Socialno-ikonomičeskata transformacija v Bălgarija: osobenosti i teritorialni različija
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Bulgarian |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Sofija
TerArt
2012
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| Ausgabe: | 1. izd. |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Beschreibung: | In kyrill. Schr., bulg. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Socio-economic transformation in Bulgaria Literaturverz. S. 292 - 322 |
| Beschreibung: | 343 S. graph. Darst., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 9789549531183 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION IN
BULGARIA
-
PECULIARITIES AND
TERRITORIAL
DIFFERENCES
Introduction
„Nothing is for ever except changes"
(Heraclitus,
500
ВС)
The investigation of the socio-economic transformation in countries which
pass from one to another economic system is a relatively new, multi-layered
research problem. It is of present interest because these are current, previously
unknown, complicated and deep political and socio-economic processes, which
started towards the end of the
1
980s not only in Bulgaria but in many other
Central and East European countries. The analysis, interpretation and evaluation
of the essence and peculiarities of transformations are an interesting issue both
for researchers from the aforesaid countries and for scientists from West Europe
and the USA. These highly varied processes turn out to be an extremely difficult
subject of study which results from the incomplete theoretical concepts about
their nature, and from the inadequate knowledge and experience the researchers
in Bulgaria and in the remaining countries with transforming economies have.
The geographic investigation of transformation processes can be defined as
one of the modern lines of geographic research, as a niche, which according to
Parysek
(2008)
allows geography to "re-orient itself to new problems, theories
and methodologies" in order to reflect better the changing reality.
The geographic approach to the research problem and the task,
connected with theoretical generalization of the scientific works, published up in
the period
1990-2010,
have determined the type and time-span of the publications
analyzed in this work. It analyses and summarizes the publications by Bulgarian
geographers and foreign authors, elucidating the socio-economic changes and
the processes of socio-economic transformation in Bulgaria. Depending on the
specificity of their object of investigation, these publications can be divided into
several groups: publications in the context of transformation; publications dealing
with changes in the national economy, in the territorial structures during the period
of transition, interrelated changes in the relationship between economy and
natural environment, specific economic changes in the context of delocalization,
Europeanization and globalization; development of agriculture during the period
of transition and transformation processes in this sector; demographic processes
and structures in the country, in individual territorial units, in the rural and border
areas; formation and functioning of the labour market in Bulgaria; transformation
of the urban settlements and agglomerations in Bulgaria; development trends
and transformation processes in the rural areas; socio-economic changes in the
border areas, opportunities for trans-border and regional cooperation and for
European integration.
In general, the analysis of these publications suggests that the socio-
economic changes in Bulgaria during the period of transition are an interesting
Problem in modem geographic research in the country. The above mentioned
323
publications
contribute a lot to the development of Bulgarian socio-economic
geography as well as to the characterization of the processes at a certain time.
A large number of them specify some characteristic features of the ongoing
changes. However, very few are the publications which provide generalized
concepts on transformation processes. So
farthere
is no generalizing geographic
investigation on this current and very important issue in Bulgaria. This was the
main reason which motivated the author to undertake research on the peculiarities
and territorial differences in the socio-economic transformation in Bulgaria from
the view point of socio-economic geography.
The main objective of this scientific work is to study the characteristic
features and peculiarities of the socio-economic transformation processes in
Bulgaria during the period
1990-2007
and their territorial differentiations on a
regional and local scale. This objective requires the implementation of several
derivative sub-goals, relevant to the individual aspect of research
-
theoretical,
empirical-diagnostic and applied.
In the course of research, several „layers" of complex and highly varied
processes of transformation have been selected
-
in the national economy, in
one of its branch sub-system (agriculture) and in one functional system (labour
market). An important focus of this geographic study is the presentation of the
territorial differences, which is done from two perspectives
-
tracing the way
the transformation processes are going on within an individual system (type of
market) in territorial units of different rank, and evaluating the achieved level of
transformation in the territorial systems of different rank throughout the country.
The comparisons of the transformation processes in Bulgaria with those in
some other countries in transition from Central and East Europe, using certain
indicators, reveal specific territorial characteristics.
The research covers the period
1990-2007.
