Guiliano
et al.
2007;
Mosini and
Cesara
1985;
Teodor
et al.
2010;Truicä et
al.
2012). 17
samples of European amber with the known place of origin
were analysed, all from the mineralogical collection belonging to the Museum of Natural sciences
of the National Museum. These samples included Baltic amber from regions of Kaliningrad (Russia),
Klaipeda (Lithuania), Lvov and
Halič
(Ukraine), and from the Polish coast of the Baltic Sea as well as
geological amber from
Lobsann (Alsasko -
France); Ploesti (Romania) and simetites from Sicily (Italy)
and amber found in the Czech Republic (the sites of Habartov,
Nové Sedlo, Chrudim
and
Leštinka
u
Skutče).
All these geological amber samples of the known origin were analysed with ATR technolo¬
gy using the method of FTIR spectroscopy in the spectral range of
650-4000
cnrr1 with resolution of
4 cm and accumulation of
64
spectra. Fig.
6
shows a comparison of infrared spectra of Baltic amber
-
succinite (Kaliningrad), rumanite (Ploest), simetite (Sicily), French amber
(Lobsann
amber) and am¬
ber from Czechia
(Nové Sedlo).
In contrast with other amber types the amber from Czechia contains
large amounts of inorganic substances polluting the resin.The
IR
spectrum of an amber samplefrom
Nové Sedlo
displays this inorganic polluting portion by absorption bands with the peaks at about
760-700
cm^1. These are most likely bending vibrations of O-AI-O bonds. The analysed geographi¬
cal sample from France was classified as Baltic amber due to its spectral characteristics.
Table
6
shows a summary of absorption spectra obtained from
4
groups of analysed geological
amber samples with known places of origin and provides interpretation of their wavenumbers.
The first spectroscopic difference observed in amber absorption spectra occurs in an absorption
band with its peak position of ca.
1640-1650
crrr (see Fig.
8).
It is a distinct absorption band usu¬
ally observed in most of Baltic amber standard samples. The band belongs to a bending vibration
of an OH bond or a nonconjugated valence vibration of a C=C bond. However, not all the analysed
samples contained it. Simetite does not display this absorption band but only a horizontal shoulder
in the wavenumber range of
1580-1660
cm 1. In infrared spectra of rumanite this absorption band
occurs with its peak at
1650
cnrr followed by an absorption band of lower intensity with its peak at
1595
cm 1.
Another spectroscopic difference is displayed by simetite. While Baltic amber and rumanite show
an absorption band with its peak in the position at
1375-1380
cm 1 corresponding to a
C
-Н
bending,
simetite displays two sharp absorption bands with positions at about
1370
and
1390
crrr1 in this ab¬
sorption area. As mentioned by many authors (Guiliano
et al.
2007;
Mosini
-
Cesaro
1986;
Peñalver
et
al.
2007;
Shashouna
2002)
amber from the Baltic region (simetite) reveals a specific spectral charac¬
teristic in its
IR
spectra often referred to as the Baltic shoulder . It is a horizontal shoulder in the wa¬
venumber range of
1150-1250
crrr1 followed by a distinct and well-defined absorption band with
the peak positioned at
1160
crrr1 (related to the valence vibration of a C-0 bond in the ester group,
probably the succinic acid ester). However, in their spectra, some of the examined Baltic amber sam¬
ples showed two distinct absorption bands with peaks in the positions of
1240
and
1200
cm 1 in¬
stead of the Baltic shoulder . This observed difference may be related to differing oxidation levels
of amber. The detected bands are the most likely to correspond to a C-O-C asymmetric stretching
vibration from aliphatic esters (Shashouna
2002;
Truicã
at
al.
2012).
Due to low contents of succinic
acid a rumanite amber class displays an
IR
spectrum very similar to Baltic amber in this area, but here
only absorption bands with peaks in positions of
1245
cm 1 and
1160
cm 1 are clearly visible (but not
the,,Baltic shoulder ). In the same spectral area a simetite class shows a sharp absorption band with
its peak positioned at about
1230
crrr1 followed by a less intensive absorption band with the peak
at about
1170
crrr1. E.
Peñalver
(2007)
states that in this very area it is also possible to distinguish the
Spanish amber which displays here two distinct absorption bands.To sum up, only the Baltic amber
displays an absorption band near the position of
890
cm 1 belonging either to an out-of-plane vi¬
bration of the
methylene
group =CH2
(Peñalver
et al.,
2007)
or out-of-plane
C
-Н
ethylene
bending
(Guiliano
et al.,
2007;
Mosini and Cesaro,
1986).
Amber of the different geographical origins does not
display this spectral characteristic. It was confirmed that rumanites display a shift of this absorption
band to the position of
800
cnrr1 just as stated by E.
S.Teodor
et al
(2010).
121
RESEARCH OF AMBER
FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL COLLECTION OF NATIONAL
MUSEUM
Archaeological amber finds are slightly different from geological amber. Generally, a lower
intens::,,
of the resin signal is typical of them. According to E.
S.Teodor
et al.
(2010)
a likely cause
ofthat
mig
ť:
consist in relative dehydration of archaeological amber or secondary pollution by inorganic
su bsta r
-
ces
after its long deposition in the ground. The ATR technique of infrared spectroscopy was
provee
not to be suitable for archaeological amber. Due to high fragility of amber finds there is a dange-
they could be damaged when applying the ATR crystal under necessary pressure in this technique
That is why the ATR crystal was not used to measure whole beads but merely exfoliated flakes or
d
us:
from non-conserved amber or preserved non-conserved samples of conserved finds.
The examination of the physical condition of amber finds from the collection of
Historica
Museum of the National Museum shows that
70%
of the finds were already conserved in the pas:
(with acrylic resin most frequently). Therefore, conserved amber displays in its
IR
spectrum a range
of absorption bands in the positions identical to those of amber thus disabling the
interpretatie
of the spectra measured
-
see Fig
9.
