Holdings: The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary

The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary:

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Bibliographic Details
Main Author:	Bell, Martin (Author)
Format:	Book
Language:	English
Published:	York Council for British Archeology 2013
Series:	CBA research report 172
Subjects:	Geschichte 1600 v. Chr.-940 v. Chr. Ausgrabung Funde Bronzezeit Severn-Gebiet
Online Access:	Inhaltsverzeichnis
Physical Description:	XXXI, 368 S. zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. cm

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Record in the Search Index

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adam_text	Contents List of figures ..................................................xvii List of plates ...................................................xx List of tables ...................................................xxi List of contributors ...............................................xxiii Acknowledgements ...............................................xxiv Summaries (English, French, German, and Welsh) ..............................xxvi 1 Introduction: The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary by Martin Bell ..........1 1.1 Introduction ...........................................1 1.2 The study area ..........................................1 1.3 Bronze Age archaeology in the region .............................2 1.4 The history of wetland research ................................4 1.5 The geological framework ....................................7 1.6 The Pleistocene and Holocene sediment sequence .......................8 Section I: Investigations at Redwick and Cold Harbour Pill ......................11 2 Excavation of a seasonal Bronze Age settlement at Redwick by Martin Bell ......13 2.1 Introduction and history of investigation ..........................13 2.2 Redwick and Cold Harbour geoarchaeological context ...................15 2.3 Surface hummock topography and erosion ..........................21 2.4 Excavation methodology ...................................22 2.5 Building 1...........................................24 2.6 Building 2...........................................28 2.7 Building 3...........................................37 2.8 Building 4...........................................37 2.9 Building 5...........................................46 2.10 Area 5.............................................47 2.11 Area 9.............................................50 2.12 Later palaeochannel .....................................51 3 Bronze Age activity at Redwick 2 and Cold Harbour Pill by Martin Bell ........53 3.1 Introduction ..........................................53 3.2 Redwick 2...........................................53 3.3 Redwick 2 Pit .........................................55 3.4 Redwick 2 trackway ......................................56 3.5 Redwick Site 15........................................57 3.6 Cold Harbour Pill .......................................57 3.7 Cold Harbour Pill lb .....................................58 3.8 Cold Harbour Pill Site 11...................................58 3.9 Cold Harbour Pill Site 9...................................58 vii viii The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary 3.10 Cold Harbour Pill Site 16..................................60 3.11 Cold Harbour Pill 2 palaeochannel .............................60 3.12 Cold Harbour Pill Site 12..................................63 3.13 Cold Harbour Pill Site 14..................................63 3.14 Cold Harbour Pill Site 3...................................63 4 The wood and other artefacts from the Redwick and Cold Harbour sites by Richard Brunning, Nigel Nayling, Charlotte Pearson, Ann Woodward, Jennifer Foster, and John Allen ..........................................64 4.1 Woodworking evidence by Richard Brunning ........................64 Introduction .........................................64 Methodology .........................................64 Building 1..........................................64 Introduction .....................................64 The size and shape of the building .........................64 The character of the building components .....................64 Building 2..........................................66 Introduction .....................................66 The size and shape of the building .........................66 The character of the building components .....................69 Building 4..........................................70 Introduction .....................................70 The size and shape of the building .........................70 The character of the building components .....................70 Wood selection and woodworking ..........................73 Contexts associated with Building 4........................74 Building 5..........................................75 Introduction and the size and shape of the building ................75 The non-oak roundwood ...............................75 The split oak posts .................................75 The character of the construction ..........................75 Other contexts at Redwick .................................75 Area 5 .......................................75 Trench 6.......................................77 Area 9 .......................................77 Redwick 2......................................77 Redwick 2 Trackway .................................77 Wood from Cold Harbour