Although it is not very long,
the processes, which take place, are essential and fundamentally different
from the processes in the previous decades. They are very dynamic, some are
short and if not promptly investigated, they can be missed
(Kołodko,
2008).
A
generalization of the current transformation processes in Bulgaria is needed
and it can be done in terms of socio-economic geography as well. The period
for studying the individual problems is even shorter than the above mentioned
one, which depends on the duration of the respective process (for example, the
restoration of ownership on agricultural land).
Theoretical and Methodological Principles
of Investigating the Transformation Processes
Sofarthereisnotagenerallyaccepteddefinitionofthetermjransformation"
and certain differences in the terminology are available. Some authors use the
term „transformation", others prefer „process/processes of transformation" or
„transformation process/transformation processes". To be more precise in the
characterization of the various and rather complicated processes, the experts
add different adjectives to the noun „transformation". Mollov, Bizov
(2006)
define
the word „transformation" as „one of the most popular, most frequently used and
324
most misunderstood words of the 21st century" (p.
63).
A lot of researchers use the term „transformation" but not all of them
define it. The short duration, still characteristic of the transformation processes,
and their regional nature make it difficult to draw general conclusions at this
stage. „There is not a consistent and unified theory of transformation
"(Kołodko,
2010,
p.
60).
This research work attempts to systematize roughly
25
definitions
of the term „transformation" in the Bulgarian and foreign literature and to show
that there are some similarities and differences between them. The common
elements in the definitions can be summarized in the following statement
-
the
socio-economic transformation is a long, complicated, tough and sometimes
dramatic process of changes towards market economy.
The author suggests her own definition, in which the term socio-economic
transformation means complex, dynamic, and diverse processes of systems
and structural changes in the countries in transition from Central and Eastern
Europe.
The great number of complex and difficult tasks, which the countries
in transition had to solve quickly, resulted in simultaneous occurrence of the
processes of systems transformation (transformation of the system) and
of structural transformation (restructuring). Actually, these are separate but
interrelated aspects, basic component parts of the processes of transformation.
The systems transformation is a process of changing the socialist
planned system into a capitalist, market one. The structural transformation is a
longer process of restructuring the economy in order to improve its performance.
The transformation of the system is proceeding faster than the structural
transformation. The systems transformation is common of countries which
pass from one economic formation to another. The structural transformation is
characteristic of all countries. In the countries with developed market economy
it has started much earlier, takes a longer period, goes on more smoothly and
painless and has better results. Besides the different duration, author thinks
that there should be taken into consideration the different depth and nature of
the discussed processes in the countries with predominant private sector and
market economy and in the countries in transition to market economy where for
a very short period fundamental changes have to be made.
The crucial aspects of the systems transformation are: transformation of
ownership, changes of the socio-economic relations and political power (Kornai,
2008).
Therefore, the change of the political power is followed by changes in
the ownership and by the establishment of markets, market institutions and of
specific framework conditions. According to this author the change of the planned
system is over when in the country under study "the three basic characteristics of
the capitalist system become prevalent" (p.
9).
A distinctive feature of the transition to market economy and of the
processes of transformation is „the lack of both theoretical models and practical
solutions about the ways of restructuring the command-directed economy
into market economy" (Jasiulewicz,
2000,
p.
26).
This in certain cases leads
to hardships, delays, unfavourable consequences and unexpected results. So,
the transformation processes can occur either in the expected directions with
325
predicted results or can have unexpected consequences.
The transformation processes in the countries from Central and East
Europe have common ideas and features as they coincide with the transition
from planned to market economy. That is why the experts expected that the
transition to market economy and the related transformation processes in the
investigated countries will be the same and will have similar duration. However,
against the background of the common characteristics of the transformation
process, significant differences can be observed in its occurrence.
The economic and political transformation in the countries from Central
and East Europe coincides with the processes of their political and economic
integration to the European Union.
Petrakos
(2002)
considers these processes
as two major events, which stand out in the last decade of the 20th century in
Europe.
It becomes clearfrom the analysis of the Bulgarian and foreign publications
on the territorial differences of transformation processes that the authors assess
and compare the results of the transformation processes on different planes.
A lot of them give priority to the international comparisons. Other researchers
illustrate the territorial differences in the individual countries by using different in
size and rank units, most often NUTS
2
or NUTS
3.