That is why it is not possible to identify the geographic origin
of the conserved archaeological amber unambiguously. Therefore, as far as the conserved finds art
concerned, only their tiny untreated parts were analysed provided these have survived up to
nov.
(these are primarily small crackles or amber dust).
Due to secondary impurities it was impossible to identify the geographical origin of
22%
of the
analysed samples. Supposing the characteristic Baltic shoulder occurred together with an absorpt
-
on band with its peak at
890
crrr1 the origin of archaeological amber was identified as Baltic amber
This applies to
72%
of the finds studied.
6%
of the samples did not display
IR
spectra with
elea-
spectroscopie
characteristics of Baltic amber. Due to the absence of the absorption band with the
peak at
890
cm 1 these amber beads show the highest spectral resemblance to rumanites. Analyze;
of amber artifacts from the collection of Historical Museum of the National Museum were
identifiée
as Baltic amber. New finding is identification of rumanit (see Fig
.18).
OCCURRENCE OF AMBER OBJECTS IN THE BRONZE AGE
THE EARLY BRONZE AGE
Amber pearls are widespread in Europe, specifically in the regions where natural amber occurs
(Ro¬
ttländer 1973).
Regions that are particularly interesting are those with no natural access to raw am¬
ber but still processing it as jewellery. These are mainly the regions of Wessex culture and
Únětická
culture. In the South Bohemia it is very rare to find amber objects. Minor amounts were found in the
regions of upper and middle Danube as well as in the Carpathian basin usually from burial ground;
distributed all over the region.
BOHEMIA
In the region of Bohemian or Czech lands a total number of
106
Early Bronze Age sites are docu¬
mented where amber objects were uncovered
(Ernée
2012, 75).
Amber objects that were
fou
n c
in graves are the most frequent with respect to the amount of uncovered sites
(86)
and piece;
(ca.
3600)
(Ernée
2012, 76).
The total number of graves originally containing amber is recorded to be
304
(Ernée
2012, 75; Bartelheim 1998, 74-75).
Much fewer pearls are then found in hoards and
seu¬
lement
context
-
in Bohemia, only five finds of amber objects are documented from the residentia
context of the Early Bronze Age.
(Beneš
1988,10;
Břicháček
1991, 93;
Ernée
2012, 76;
Chvojka -Joh-
-
Šálková
2012, 129;
Stuchlík
2006, 187).
The majority
of
czech
finds are identified as Baltic
ambe-
(Plesl
-
Beck
1993;
Jiráñ
et al.
2008;
Ernée
2012).
The majority of amber artifacts from the collection
of the National Museum were identified as Baltic amber( see fig.
18).
Amber artifacts from
Dřino,
grave
21
(tab.
2:47779),
from
Holubice
(tab.
3:13958,
tab.
4:13963)
and
Tursko
(tab.
22:11402)
we-
identified as rumanites. With most probability are rumanites finds from
Malé Číčovice
(inv.
č.
48672
and
Tursko
(tab.
22:11400).
JEWELLERY WITH AMBER
Readily workable amber is highly represented in jewellery. For the Early Bronze Age two basic ve-
sions of jewellery amber applications are found
-
a form of pearls with simple drilling and a form c
a spacer plate assembled to form a necklace.
122
According to the position of amber beads in graves usually found near the chin, neck or shou¬
lders of a deceased person it is presumed that the pearls come from a necklace originally formed
by strings of textile material or leather. It is not unusual to find necklaces made of amber pearls
combined with various other materials. Besides the pearls of different shapes and spacer plates the
necklaces are also formed by bronze pearls, bronze wire tubes wound in spirals or they are made
of a bronze plate or composed of sea shells, conches or animal teeth. These components, mainly
made of bronze, were used to keep amber pearls apart in certain distances so that individual parts
of a necklace might reflect light more efficiently and thus look better. They also enabled to assemble
a complete necklace while using smaller amounts of amber beads.
Amber pearls tend to be of spherical, cylindrical, oval, flattened ball or ring shapes. Much less
frequent is their occurrence in the form of amorphous or multiple-sided pieces. Pearls are drilled
in the middle and shaped by cutting and grinding. Their size usually ranges from
5
to 20 mm in dia¬
meter. Amber pearl types of different shapes are classified into several basic types
-
categories are
shown in the table (see fig.
5, 7).
Flat pearls of approximate square or triangular shapes are the most common components docu¬
mented in necklaces. They are drilled through their thinner side to form a hole for threading. Several
flat pearls may be inserted in one necklace, a good illustration is provided by beads of an approxi¬
mate square shape in a necklace from
Dřínov,
3
flat beads of irregular square shapes being a part of
a necklace with bronze spiral tubes from
Únětice
(tab.
29:48146)
or
4
flat beads constituting a simi¬
lar necklace, again with bronze spiral tubes, from
Kamýk u Velkých Přílep
(tab.
5:11522).
Amber
pearls in Bohemia occurred in a greater extent no sooner than in early stages of the
Únětická
culture
(Stahl 2011, 15).
Spacer plates are components of the Early Bronze Age necklaces used to separate and maintain
the distance among individual strings of pearls and other parts of a necklace. The most frequent
type is a spacer plate in the form of a flat amber tablet with multiple parallel holes drilled through
its thinner side. This spacer plate type is usually of a square form processed to more or less precise
square or rectangular shapes with two drilled holes being most common, a flat rectangular spa¬
cer plate with two preserved holes drilled in parallel is a component of a necklace from ZIonice
(tab.
34:11785).
Another carefully manufactured spacer plate is a flat rectangular piece with two
holes drilled in parallel being a component of an amber necklace from
Únětice
(tab.
28:48115).
a spacer plate made of an almost unprocessed amber piece with two drilled holes comes from
Neprobylice (tab.