Pill and Collister Pill ......................77 Cold Harbour Pill Site 11..............................77 Cold Harbour Pill 2 palaeochannel .........................77 Collister Pill .....................................79 Woodworking evidence: conclusions ............................79 Species selection and building design .......................79 Toolmark evidence ..................................79 4.2 Dendrochronology report by Nigel Nayling .........................80 Methodology .........................................80 Results ............................................80 Building 4......................................80 Building 5......................................81 The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary ix Discussion ......................................82 4.3 Tree-ring studies from Redwick buildings and associated sites by Charlotte Pearson ... 82 Introduction and method ..................................82 Building 1..........................................85 Building 2..........................................85 Building 4..........................................85 Building 5..........................................86 Area 9 group of three posts .................................86 Redwick 2..........................................86 Discussion ..........................................87 Conclusions .........................................87 4.4 The middle Bronze Age pottery by Ann Woodward .....................89 Redwick ...........................................89 Cold Harbour Pill 2 palaeochannel .............................91 4.5 Stone artefacts by Jennifer Foster ..............................91 Flint ............................................91 Other stone .........................................91 4.6 The geology of utilised and heat-fractured stones from Redwick by J R L Allen ......93 Use at Redwick .......................................93 Provenance of the main lithologies .............................93 Comparison with other prehistoric sites ..........................93 4.7 Bone artefact by Jennifer Foster ...............................94 5 The botanical evidence from Redwick by Astrid Caseldine, Catherine Griffiths, and Denise Drúce, with contributions by Scott Ћтрапу ....................95 5.1 Introduction and sampling ..................................95 Methods ...........................................95 Pollen analysis ....................................95 Radiocarbon samples ................................95 Plant macrofossil analysis .............................95 Wood and charcoal identification ..........................99 Pollen zonation ...................................99 Site discussion .......................................99 5.2 Building 4 pollen .......................................99 Redwick 109.........................................99 The reed swamp and tall-herb fen phase ......................99 Birch fen woodland ................................100 The establishment of raised bog .........................101 Redwick 113........................................102 Raised bog .....................................102 The transition to saltmarsh ............................102 Occupation activity ................................103 5.3 Building 4 plant macrofossils ................................104 Redwick 114........................................105 Redwick 84........................................108 Spot samples from Building 4..............................109 Comparison with the insect record from Building 4................... Ill 5.4 Area 5............................................ Ill Pollen ........................................... Ill χ The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary Redwick Area 5 Column 14............................ Ш Plant macrofossils ..................................... H4 5.5 Building 2.......................................... 115 Plant macrofossils ..................................... H5 Channel deposit samples ............................. Footprint samples ................................. 5.6 Dung samples ........................................ 119 Building 1......................................... 119 Building 2......................................... 121 Building 2 area ...................................... 122 Building 4......................................... 123 Area ö/Trench 8, Building 5 and Redwick 2 Trackway ................. 123 Dung samples: conclusions ................................ 123 5.7 Wood and charcoal ...................................... 124 5.8 Redwick botanical overview ................................ 124 Coastal change ...................................... 124 Vegetation change and setting of the buildings ..................... 125 Human activity and the effect on plant communities .................. 126 Cereal cultivation and the use of wild plants ...................... 128 Conclusions ........................................ 129 6 Insects and animal bones as evidence of the environment and economy at Redwick and Cold Harbour by Emma Tetlow, David Smith, Kalla Nayyar, Simon Haslett, Jennifer Foster, Claire Ingrem, and Brian Connell .................. 130 6.1 Insect analysis ........................................ 130 6.2 Insect faunas from the Fourth Peat by Emma Tetlow ................... 130 6.3 Insect faunas associated with Building 4 by David Smith ................ 130 6.4 Insect faunas from Redwick Building 2 and Redwick Site 2 Pit by Emma Tetlow .... 