This work has made research on the territorial differences in the
transformation of Bulgaria at several territorial levels, which can generally come
under two groups
-
regional and intra-regional differences in the country and
Bulgaria as a part of the Central and East-European countries or of
EU.
From the analysis of publications, in which the processes of transformation
are a major subject of research, or of publications evaluating the differences in
the level of socio-economic development during the transformation, it becomes
obvious that the researchers have the used both single indicators and a
combination of different number of indicators. As to the nature of the indicators
that can measure the transformation, according to Conford, Richardson,
Sokol,
Marques, Gillespie
(2006)
there are well established and relatively non-
contentious measures of improvement of transformed units
-
Gross Domestic
/
Regional Product per capita, various measures of productivity (output per
worker or per working hour), levels of unemployment, levels of social exclusion,
life expectancy, etc. Apparently, most of these indicators can be measured
quantitatively. At first glance it seems that some of them imply expectations of
negative consequences of transformation process, as unfortunately was the
actual situation at the beginning of transition in Central and Eastern Europe. But
as these authors stress, the transformation is expected to lead to improvements
in transforming units, i.e. to have a positive contribution.
Gross domestic product (GDP) is one of the most commonly used
parameters in the presentation of regional differences in the conduct and
results of the transformation process both in individual countries and across
regions. Furthermore, a number of other indicators are applied that characterize
changes in the economy, the so-called development of business environment,
competition, foreign capital inflow, changes in social relations, etc. For a better
comparison some of the indicators are calculated on a per capita basis. The
326
study and characterization of the territorial differences by single indicators use,
for comparison's sake, the mean national values of the indicators. According to
Jasiulewicz
(2000)
these comparisons may show the „success" of changes in
the territorial units.
In recent decades alongside with the application of individual indicators
the integral indicators have also been used as they turned out to be suitable
for assessment and comparison of similarities and differences in the spatial
differentiation of socio-economic processes and phenomena. Several
researchers have examined regional transformation by integral indicators
-
Czyż
(1998),
Parysek (1998b), Ciok
(2001),
Nagy
(2005),
Tarkowski
(2008)
and
others. The analysis shows that regardless of the number and use of various
indicators, most research on territorial differences in the transformation changes
is comparative in nature. Similar approach to the study of regional differences
in socio-economic development of Bulgaria is applied by Yankova, Shopov,
Chkorev,
Ivanov, Kirilova
(2003),
Totev
(2003),
Rousev
(2005),
Yankova
(2008)
and others.
This scientific work applies different single indicators to measure the
territorial disparities in transformation. The achieved level of transformation
processes in the individual territorial units is determined by an integral indicator.
The value of the integral indicator for each district is obtained as a result
of summing up the standardized (normalized) values of the chosen indicators on
the basis of the formula below:
where:
Z¡
is the integral indicator for the i-s territorial unit;
уи,
.
yjn
-
the standardized (normalized) values of the chosen indicators
from
1
to
n
in the i-s territorial unit.
According to Conford, Richardson,
Sokol,
Marques, Gillespie
(2006)
the
business is sure that „the transformed organisation is in a „better" state after
being transformed.
[.]
Indeed most complex socio-economic change creates
at least some „losers" as well as „winners" (p.
11 ).
A lot of researchers divide the
regions into „winners" and „losers" but they rarely specify the criteria which allow
them to assign the regions to the one or to the other group.
This research has been conducted in terms of socio-economic geography.
The selection of the methods of research is in conformity with the geographic
aspect of investigation, with the specificity of the complex, dynamic, highly varied
transformation processes of different scale, nature and depth as well as with
the availability of necessary information, its comparability and access to it. The
methodology of this research is a combination of general scientific and specific
geographic methods.
The research procedure is based on the principles of inductive
explanations. Taking into account the research objectives, and the investigation
of the transformation processes in the national economy, in agriculture, in labour
market, in territorial units of different rank or case studies, the author tries to
327
characterize the way these processes occur in Bulgaria.