10:48000).
An unusual triangular shape, which can be found in a flat spacer plate
with two preserved holes drilled parallely, comes from Krnsko (tab.
7:45368).
Spacer plates of a gla¬
sses-like shape are scarce. Up to now only one complete piece and a part of another spacer plate
in a shape of number eight have been preserved in a necklace from
Únětice
(tab.
28: 48115).
Here,
these spacer plates are threaded in the row of pearls together with a flat spacer plate with two holes
drilledin
parallel.
There also occur spacer plates where drilled holes form a regular pattern in the total cross sec¬
tion. Spacer plates with drilled holes forming a cross pattern are represented by a flat bead of an
irregular square shape with cross drilling from
Bezdědice
(tab.
1
:33461
),
a cross-drilled spacer plate
of a spherical pearl form from
Malé Číčovice
(tab.
9:12168)
and a cross-drilled oblong spacer plate
of an olive-like shape (tab.
9: 12243)
from the same area. A spacer plate of an olive-like shape with
multiple drilling from
Únětice
(tab.
29:48194)
is then a truly unique piece but only a part of it has
survived to these days. Spacer-plates with holes drilled in a T pattern also occur from time to time,
e.g. a square bead from
Dřínov
(tab.
2:47788)
and a flat bead with holes drilled
¡n a T
shape being
a component of a necklace from
Malé Číčovice
(tab.
8:12254).
Necklaces are assembled either from amber pearls only or they also contain objects made of
other materials.
Amber pearls constituting a necklace are of different shape types in a single necklace. Pearls
were organised symmetrically according to their size
-
the largest pearls located in the necklace
centre and the smallest pearls at its ends
-
as can be seen e.g. in finds from grave no.
24
in the burial
ground in
Liběšovice (Moucha
-
Pleinerová
1966, Fig. 149).
Sometimes, pearls of just one size were
used
-
e.g. in graves
13
and
39
in
Liběšovice (Moucha
-
Pleinerová
1966, Fig. 525:13,530:7).
Complex
necklaces are frequently composed of tubes made of a wound thin bronze wire as found e. g. in gra¬
ves in
Únětice
(tab.
29:48146),
Neprobylice (tab.
11:47953)
or Noutonice (tab.
13:48032).
Also tubes made of a wound thin bronze plate were placed among amber pearls. They usually
consist of a single piece of a bronze plate formed to tubes of ca. 5 mm in diameter which were sub¬
sequently threaded on a necklace string or combined with other necklace pendants, a necklace from
123
grave
37
in
Liběšovice
is an illustration of this with ball-like amber pearls, an amber prism-shaped
pendant and tubes made of a bronze plate and a wire
(Moucha
-
Pleinerová
1966, Fig. 149:1
S-Iőj.
Such finds are recorded in Bohemian regionsof
Praha, Slaný
and river
Ohře
surroundings. Individual
specimens were also found in the regions of central and upper Danube and exceptionally in the
central Germany and southern Baltic too. Shorter strings of similar necklaces occurred in Southern
Bavaria during the Early Bronze Age but in Bohemia they are documented no sooner than during
the period of the Early
Únětická
culture. Individual exemplars were also uncovered in the regions
of central and upper Danube and rarely also in central Germany and southern Baltic (Bartelheim
1998,74-75).
It has to be assumed that this and similar types of pendants may easily be overlooked
during the research of sites due to their high fragility and a small size. Tubes can also be decorated
with a embossing by their sides. This was mostly used as a decorative element in the Danube region,
a tube made of a bronze plate found in grave
5
in
Liběšovice
was decorated by a set of peripheral
lines
(Moucha - Pleinerová
1966, 536-537).
Small bronze pearls were also used as necklace components. The size of the pearls ranges from
10
to 20 mm with axial drilling. These finds mainly occur in Bohemia and date back to the early
period of the Early Bronze Age (Bartelheim
1998, 75),
for instance a necklace from a grave in
Tursko
(tab.
21:11283)
and the finds from graves 18A and
40
in
Liběšovice
in North-west Bohemia
(Mou¬
cha
-
Pleinerová
1966).
a necklace consisting of
12
amber and
40
bronze oval pearls was found in
child s grave
7/62
in
Kanin
dating to the early period of
Únětická
culture
(Hrdlička
1968, 514-515).
Necklaces made of amber and bronze pearls are also documented in the Slovak regions of
Matuš¬
kovo,
Nesvady and
Sládkovičovo
and in the Polish funeral equipment e.g. in Mierczyce, Opatowice,
Wojkowice as well as in a grave in German Apolda
(Stahl 2011,16).
Shells of sea molluscs are also utilized as necklace components. For instance, heart-shaped
shells with tubes and spiral made of thin bronze wire were used in a necklace from Noutonice (tab.
12:48020)
or a necklace from
Velíš
(tab.
32:47745),
where they are placed together with sea cowries.
Amber necklaces are characteristic of the earliest period of
Únětická
culture
(Moucha - Pleinero¬
vá
1966;
Jiráň
et al.
2008,41).
Necklaces were found in the graves of men, women and children too. The age of the deceased
was determined for four individuals from
Praha 5-Stodůlky
and
Praha 9-Miškovice.
Three of them
were adults and one was a juvenile person
(Ernée2012,
92,
tab. 12b). At the burial ground in
Liběšo¬
vice
amber necklaces were found in child s graves
11,12
and
20
(Moucha - Pleinerová
1966).
Amber pearls found in graves in Hungarian
Hernádkak
also reveal differing usage due to the sex
(Schalk 1992),
where amber was found in graves of women and children. Relations between amber
and other funeral gifts were studied in detail by
M. Ernée (Ernée
2012).
It was found that in
15
graves
amber had been placed together with gold in burial grounds in
Tursko,
Liběšovice, Zvoleněves
and
Svrkyně.