138 6.5 Insect faunas from Cold Harbour Pill Site 9 by Kalla Nayyar and David Smith .... 138 6.6 Foraminifera analysis by Simon К Haslett ......................... 139 6.7 Animal bones from the Redwick and Cold Harbour Pill sites by Claire Ingrem ..... 139 Data ........................................... 140 Building 1..................................... 141 Building 2..................................... 141 Building 4..................................... 141 Building 5..................................... 141 Area 5 ...................................... 141 Trench 4...................................... 141 Redwick discussion and interpretation ......................... 141 Redwick 2..................................... 142 Cold Harbour Pill sites .............................. 142 6.8 Cut marks and gnawed bones by Jennifer Foster and Claire Ingrem ........... 143 6.9 Human tooth from Redwick Building 4 by Brian Connell ................. 143 7 Footprint-tracks of people and animals at Redwick by Martin Bell, with Rachel Scales and Kirsten Barr............................. 144 7.1 Introduction ......................................... 144 7.2 Contexts and methodology ................................. 144 Methodology ............................... 145 The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary xi 7.3 Human footprint-tracks ...................................149 Footprint A7 ........................................149 Footprint 341.......................................149 Footprint 347.......................................149 Footprint 362.......................................150 Footprint 194.......................................150 Footprint 19........................................150 Footprints 27 and 21...................................150 Footprint 25........................................150 Footprint 20........................................150 Conclusions ........................................150 7.4 Animal footprint-tracks ...................................151 Cattle ...........................................151 Ovicaprids .........................................152 Pig ...........................................152 Horse ...........................................152 Deer ...........................................152 Possible dung traces ...................................152 Patterns of animal movement ..............................152 Conclusions ........................................152 Footprint study acknowledgements ...........................153 8 Review of Redwick and Cold Harbour Pill area and conclusions concerning rectangular buildings by Martin Bell ....................154 8.1 Introduction and stratigraphie context ........................... 154 8.2 Dating ............................................ 155 8.3 Rectangular building reconstruction ............................ 156 8.4 Rectangular buildings: wider comparisons ......................... 157 8.5 Activities ........................................... 159 8.6 Community composition .................................. 160 8.7 Seasonality ......................................... 160 8.8 Commentary on the reconstruction drawing of environment, landscape, and activities. 161 Section II: The Peterstone palaeochannels ...............................163 9 Peterstone palaeochannels with wood structures: field evidence by Martin Bell and Alex Brown .................................165 9.1 Introduction to the site ................................... 165 9.2 Sedimentary context of the palaeochannels ........................ 168 9.3 Geoarchaeological context in the Wentlooge Levels .................... 169 9.4 Survey results ........................................ 172 9.5 Early Bronze Age palaeochannels: Palaeochannel 2.................... 175 Context 6/10........................................ 176 Context 4......................................... 177 Contexte ......................................... 177 Artefact distribution in Palaeochannel 2........................ 177 9.6 Early Bronze Age palaeochannels: Palaeochannel 3.................... 180 Artefact distributions in Palaeochannel 3........................181 Artefact distributions where Palaeochannels 2 and 3 converge ............181 xii The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary 9.7 Early Bronze Age palaeochannels: Palaeochannel 4....................183 9.8 Early Bronze Age palaeochannels: Palaeochannel 5....................183 9.9 Early Bronze Age palaeochannels: Palaeochannel 6....................183 9.10 Middle Bronze Age palaeochannels: Palaeochannel 7..................184 Context 2......................................... 184 Context 3......................................... 184 Artefact distribution in Palaeochannel 7........................ 185 9.11 Middle Bronze Age palaeochannels: Palaeochannel 8.................. 185 Context 22.........................................187 Artefact distribution in Palaeochannel 8........................187 9.12 Middle Bronze Age palaeochannels: Palaeochannel 1..................187 Feature 1.........................................188 Feature 2.........................................188 Object 499.........................................188 Context 7.........................................188 Context 25.........................................189 Context 9.........................................189 Posts 1652 and 1653...................................189 Artefact distribution in Palaeochannel 1........................189 9.13 Palaeochannels 10 and 11.................................189 9.14 Undated parallel ditch systems ..............................189 10 Wood and other artefacts from Peterstone by Martin Bell, Steven Allen, Jennifer Foster, Richard Brunning, Nigel Nayling, Toby Jones, Astrid Caseldine, Catherine Griffiths, Ann Woodward, and John Allen ..................................191 10.1 Wood tools by Martin Bell, Steven Allen and Jennifer Foster ..............191 Paddle or digging stick-shaped object, 498/499 by Martin Bell and Steven Allen . . . 