The research has relied on information, supplied by various institutions
in Bulgaria (National Statistical Institute, National Employment Agency, Ministry
of Labour and Social Policy, Ministry of Agriculture and Food, etc.) and other
countries in transition,
EUROSTAT,
publications of Bulgarian and foreign authors,
etc. Information is also gathered during field research in Bulgaria and other
countries in transition. It refers mainly to the period under investigation
1990-
2007.
The research has been hampered by insufficient and non-comparable
data especially for the smaller territorial units, by the lack of statistical rows for
longer periods, by changes in the regional schemes of the country
(1999, 2004,
2008),
by changes in definitions of some basic terms, used in different years,
etc.
Transformation Processes in the National Economy
of Bulgaria in the
1990s
and at the Beginning
of the 21st Century
In the early
1990s
Bulgaria experienced fundamental changes. In
compliance with the characteristics of the market economy as an economic
system, mainly privately owned, the transition started with changes in the
ownership. The latter are a crucial element in the systems transformation in
Bulgaria and are remarkable for their characteristic features, resulting from the
specific national conditions.
In Bulgaria the restoration of property rights on agricultural land is
considered to be a problem of paramount importance because of the adopted
model of development of farming and the unclear land ownership until the end of
the
1980s.
The high share of this sector in the national economy predetermined
the importance of the successful agrarian reform as a necessary condition and
factor for the development of agriculture.
The privatization process has been going on more slowly than the
expected rates and its delay has had a series of adverse effects. A characteristic
feature of the systems transformation in Bulgaria, having an extremely
unfavourable impact on the national economy, is the massive loss of economic
potential in all industries in the course of ownership restructuring. Privatization is
still continuing, and so are its significant regional differentiations. This is in close
relation with the attractiveness of the branches and territorial units for direct
foreign investments. A number of documents and publications emphasize that
generally the privatization in Bulgaria proceeds more slowly as compared with
the other countries in transition.
In a relatively short period, due to the completed reforms, Bulgaria has
turned from a country with predominantly state ownership into a country with
prevailing private ownership. So, it can be said that Bulgaria has fulfilled one of
the necessary and sufficient conditions for application of the capitalist system as
claimed by Kornai
(2008).
Alongside with the considerable changes in property,
its use and management and its new role in the present-day society seem to
328
be very important. The development of economy shows that mismanagement
and irrational use of a certain property do not contribute to good economic
results. This can be seen from some difficulties and failures in the development
of Bulgarian agriculture as well as from the performance of many privatized
industrial enterprises.
There are certain differences with regard to the growing importance of
private activities in the individual economic sectors of Bulgaria. The private farms
as early as the end of the
1990s
produced almost the whole gross value added.
In industry, where the privatization processes were retarded, the share of private
sector during this period was lower. The lowest was the share of private sector
in services.
The ongoing processes have different projections in different regions and
districts which depend on the specific combination of factors, on the characteristic
features of their development during the period of transition, on the results of
privatization, on the construction of new capacities, on their attractiveness for
foreign investments, etc. The regional differentiations, concerning the changes
in the ownership, are demonstrated by the changes in the share of the employed
persons in private sector, observed in individual districts during
1990-2007.
In
the initial stage of transition the share of the employed in private sector was very
low in all districts with insignificant differences between them. In
1999
even in
the districts with the lowest indicator this share was over
50%,
which proves that
the private ownership was predominant in all territorial units.
The changes in the share of the employed persons in private sector
during
1990-1999
were much more dynamic than the ones at the beginning of
the transformation processes. A comparison with the national average dynamics
allows to divide the districts into three groups, considering the rate of employment
growth in private sector
-
one group with lower and two groups with higher
dynamics than the average for the country. Because of data incomparability, it is
impossible to make comparisons of the change dynamics for the whole period
after
1990.
In
2007
in over half of the districts
(15
out of
28)
the share of the
employees in private sector exceeds
70%.
The process of systems transformation in economy in one particular
case
-
in the district of the capital city of Sofia, is notable for a number of
peculiarities. The analysis shows that the privatization in Sofia proceeds at slower
rates than the desired, especially in the first half of the
1990s.
Nevertheless,
at that time Sofia ranks first among the remaining districts with respect to the
number of transactions for sale of premises (Privatizationniyat process.,
1997).