Gold was mostly provided in the form of earrings. Then, golden rings were found in two
graves and a golden wire and a golden ringlet were discovered in other graves
(Ernée
2012, 110).
Graves
81,95,103
and
105
and
110
had, as their accessories, not only bronze parts of necklaces but
also golden spiral tubes just as in a woman s grave
68
in Battonya, which proves that amber used to
be complemented with metal parts in a necklace thus combining the value of amber and gold
(Stahl
2011,17; Schalk 1992;
Szabó
1999).
Amber discs were discovered in
Třebovle
(tab.
12:11686),
Zvoleněves
(tab.
35:11943)
and
Praha
-Bubeneč
(tab.
14:17943).
a flat pendant of a rectangular shape with one preserved drilled hole co¬
mes from
Svrkyně
(tab.
20:47923).
An amber button of an unusual biconical shape is from the grave
no.
5
in Osluchov (tab.
14:11697).
The whole burial ground belongs to the classical stage of
Únětic¬
ká
culture
(Ernée
2012, 99).
a similarly shaped amber button was a part of the burial equipment of
a rich man s grave in
Svobodné Dvory
(district of
Hradec Králové)
dating to the Bell Beaker culture
period
(Moucha
2003, 781 -782;
Fig.
5:2;
Hájek
1957,389-424).
Interpretation of amber rings and discs is not unambiguous because they are found both indi¬
vidually and as components of jewellery
-
necklaces. It may be supposed that they functioned as
amulets e.g. in
Pra ha-Stod úlky (Ernée
2012, 97).
a similar disc was also found in
Únětice
in group II,
grave
25
(Ryzner
1878-1881,364).
An amber disc and an amber ring lying together were discovered
in grave
22
in
Liběšovice
u
Podbořan (Moucha
-
Pleinerová
1966, 519, Fig. 146:14, 15). An
amber
ring from the grave
22
in
Liběšovice
was a component of a necklace made of
11
amber ball-shaped
beads and
4
sea shells, a drilled disc made of red amber was placed on the lumbar region of the
corpse
(Moucha - Pleinerová
1966,520).
Data relating the age of the dead with this type of burial gifts are accessible for five individuals
only-from the regions of
Praha-Stodůlk^Třeboule, Únětice
and
Vepřek,
with three graves of chil-
124
dren
and two graves of adults. The gender of the deceased is not known in any case
(Ernée
2012,96,
Tab.
13).
In Bohemia, the occurrence of amber rings and discs is bound to the classical stage of the
Únětic¬
ká
culture only
(Ernée
2012, 96).
M. Ernée
points out that amber rings and discs might have served
the same purpose as that of bones, stones and ceramics dated to the older (pre-classical) stages of
Únětická
culture
(Ernée
2012, 96-97).
Three pieces of raw amber also come from
Únětice
(tab.
27:229851-229853),
but, unfortunately,
the circumstances of the discovery are not known. Raw amber was only found
inVrbčany u
Kolína
in
two pieces weighing
150
gr. and
5
gr (Dvorak
1931).
In the Early Bronze Age, amber may have been
imported in the form of finished products- pearls only
(Stahl 2011,17;
Coblenz
1986).
Besides the burial equipment, amber objects of the Late Bronze Age were also a part of hoards.
From this period,
5
hoards with amber artefacts are known in Bohemia
(Moucha
2005, 46).
These
are:
Hrdlořezy-
location
Předliška (Moucha
2005, 112,
Taf.
112);
Kosmonosy
with a necklace with
bronze pearls, shells and six amber pearls
(Moucha
2005,119,
Taf.
177);
Kosovo
(Moucha
2005,120);
and
Mříč-Dívčí Kámen,
where
ca. 250
amber pearls were discovered having been preserved in a con¬
tainer
(Moucha
2005, 131,
Taf.
216;
Poláček
1966,
Michálek
1976).
Necklaces assembled from amber
pearls combined with pendants made of different materials were found in hoards from Halle-Quies,
Dieskau
2, Kiebitz, Molkenberg,
Tilleda in Germany and from
Radzików, Siedlce, Wąsosz, Wojcieszyn
and Wrocław
in Poland
{Stahl 2011, 16;
Bath-Bílková
1973, 36).
A fragment
of an
amber
pearl was
identified in a hoard of finished products from
Stará Boleslav
dating back to period
В А1
(Moucha
2005, 156,
taf.
181-183).
An outstanding find in the category of hoards consists in the discovery of
a collection of bronze daggers from Praha-Suchdol
(Kozí hřbety),
where an opulent dagger was fou¬
nd decorated with amber and gold. An amber specimen was collected from this dagger and results
of an analysis carried out by M.
Ohlídalová
suggest that it is unlikely that this amber is of a Baltic type
(see fig.
12).
In most cases, the amber artefacts were a part of hoards with finished products and they origina¬
te from the period
BAI
and
В А2.
MIDDLE BRONZE AGE
BOHEMIA
In Bohemia the amber finds from the Middle Bronze Age are relatively frequent. So far, we have
documented hundreds of specimens
(Jiráň
et al.
2008, 98).
However, when compared to the prece¬
ding period of the Early Bronze Age) the frequency of occurrence is considerably lower. Most of the
finds come from burial grounds. Finds of amber from places other than burial grounds are scarce.
In bronze hoards it is rare to find objects made of amber, bone or glass
(Kytlicová
2007, 168-169).
However, for instance,
a Křenovice
hoard, which was dated to stage
В
C2/D, contained not only bron¬
ze bracelets and golden film bands but also an amber disc and ca.
618
amber pearls of different
sizes and shapes
(Kytlicová
2007, 168-169).
Four amber beads originate from
Skalka
u
Velimi
and
are likely to be related to the earliest stage of Tumulus/Knoviz culture
horizont (Jiráň
et al.