191 Wood axe-head handle, 630 by Martin Bell ....................... 191 Decorated wooden shaft inside a hollowed-out bone, 706 by Jennifer Foster ...... 192 10.2 Worked wood by Richard Brunning ............................ 193 Methodology ........................................193 Wood from late Neolithic/early Bronze Age Palaeochannel 2..............194 Context 4......................................194 Context 6......................................194 Context 10.....................................194 Context 5 (Group 428)...............................196 Contexte ......................................196 Palaeochannel 2 other wood ...........................198 Palaeochannel 2/3.................................200 Wood from late Neolithic/early Bronze Age Palaeochannel 3..............200 Context 17.....................................200 Palaeochannel 3 other wood ...........................202 Wood from late Neolithic/early Bronze Age Palaeochannel 5..............202 Wood from middle Bronze Age Palaeochannel 1.....................202 Context 7......................................202 Context 9......................... 202 Post 1652......................................202 Other Palaeochannel 1 wood ...........................204 Wood from middle Bronze Age Palaeochannel 7.....................204 Context 2................................. 204 The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary xiii Context 3 hurdle ..................................207 Other Palaeochannel 7 wood ...........................207 Wood from middle Bronze Age Palaeochannel 8.....................207 Context 22 and nearby ..............................207 Other Palaeochannel 8 wood ...........................207 Wood from undated Palaeochannel 6...........................207 Context 1......................................207 Other Palaeochannel 6 wood ...........................208 Woodworking discussion .................................208 Post structures ..................................208 Hurdles ......................................208 Withy ties .....................................208 Woodworking waste ................................208 Tools used .....................................210 10.3 Tree-ring analysis by Nigel Nayling ............................210 10.4 Laser scanning of Peterstone wood by Toby Jones ....................210 10.5 Wood identification and stem age, size, and seasonality studies by Astrid Caseldìne and Catherine Griffiths ..................................212 Methods ..........................................212 Results ...........................................212 Early Bronze Age .................................212 Middle Bronze Age ................................213 Undated Palaeochannel 6.............................213 Discussion .........................................213 10.6 The Bronze Age pottery by Ann Woodward ........................215 Beaker ........................................... 215 Middle Bronze Age .................................... 217 10.7 Peterstone stone artefacts by Jennifer Foster ....................... 218 10.8 Geology of stones òy J Ä L Allen............................. 218 10.9 Bone artefacts by Jennifer Foster ............................. 220 11 Pollen and. plant macrofossils from Peterstone by Alex Brown, Astrid Caseldine, and Catherine Griffiths ....................................224 11.1 Pollen and microscopic charcoal analysis at Peterstone by Alex Brown .........224 Introduction ........................................ 224 Sampling strategy ................................. 224 Method ........................................... 224 Pollen and charcoal source area ............................. 224 Interpretation ....................................... 225 The late Neolithic environment .......................... 225 The early to middle Bronze Age environment .................. 230 Discussion ......................................... 231 11.2 Plant macrofossil analysis by Astrid Caseldine and Catherine Griffiths ........ 232 Methods .......................................... 232 Taphonomy and source area ............................... 232 Palaeochannel 2...................................... 232 Monolith Series 11................................. 232 xiv The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary Bulk samples 24, 25, and 27........................... 235 Palaeochannel 3...................................... 238 Monolith Series 32................................ 238 Palaeochannel 5...................................... 239 Bulk sample 15.................................. 239 Monolith Series 13/14............................... 239 Palaeochannel 7...................................... 241 Discussion of plant macrofossils and comparison with pollen ............. 241 12 Animals at Peterstone by Claire Ingrem, with contributions by Jennifer Foster and Martin Bell .........................................243 12.1 Animal bones by Claire Ingrem ..............................243 Palaeochannel 1...................................... 