A necessary requirement for the change of the system is the high expert
evaluation of the transition indicator, given by European Bank for Reconstruction
and Development. The third requirement about the change of the political regime
was met with the beginning of the transition. The implementation of the three
necessary and sufficient requirements, specified by Kornai
(2008),
proves
that the transformation of the economic system in Bulgaria has already been
completed.
The property changes in Bulgaria were accompanied by the processes
of demonopolization and
déconcentration,
restructuring of the production
329
organization forms, changes in the sectoral and territorial structure of economy,
technical, production and organizational up-dating, etc.
In the early
1990s
Bulgarian economy experienced the hardest ever
economic crisis in the national history and a significant output decline in all
branches
(Anatomia
na.,.,
1991).
Most serious is the economic situation at the
beginning of the
1990s
and in
1996-1997.
It can be seen from the analysis of
economic changes by districts during
1989-1991
that the territorial differentiation
in the decline is appreciable.
„The development of branch structure is characterized by lagging behind
of industry and agriculture
-
sectors, which are of special importance, as they
are a source of income and employment" (Stoikov,
2010,
p.
23).
The share of the
service sector increases. Now in Bulgaria, like in all other highly and moderately
developed countries, it produces most of the gross value added. The greatest
investments are oriented towards the branches of the service sector. If the
dynamics of change is traced by sectors, it is obvious that „services develop
faster while industry and agriculture are considerably falling behind
[.].
Service
sector is progressing faster while the growth rates of production are much lower"
(Minasyan,
2008,
p.
8).
Despite the dramatic decrease, industry remains the most important sector
in Bulgarian economy. A comparative research on the economic development in
Bulgaria and Poland and the effect of the ongoing transformation processes
indicates that the decline of gross domestic product and of the industrial output
in Bulgaria is more marked than the one in Poland
(Eberhard,
Ilieva,
2004).
To ensure the necessary investments is very important for restructuring
of the Bulgarian economy. Compared with other countries in transition, Bulgaria
turns out to be less attractive and receives reduced direct foreign investments
for the period
1989-1999.
In the next years of the investigation period the foreign
investors show a growing interest in Bulgaria as a future and current
EU
member.
The attractiveness of the individual planning regions is different. Throughout
the period of investigation the direct foreign investments tend to flow to the
Southwestern region which adds to the regional differences in the development
of national economy. The ratio between the regions in the best, intermediate and
worst position suggests that there is a steady tendency towards preservation
and even increase of the gap between regions. Still greater are the differences
from district to district. The largest investments are earmarked for the district of
the capital city of Sofia.
In the
1990s
significant changes took place in the organizational
structure of Bulgarian economy as well. The investigations reveal that at the end
of the
1990s 98.8%
of all firms in Bulgaria are small and mid-sized enterprises.
This fact implies a relatively high level of economic restructuring and a situation
which began to resemble the one in the
EU
member countries. More than half
of these enterprises are located in the biggest and the most advanced regions
-
Southwestern and South Central, while they are fewest in the Northwestern region.
At the same time a number of
intraregional
differences can be distinguished. The
greatest concentration of production and services is recorded in the district of the
capital city of Sofia.
330
In spite of the big changes in the ownership, „the organization and
structure of Bulgaria's economy at a national, regional and local level were slow
in setting up initiatives to encourage the corporative restructuring and economic
efficiency
[.].
The small share of processed goods in Bulgarian export is one of
the indicators for the slow rate of economic restructuring" (Monitoring.,
2000,
p.
100).
The National Development Plan of the Republic of Bulgaria for the period
2007-2013
points out that „the economy of Bulgaria faces serious problems in
maintaining its competitiveness at the international markets mainly because of
the low labour productivity and obsolete production technologies" (p.
153).
Transformation Processes in Bulgarian Agriculture
in the
1990s
and in the Early Years of the 21st Century
There are favourable natural conditions in Bulgaria for the development of
multi-sectoral agriculture. They strongly affect the structure and the management
of arable land and the specialization of crop-growing in different parts of the
country.
The analysis of changes in the use of farm and arable land shows that
it decreases during the last two decades
(1990-2007).
Considerable differences
can be observed between the regions and districts in North and South Bulgaria.