2008,
98).
This finding corresponds with lower occurrence of amber finds in Bohemia and Moravia du¬
ring the period of Tumulus cultures and Urnfield cultures
(Hrala
-
Šumberová -Vávra
2000, 237,
355).
Relatively high occurrence of amber in the west-barrow cultural area was already noted by
R. Hachmann(1957).
JEWELLERY WITH AMBER
Justas
in the Early Bronze Age, jewellery of the Middle Bronze Age reveals two main applications of
amber in jewellery
-
pearls with simple drilling and spacer plates that were assembled to necklaces.
In this period, amber discs started to be used more often.
Amber pearls
Amber pearls are dominated by smaller or bigger pearls of spherical, ring, cylindrical and triangular
shapes. Most of the finds come from burial grounds but,
toa
smaller extent, they are also documen¬
ted in settlements.
4
amber beads are from a settlement in
Skalka
u
Velimi
and are most likely related
to the earliest stage of barrow finds
(Jiráň
et al.
2008, 98).
Amber pearls of spherical or cylindrical
shapes were found in the grave assemblage of barrows in western Bohemia as well in southern
125
Bohemia. Pearls from necklaces were a common part of the burial equipment of the deceased. For
instance, in an
H
barrow in
Dýšina
-
Kokotsko there were found
10
amber beads with circular and
cylindrical shapes
(Čujanová-Jílková
1970, 26). 12
amber pearls were also discovered in another
H
barrow in Kokotsko
u
Ejpovic (Rybová
-
Šaldová
1958, 364, Fig. 16).
Greater amounts of amber pe¬
arls come from barrow
1
in Meclov with
19
complete and
23
fragmented amber pearls
(Čujano¬
vá-Jílková
1970, 50,
Abb.
14:14;
Čujanová-Jílková
1969)
and barrow
2
in
Všekary - Hustá leč
with
27
amber pearls found in the location
(Čujanová-Jílková
1970,115,
Abb.
45:8).
In barrow
19
in
Žáka-
va
-
Svářeč
there were uncovered
20
amber pearls in cylindrical, disc-like and triangular shapes
(Jíl¬
ková
1970,127,
Abb.
64:6,7).
In Southern Bohemia, amber pearls were found e.g. in barrows in
Hosty,
Rataje
or
Újezd (Strakonice
region)
(Michálek
1976,321).
A spherical pearl (tab.
4:57561)
comes from
barrow
21
in
Hvožďany.
Thin and flat amber beads are scarce in this region. They were found e.g.
in barrow
1
in the burial ground in
Meclov-Březí (Čujanová-Jílková
1969, 155-156).
In this barrow
lied on a big flat stone a bronze needle, a ring with two opposite spirals, a simple rod bracelet and
19
complete and
13
fragmented small amber beads. Nearby, there were also uncovered another bra¬
celet composed of rods, a spiral earring, a ring with spirals and
4
ceramic vessels. It was dated back to
the developed stage of
ВСІ
-C2 of the Tumulus culture
(Čujanová-Jílková
1969,164)
It is very rare for amber pearls to be a part of hoards. A hoard from
Křenovice (Písek
region) unco¬
vered by the end of the
1
9th century contained two bronze angular bracelets rich in decorations, two
rod bracelets, two fragments of a copper ingot, needle heads,
30
thin band made of golden foil, an
amber disc and
618
amber pearls (Eisner
1922-23,215,223;
Kytlicová
1964, 553-554; 2007;
Beneš -
Kytlicová
1991, 73, 87;
Lehrberger
et al. eds.
1997, 266;
Jiráň
et al.
2008,138). 2
of the amber beads
have unusual hexagonal and
trapezoid
shapes in the cross section (tab.
7:13395-13397).
The hoard
was dated back to the transient period of Tumulus culture and Knoviz culture period
B C2/D
(Kytlico¬
vá
1964, 553-554; 2007;
Beneš
-
Kytlicová
1991, 73,87;
Kytlicová
2007,270).
Amber
spacer plates
Amber
spacer plates are found quite frequently in burial grounds in the regions where central Eu¬
ropean barrow cultures were located. Here, there are found amber spacer plates of necklaces with
either complicated holes drilled for threading or with simple holes drilled in parrallel. As in their
earlier forms their function was to stabilise and separate individual threads of a necklace.
Amber spacer plates were of a late eneolithic characteristic until the beginning of the Bronze
Age. Then, in the course of time, their characteristics gradually changed and spacer plates with de¬
corative drilling came to be the most outstanding innovation in amber processing. They were found
exclusively in skeletal and cremation burial grounds, the highest occurrence having been uncovered
in Wiltshire in female graves
(Stahl 2011,
20;Gerloff
1975,199).
Amber spacer plates from Kakovatos
and Mycens are considered to be imported from the Wessex culture (Hachmann
1957,20).
Greatest numbers of spacer plates come from Alba group and Alsace group, while they are scarce¬
ly found in Southern and Northern Bavaria, Hesenia and Bohemia
(Stahl 2011,20,
Hachmann
1957).
Amber spacer plates from the period of barrow cultures occur in the time period from the phase
В В
till the beginning of Urnfield period
B D
according to Reineck (Gerloff
1975,216).
Most frequent finds
are from
Würtenberg
and Bavaria, the later finds belonging to the stage
B D
come from Alsace and
Hesenia (Gerloff
1975, 216).
There is an ongoing argument whether spacer plates with decorative
drilling, dated back to
В В
and
В С
according to Reineck, were imported from the South England or
whether they were developed under the conditions of barrow cultures. Anyway, spacer plates with
complicated drilling dating to
B D
are considered genuine central European products (Hachmann
1957;
Gerloff
1975,219, Krause 1988,162; Stahl 2011,20).