243 Palaeochannel 1/2..................................... 243 Palaeochannel 2...................................... 245 Palaeochannel 2/3..................................... 245 Palaeochannel 3...................................... 245 Palaeochannel 4...................................... 246 Palaeochannel 5...................................... 246 Palaeochannel 6...................................... 246 Palaeochannel 7...................................... 246 Palaeochannel 8...................................... 246 12.2 Cut marks and gnawed bones by Jennifer Foster and Claire Ingrem .......... 246 Palaeochannel 2......................................246 Palaeochannel 3......................................247 Palaeochannel 5......................................248 Palaeochannel 7......................................248 Gnawing ..........................................248 12.3 Discussion and interpretation of animal bones by Claire Ingrem ............248 Cattle ........................................... 248 Sheep/goat ......................................... 249 Pigs ........................................... 249 Horses ........................................... 250 Dogs ........................................... 250 Wild animals ....................................... 250 Activities and disposal practices ............................. 250 Conclusion ......................................... 251 12.4 Earlier animal footprint-tracks by Martin Bell ...................... 251 13 Peterstone conclusions by Martin Bell and Alex Brown ..................253 13.1 Fieldwork, stratigraphy, and taphonomy .........................253 13.2 Dating ...........................................254 13.3 Wood structures ......................................256 13.4 Activities ..........................................257 Section III: Saltmarsh vegetation histories and exploitation ....................261 14 Stable isotope evidence of saltmarsh economies by Kate Britton and Gundula Müldner.......................................263 The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary xv 14.1. Introduction ........................................ 263 14.2. Archaeological evidence for saltmarsh grazing in the Severn Estuary ......... 263 14.3 Stable isotope analysis in archaeology .......................... 264 14.4. Materials and methods .................................. 264 Bone ........................................... 264 Carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis .......................... 265 Enamel .......................................... 265 Oxygen isotope analysis ................................. 265 14.5. Results and discussion .................................. 266 Carbon and nitrogen isotope evidence for saltmarsh grazing in the Severn Estuary . 266 The intensity and seasonality of saltmarsh grazing ................... 270 Birth seasonality of Bronze Age cattle in the Severn Estuary ............. 271 Implications for stable isotope archaeology and human palaeodietary analyses . . . 272 14.6. Conclusion ......................................... 273 15 Bronze Age vegetation history and human activity at Llandevenny and in the wider Severn Estuary region by Alex Brown ................... 274 15.1 Introduction ........................................ 274 15.2 Study site .......................................... 275 15.3 Materials and methods .................................. 275 15.4 Results ........................................... 276 Sediments ......................................... 276 Chronology ........................................ 276 Pollen, plant macrofossil, and charcoal analysis ..................... 276 15.5 Discussion ......................................... 280 Late Mesolithic and early Neolithic ........................... 280 Vegetation history and human impact in the late Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age .................................... 281 15.6 Llandevenny conclusions ................................. 282 15.7 Bronze Age vegetation environments of the Severn Estuary region ........... 283 Introduction ........................................ 283 Sources of variation in the pollen data .......................... 283 The environment of the Bronze Age ........................... 284 Severn Estuary Levels .................................. 284 Lowlands ......................................... 285 Uplands .......................................... 286 Summary ......................................... 286 Section IV: The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary and beyond ................... 289 16 Wetland and dry ground sites in the Bronze Age Severn Estuary by Martin Bell . . 291 16.1 Introduction ........................................ 291 16.2 Wentlooge Levels and hinterland ............................. 292 16.3 Caldicot Levels and hinterland .............................. 299 Goldcliff .......................................... 299 Redwick-Cold Harbour .................................. 300 Chapeltump ........................................ 301 Collister Pill ........................................ 301 xvi The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary Caldicot .......................................... 302 Caldicot Levels hinterland ................................ 302 16.4 The Inner Severn Estuary and hinterland ........................ 