An adverse phenomenon in Bulgarian agriculture, resulting from the economic
and transformation processes in it as well as from the demographic processes
in the rural regions, is the increase of land which is not cultivated in the period of
investigation.
An essential impact on the development of Bulgarian agriculture during
the period of investigation had the deep economic crisis in the second half of
the
1980s
and at the beginning of the
1990s,
the continuous agrarian reform
and the changes in the ownership, and in the organization and structure of this
branch, the lack of a proper organizational and economic structure in farming,
conformable to the
EU
conditions, the non-created market institutions, the land
fragmentation, the delayed intensification, the insufficient investments, the
underdeveloped land market and crediting, the legislative changes affecting
agro-business, the process of European integration and the implemented policy,
the first steps in applying the common European agricultural policy, etc.
Most of the regions with well developed agriculture suffer from shortage
of labour force. Very unfavourable is the age structure of the workers, employed
in farming, and of the managers of farms. This problem seems to be much more
complicated if the situation in Bulgaria is compared with that in other countries
in transition or in the
EU.
The insufficient number of skilled labourers, the lack of
machinery and equipment for land cultivation and harvesting and of the necessary
infrastructure, affect the structure of farming, result in still greater reduction of
the areas under labour-intensive crops and have a negative influence on the
utilization of financial resources from the European funds.
The restoration of private ownership on land was a necessary condition for
the development of agriculture in conformity with the requirements and principles
of market economy. In fact property rights had to be restored over almost the
331
entire farm land because more than
90%
of it was included in cooperative farms
fora long period (from the
1950s
until the
1980s).
In the early stage of transition
Bulgaria had to initiate more drastic changes in land ownership and organization
of farming than the other countries, which affected the whole agricultural sector
and occurred everywhere.
The accepted ways for restoration of private ownership on land and the
arising difficulties of different nature delayed the reform. To restore the property
rights on land in real boundaries is one of the peculiarities of the agrarian reform
at the beginning of the
1990s,
which Jordano and Kostova
(1997)
defined as a
rather untypical feature of the Bulgarian transition model. The agrarian reform
took almost a decade and was nearly completed by the end of
2000.
The
property rights were restored over
99.8%
of the land liable to restitution. The
reform led to significant land fragmentation in plenty of regions throughout the
country. The replacement of large plots of land in the cooperative farms with
small farms is not the way to recover the traditions in Bulgarian farming but one
of the characteristics in its current development.
The analysis of the agrarian reform by different areas shows considerable
territorial differentiations in its course and trends towards acceleration in the
mid-1990s.
In the Danube areas (Ilieva,
Hiev, 1995),
in the western border-
lying mountains (Ilieva,
1997)
and in Dobrudzha (Ilieva,
2000)
the restoration
of property rights over farm land deviated significantly from the nation-wide
pattern.
To take into consideration the specific features of changes in recent
decades is very important „especially when we aim to assess objectively the
village by analyzing its controversial position „between tradition and change" (Rot,
1997).
If the reform is evaluated only as a way of changing the form of ownership
and as a part of the economic and social processes in the country during the last
two decades
(1990-2007),
it resulted in private ownership on land, which became
dominant, and created conditions encouraging the market-oriented agricultural
output. It is quite a different matter when the agrarian reform in the countries
from Central Europe is concerned because it was implemented more efficiently,
took a shorter period and the land fragmentation after the reform was much less.
According to the experts, „the agrarian reform in Bulgaria has generally achieved
its goals
-
it has replaced the state-owned with private ownership on farmers'
land and property, although it hasn't reached the planned target yet
-
to provide
prerequisites for the development of highly effective and competitive agriculture.
The organizational restructuring of farming will continue." (Kanchev,
2001).
As it was already mentioned, the reform made the private property in
farming dominant, where now its share is much higher than in other economic
branches. The increase of agricultural output in private farms also indicates the
large-scale changes in land ownership and in the organization of farm production
as well the current stage of transformation in agriculture.
In contrast to most countries in transition, Bulgaria organizationally
restructured its agricultural production not by simultaneous formation of new
structures but by abolishment of the existing ones (Doichinova,
1996,
Nikiforov,
1997,
Stoyanova,
1999).