Besides spacer plates with parallel drilling there were also found spacer plates drilled on opposi¬
te sides from where main ducts were led to form a decorative pattern, a greater fragment of an am¬
ber necklace with three spacer plates (tab.
32:48276)
was uncovered in barrow no.
4
in
Velká Dobrá
(Píč
1891-1892, 495, Tab. 23).
An accurately worked spacer plate with four holes drilled in parallel is
comparable in its shape with the finds of the Wessex culture and is dated back to
В С
according to
Reineck (Gerloff
1975,222).
There is no unambiguous view on the likely manner of carrying the necklaces with amber spa¬
cer plates. Positioning of a spacer plate on chest or necklace area does not reveal if it was placed
there during the funeral or not (Hachmann
1957, Stahl 2011, 21).
R.
Hachmann designates finds
from Asenkofen, Darmstadt-Wixhausen,
Münsingen-Böttingen
and Weissensee-Oberfeld as pecto¬
rals. For wearing them it was necessary to fix them with hooks or long needles, which occassionally
may have caused minor damage, a spacer plate from grave
3
in
Mutterstadt,
found on a child s ske-
126
leton ¡n
the neck region, proves it was carried as a collar just as in Frickenhusen finds
(Stahl 2011, 21 ;
Kimmig 1979,70-72).
Necklaces composed of amber pearls, bronze pendants and glass pearls
In addition to necklaces solely made of amber pearls the Middle Bronze Age saw increasing occu¬
rrence of necklace jewellery composed of amber pearls and bronze pendants, occasionally com¬
plemented by glass pearls. In a barrow in
Vrhaveč
there was found a necklace placed on the chest
of a buried man. The necklace was composed of bronze spirals, wire pendants, amber beads on
a string with one greater amber pendant
-
all threaded on an apron
(Čujanová-Jílková
1970,110,
Abb.
103:16,19-21).
In barrow
30
in
Šťáhlavy- Hájek,
9
tubular and disc-shaped amber beads were
found together with bronze spiral tubes under a skull of skeleton
(Čujanová-Jílková
1970, 95,
Abb.
114:9-10,13-15).
Here, various types of bronze discs, circular, heart-like or ring pendants were used
as bronze components of the necklace. In barrow
б
in
Hořovice,
west of Bohemia, aflat amber bead
was found among heart-like pendants
(Čujanová-Jílková
1970, 31,
Abb.
105:9).
Similar jewellery
made of amber beads, tubes of a spirally wound wire, heart-shaped pendants and two crescent
bronze plates were uncovered in sites in Slovakia, Hungary and Germany
(Schumacher-Matthäus
1985).
Although occurrence of glass beads was noted in barrows of western and southern Bohemia,
no such necklace consisting of amber pearls combined with glass pearls has been documented so
far
(Vendova
1998).
Glass pearls were discovered in barrow
30
in
Zelená,
where more graves with
amber discs were also found but the glass pearls were never found together with the amber discs in
any of the graves
(Čujanová-Jílková
1970, 123-124,
Abb.
99:2, 17).
Glass beads were also recorded
in sites in Germany e.g. in barrow
2
in Herbbertingen-Hundersingen researchers found a necklace
made of
10
amber pearls, a spiral tube, a glass pearl and disc-shaped pendants
(Stahl 2011,21).
Amber discs
Amber discs have a distinctively large diameter than pearls but a very small central opening with
respect to their total dimensions, a disc cross section grows thinner towards the edge. As an
illustration, an amber disc from
Hladoměř
u
Blovic (Inv. No.
13650)
may be mentioned, a disc with
aV drilling pattern was uncovered in a barrow in
Řepči (Inv.
No.
48292).
In comparison to amber
pearls only one disc is usually a part of burial accessory as can be shown on examples of barrows
23
and
32
in
Milínov (Čujanová-Jílková
1970,55,
Abb.
50:11; 57,
Abb.
9)
or barrow
26
in
Sedlec,
near
Starý Plzenec (Čujanová-Jílková
1970,84,
Abb.
58:7).
Other amber discs come from investigations of
barrows in
Plzeň-Černice (Čujanová-Jílková
1970, 71, Abb. 21:4),
barrow
30 in
Zelená (Čujanová-Jíl¬
ková
1970,123-124, Abb. 99:2,17)
or from Krchleby
(Čujanová-Jílková
1970,43, Abb. 77:6, 7).
Besides
the occurrence in the funeral accessory, an amber disc was also a part of a hoard in
Křenovice
(tab.
7:13394).
The manner amber discs were carried is partly revealed in a find from barrow
46
in
Plzeñ-
Nová Hospoda,
where a skeletal grave was uncovered with jewellery consisting of a tubular necklace
made of a wound spiral bronze wire connected with an apron and an amber disc placed on the chest
of the corpse
(Čujanová-Jílková
1970, 74-75,
Abb.
87:7).
THE LATE BRONZE AGE
BOHEMIA
In contrast to the frequent occurrence of amber objects during the Middle Bronze Age, similar finds
are missing as far as Urnfield cultures in Bohemia is concerned, which may be related to the practi¬
ces of cremation. There are notes of some finds but these cannot be verified in present
(Hrala
-
Plesl
1990,216).
The only confirmed find from the Knoviz culture between periods Ha A2 and
Ha B1
consi¬
sts of an amber bead found in a hoard from
Jenišovice,
where amber pearls and a spacer plate were
uncovered forming a part of a necklace.
Amber pearls
Pearls have spherical or olive-like shapes. As far as their shape is concerned the beads are usua¬
lly flat,or disc-shaped. Biconic, oval shapes and prism-like shapes drilled lengthwise are rare
(Salaš
2005,293,Tab.67A:16).
Two amber pearls of an olive-like shape come from a hoard from
Jenišovice
where they were
deposited together with one olive-like spacer plate with multiple drilling
(Schránil
1928).
This spacer
127
plate
has a right-angled
vertical
drillings being opposite to each other (tab.