303 16.5 The Avonmouth Levels and hinterland .......................... 304 16.6 North Somerset Levels and hinterland .......................... 306 16.7 Somerset Levels and hinterland ............................. 306 Research history and sediments ............................. 306 Trackways across peatlands ............................... 307 Settlement location .................................... 307 Activity beyond the Brue Valley ............................. 308 Dry ground topography .................................. 308 Brean Down ........................................ 308 Mendip and dry ground east of the Somerset Levels .................. 310 Dry ground south of the Somerset Levels ........................ 311 16.8 The islands ......................................... 312 16.9 Conclusions ......................................... 312 17 The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary and beyond: conclusions by Martin Bell . . 314 17.1 Introduction ........................................ 314 17.2 Coastal site erosion .................................... 314 17.3 Formation processes of the archaeological record .................... 314 17.4 Environmental change ................................... 316 17.5 Seasonal grazing and lesser transhumance ....................... 319 17.6 Field systems, land allotment, and arable ........................ 322 17.7 Fishing ........................................... 323 17.8 Salt ............................................. 325 17.9 Integrating the Bronze Age economy: bones, footprints, lipids, and isotopes ...... 325 17.10 Models of landscape exploitation ............................ 326 17.11 The annual round ..................................... 329 17.12 Regional identity ..................................... 330 17.13 Coastal contacts ..................................... 332 17.14 Comparisons with other British coastal wetlands ................... 335 Early Bronze Age ..................................... 335 Middle Bronze Age .................................... 336 Late Bronze Age ...................................... 338 17.15 Changes in the late Bronze Age ............................. 339 17.16 In conclusion ....................................... 339 Bibliography ..................................................341 Index ......................................................362 The archive can be found on the Archaeology Data Service (ADS) website, reference DOI: 10.5284/1021480
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geographic	Severn-Gebiet (DE-588)4328061-4 gnd
geographic_facet	Severn-Gebiet
id	DE-604.BV041790785
illustrated	Illustrated
indexdate	2024-07-10T01:05:27Z
institution	BVB
language	English
oai_aleph_id	oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-027236414
oclc_num	880112157
open_access_boolean
owner	DE-12 DE-188 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM
owner_facet	DE-12 DE-188 DE-19 DE-BY-UBM
physical	XXXI, 368 S. zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. cm
publishDate	2013
publishDateSearch	2013
publishDateSort	2013
publisher	Council for British Archeology
record_format	marc
series	CBA research report
series2	CBA research report
spelling	Bell, Martin Verfasser (DE-588)129905194 aut The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary by Martin Bell York Council for British Archeology 2013 XXXI, 368 S. zahlr. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier CBA research report 172 Geschichte 1600 v. Chr.-940 v. Chr. gnd rswk-swf Ausgrabung (DE-588)4129464-6 gnd rswk-swf Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd rswk-swf Bronzezeit (DE-588)4008357-3 gnd rswk-swf Severn-Gebiet (DE-588)4328061-4 gnd rswk-swf Severn-Gebiet (DE-588)4328061-4 g Bronzezeit (DE-588)4008357-3 s Geschichte 1600 v. Chr.-940 v. Chr. z Ausgrabung (DE-588)4129464-6 s Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 s DE-604 CBA research report 172 (DE-604)BV026070974 172 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen - ADAM Catalogue Enrichment application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027236414&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis
spellingShingle	Bell, Martin The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary CBA research report Ausgrabung (DE-588)4129464-6 gnd Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd Bronzezeit (DE-588)4008357-3 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4129464-6 (DE-588)4071507-3 (DE-588)4008357-3 (DE-588)4328061-4
title	The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary
title_auth	The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary
title_exact_search	The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary
title_full	The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary by Martin Bell
title_fullStr	The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary by Martin Bell
title_full_unstemmed	The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary by Martin Bell
title_short	The Bronze Age in the Severn Estuary
title_sort	the bronze age in the severn estuary
topic	Ausgrabung (DE-588)4129464-6 gnd Funde (DE-588)4071507-3 gnd Bronzezeit (DE-588)4008357-3 gnd
topic_facet	Ausgrabung Funde Bronzezeit Severn-Gebiet
url	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=027236414&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
volume_link	(DE-604)BV026070974
work_keys_str_mv	AT bellmartin thebronzeageinthesevernestuary

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