4:16150).
It is assumed
that these three specimens originally formed one necklace.
A necklace made of massive spherical amber pearls come from
Přeštice
(tab.
17:13330)
with the
pearls organized according to their size. A necklace consisting of massive amber beads was also
uncovered in
Bludna
4
(Salaš
2005, 132).
However,
dueto
the missing detailed data concerning the
discovery of the find it is not considered to
bea
part of this hoard
(Salaš
2005, 132).
a necklace with
a combination of glass and amber beads with bronze spirals was documented in Cezava
-
Bludna
(Salaš
2005, 131,293;
Tihelka
1969,7-8,22).
DAMAGE AND CONSERVATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL AMBERS
Despite its tremendous age, amber is not chemically stable, not even today. The most extensive
damage observed is attributed to atmospheric oxidation. The amber structure is subjected to oxi¬
dation of C=C bonds and acidic and ester groups occur there which results in the material turning
darker. The amber surface may also be oxidized so that a hard crust might occur with the hardness
being
15-40%
higher than before the damage (Savkevich
1967).
The surface of amber stones might
also crackle, exfoliate or powderize. According to A. Palavestra and V.
Krstić
(2006)
and S. R. Williams
(1990)
it was found that relative humidity values also play a significant role in amber degradation.
High relative humidity (above
55 %)
has lower impact on amber damage than low humidity (below
35 %),
when C=C double bonds crack. Other causes of amber damage might originate from expo¬
sition to light and heat, which accelerates oxidation. Amber also suffers from changes in volume
causing the loss of brightness, transparency, changes of colours and surface brittleness. These are
the results of gradual internal changes effected by evaporation of volatile compounds contained in
the structure of amber
(Kouřimský
1977;
Shashouna
2002).
Because the physical state of archaeological amber is usually very poor it was necessary to con¬
serve it in the past. Conservation procedures usually consisted of the surface cleaning, coapting
broken fragments and consolidating the amber structure. Y. Shashouna
(2002),
A. Palavestra and
V.
Krstić
(2006),
D.
Thickett at
al.
(1995)
describe a whole range of historical methods used to con¬
serve amber worldwide in the past. Initially, these were natural organic
consolidants
such as gels,
agar
or glue. They were applied in the form of aquaeous solution (usually warm), sometimes with
addition of glycerine and formalin. Also, natural resins were used for consolidation (such as dammar
or shellac) or certain waxes (such as paraffin or bee wax). Early preservation attempts utilized re¬
ady solubility of amber in acetone and potassium hydroxide. Broken fragments were wetted with
the solvent and then pressed together. There are also records of natural oils having been used as
consolidants
(e.g. warm flaxseed oil).
Consolidants
used to be applied by painting or immersing
treated objects in them. In the
60s
of the 20th century these natural
consolidants
were substituted
by synthetic resins (polyvinylacetal resin and acrylic resins) dissolved in organic solvents. Even today,
when conserving amber, a solution of acrylic resin of higher concentration is applied (mainly Para-
loid B71 in the form of its
20-25 %
solution) if adhesion effects are required (Palavestra
-
Krstić
2006).
However, today, conserved amber looks different
-
its colour is darker and it is abnormally bright.
Therefore, the main emphasis should be put on the rules of preventive conservation. Rare amber
finds should be stored in the controlled environment with stable climatic conditions (in dark and
clean places) or, ideally, with no oxygen access.
STATE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL AMBER FROM COLLECTIONS OF NATIONAL MUSEUM
Archaeological amber from collections of National Museum displays many signs of damage. Many
samples are very brittle and had to be preserved in the past already. Some amber artefacts degrade,
their surface powderizes or crackles. Some finds survived up to present day in the form of dust only.
Also, many finds were restored by using polymer materials for their impregnation and consolidation.
Unfortunately, most of these interventions are not documented properly.
The research finalised in August
2013
showed that
40%
of amber objects are highly degraded
30%
of them were conserved in the past and the remaining
30%
of the artefacts are in a relative¬
ly good condition. The bad condition of the amber artefacts limits the possibilities to study them.
In some cases even the manipulation with the objects is limited and it is not possible to exhibit or lend
such items.
128
CONCLUSION
All societies are subjected to mechanisms of production and goods exchange and so were the cul¬
tures of the Bronze Age. Various aspects of production, distribution and consumption and mainly di¬
ffering accessibility of trade networks and goods brought about differing roles of individuals, social
groups and of whole residential areas as well as the process of social differentiation.
Pre-historic amber represents a significant element in the process of mutual meeting and mixing
of various cultures as it reflects various aspects of life in the prehistoric Europe ranging from amber
utilization, employment of communication systems, crafts and artistic styles to distribution of luxury
goods. Research of this field in history also provides researchers with understanding of micro-regio¬
nal relations. Amber placed in graves may represent a spiritual value as well as a symbolic meaning.
Due to the fact it is primarily uncovered in graves of women and children, i.e. weaker members of the
society, we can assume that amber was considered to have an ability to protect against danger and
provide power. It is also obvious that amber symbolised a status of social prestige and was a part of
the system of gifts exchange preceding or marking the conclusion of alliances, military or friendly
contracts and cooperation (Palavestra
-
Krstić
2006, 66).
Amber analyses realized with
IR spectroscopy
have shown that Mycenaean, Minoan and Italian
amber artifacts are of the Baltic origin. However, that does not necessarily mean that this amber is
actually from the Baltic region only because this class is widespread in Northern Europe, namely by
the coast of the Northern Sea in England and Ukraine. Amber findings are a clear proof that the cul¬
tures of Bronze Age Greece, were in close contact in a sort of a trading exchange system supplying
them with exotic materials such as amber. As proved by characteristic shapes of amber pearls and
spacer plates there was a special relation among Southern
Anglia,
Southern Germany and Greece
[Harding
1999,40).
Studies of prehistoric amber and its distribution document the existence of live exchange of
goods based on variable contacts with distant regions of Northern Europe and the Mediterranean
as well as strong mutual cultural and economic relations. Research of prehistoric exchange is not
complete unless amber, the key element of the exchange, is considered thoroughly. The contexts
prove that such an exchange surely existed and it was rather complex. Provided we agree on the
concept of Amber road - being used as an archaeological metaphor-three main routes of amber
transportation already existed in the Middle Bronze Age and led from the south of Europe to the
south-east Balkan (see fig.
15).
In addition,
nava!
routes circulating amber across the Adriatic and the
eastern Mediterranean were of particular importance too.
The most significant characteristic of this unusual material, be it raw or processed, lies in its ca¬
pacity to document live social contacts of prehistoric cultures from Southern Europe across Central
Europe and the Balkan to the Mediterranean.
129
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Tisucká, Marika 1982- Ohlídalová, Martina 1981- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1052793827 (DE-588)1052794149 |
| author_facet | Tisucká, Marika 1982- Ohlídalová, Martina 1981- |
| author_role | aut aut |
| author_sort | Tisucká, Marika 1982- |
| author_variant | m t mt m o mo |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV041885054 |
| classification_rvk | NF 1050 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)882540832 (DE-599)BVBBV041885054 |
| discipline | Geschichte |
| edition | 1. vyd. |
| era | Geschichte 2200 v. Chr.-800 v. Chr. gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 2200 v. Chr.-800 v. Chr. |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV041885054 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T01:07:25Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788070364048 |
| language | Czech |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-027329090 |
| oclc_num | 882540832 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-M157 DE-188 DE-M515 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM DE-M157 DE-188 DE-M515 |
| physical | 172 Seiten zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| publishDate | 2013 |
| publishDateSearch | 2013 |
| publishDateSort | 2013 |
| publisher | Národní Muzeum [u.a.] |
| record_format | marc |
| series | Editio Monographica Musei Nationalis Pragae |
| series2 | Editio Monographica Musei Nationalis Pragae |
| spelling | Tisucká, Marika 1982- Verfasser (DE-588)1052793827 aut Luxus ze vzdálených zemí jantar doby bronzové ze sbírky Národního muzea = Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum Maria Tisucká ; Martina Ohlídalová Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum 1. vyd. Praha Národní Muzeum [u.a.] 2013 172 Seiten zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Editio Monographica Musei Nationalis Pragae 18 Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum Národní muzeum Prag (DE-588)1010865-8 gnd rswk-swf Geschichte 2200 v. Chr.-800 v. Chr. gnd rswk-swf Artefakt (DE-588)4143114-5 gnd rswk-swf Sammlung (DE-588)4128844-0 gnd rswk-swf Bronzezeit (DE-588)4008357-3 gnd rswk-swf Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd rswk-swf Bernstein (DE-588)4005818-9 gnd rswk-swf Národní muzeum Prag (DE-588)1010865-8 b Bernstein (DE-588)4005818-9 s Artefakt (DE-588)4143114-5 s Bronzezeit (DE-588)4008357-3 s Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 s Sammlung (DE-588)4128844-0 s Geschichte 2200 v. Chr.-800 v. Chr. z DE-604 Ohlídalová, Martina 1981- Verfasser (DE-588)1052794149 aut Editio Monographica Musei Nationalis Pragae 18 (DE-604)BV022452735 18 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027329090&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 19 - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027329090&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Tisucká, Marika 1982- Ohlídalová, Martina 1981- Luxus ze vzdálených zemí jantar doby bronzové ze sbírky Národního muzea = Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum Editio Monographica Musei Nationalis Pragae Národní muzeum Prag (DE-588)1010865-8 gnd Artefakt (DE-588)4143114-5 gnd Sammlung (DE-588)4128844-0 gnd Bronzezeit (DE-588)4008357-3 gnd Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd Bernstein (DE-588)4005818-9 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)1010865-8 (DE-588)4143114-5 (DE-588)4128844-0 (DE-588)4008357-3 (DE-588)4071507-3 (DE-588)4005818-9 |
| title | Luxus ze vzdálených zemí jantar doby bronzové ze sbírky Národního muzea = Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum |
| title_alt | Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum |
| title_auth | Luxus ze vzdálených zemí jantar doby bronzové ze sbírky Národního muzea = Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum |
| title_exact_search | Luxus ze vzdálených zemí jantar doby bronzové ze sbírky Národního muzea = Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum |
| title_full | Luxus ze vzdálených zemí jantar doby bronzové ze sbírky Národního muzea = Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum Maria Tisucká ; Martina Ohlídalová |
| title_fullStr | Luxus ze vzdálených zemí jantar doby bronzové ze sbírky Národního muzea = Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum Maria Tisucká ; Martina Ohlídalová |
| title_full_unstemmed | Luxus ze vzdálených zemí jantar doby bronzové ze sbírky Národního muzea = Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum Maria Tisucká ; Martina Ohlídalová |
| title_short | Luxus ze vzdálených zemí |
| title_sort | luxus ze vzdalenych zemi jantar doby bronzove ze sbirky narodniho muzea luxury from distant countries amber artifacts from the bronze age in the collection of the national museum |
| title_sub | jantar doby bronzové ze sbírky Národního muzea = Luxury from distant countries: amber artifacts from the Bronze Age in the collection of the National Museum |
| topic | Národní muzeum Prag (DE-588)1010865-8 gnd Artefakt (DE-588)4143114-5 gnd Sammlung (DE-588)4128844-0 gnd Bronzezeit (DE-588)4008357-3 gnd Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd Bernstein (DE-588)4005818-9 gnd |
| topic_facet | Národní muzeum Prag Artefakt Sammlung Bronzezeit Funde Bernstein |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027329090&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027329090&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV022452735 |
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