The number and size of agricultural farms were varying
332
in the last two decades, depending on the differences in the nature and content of
the term „agricultural farm", on their formation and restructuring, etc. The various
types of farms, either more traditional or more modern, prove the desire to find a
suitable model of agricultural development in the period of transformation. In the
early years of transition, the availability of two main organizational forms
-
private
farms and cooperative farms
-
was a characteristic feature in the development
of Bulgarian agriculture. The formation of cooperatives was closely linked both
with the traditions and peculiarities of agriculture and with the ongoing processes
at the beginning of transition.
The private farms of individual owners have emerged on the basis of
restored property rights on land. Most of them are petty, which distinguish them
from the private farms in some Central European countries. The average size
of farms from all categories in Bulgaria
(4.4
ha) is
4
times smaller than that
in the
EU
(2003
data) and smaller than the farms in some other countries in
transition. Considerable differentiations can be observed at a regional level. The
formation of a great number of petty farms is not the best way towards transition
of agriculture from centrally planned to market economy. The experts claim that
the gradual transformation of petty farms into larger farm and the creation of
more stable and competitive organizational structures in farming will strongly
influence the development of Bulgaria's agricultural sector.
The big land fragmentation, resulting from the agrarian reform, has
strongly affected the land use and impeded the emergence and successful
development of larger private farms and the formation and functioning of land
market. The Land Consolidation Strategy
(2006)
reads: the reduction of land
fragmentation is considered a major objective of governmental policy, aimed at
a better land use structure. Land fragmentation has an adverse effect on land
price, which is the lowest in the
EU in
the period of investigation. The low prices
do not encourage the development of land market in the country. The land prices
significantly vary from region to region.
The analysis on the development of agriculture in the last two decades
(1990-2007)
indicates fundamental changes in the volume of farm produce, in
the branch structure, in its specialization, etc. The first half of the
1990s
was
characterized by a marked decrease of output. Unlike the farming in the Central
European countries with transforming economies, Bulgarian agriculture was still
far below the production level of the
1980s -
a situation which continued even in
2005/2006.
The significant restriction of arable land and yields from certain crops,
the decrease in the number of farm animals and of the total agricultural output can
be considered as one of the negative consequences of this branch restructuring.
„For a 20-year period the sector could not adapt to the new conditions and could
not overcome the dramatic crisis, resulting from the agrarian reform" (Slavova,
Atanasova,
2008,
p.
9).
The drop in the farm produce adversely affected the
unemployment level and the incomes of the majority of population in the rural
regions.
A specific feature of the Bulgarian agriculture is its great share in the
production of gross value added and in the employment, which distinguishes
it from the situation in the developed countries or the countries in transition.
333
Alongside with some other reasons, the restructuring of agriculture in the
1990s
led to changes in the ratio between crop and livestock production. The share of
agricultural services remains extremely low.
The changes in the ownership and in the organization of agricultural
production have caused changes in the structure of farm land use. The growing
share of arable land and the decreasing share of areas under permanent crops
is associated with the processes of transformation and with the demographic
and social changes in the Bulgarian village.
„Another serious problem in the agrarian sector is the low level of
specialization of the farms"
(Nationalen Plan., 2005,
p.
65).
The private
agricultural farms are still „without a clear specialization which makes them
different from the typical farms in the developed countries" (Mladenova, Nikolov,
Atanasova,
1996,
p.
26).
Depending on the available natural and agro-economic
conditions, the previous specialization, the specificities and the results obtained
during the processes of transition, considerable regional differences are observed
in the specializations of the farms. The decrease of areas and output of more
labour-intensive crops and the increase of the areas and share of non-labour
intensive crops in comparison with former periods is not quite a positive aspect
of changes in the structure of crop-growing. The share of areas under permanent
crops out of the cultivated arable land in the country significantly shrinks in
the period of investigation. Most marked is the decrease at the beginning of
transition, particularly in the traditional fruit-growing and vine-growing regions.
Therefore, the favourable natural resources these regions are endowed with, are
not managed properly to grow various kinds of fruit and grapes.
The agricultural farms in Bulgaria considerably differ from the efficiently
operating farms in the
EU
countries in terms of their economic size. All regions
are dominated by farms whose economic size is up to
1
economic unit and yet,
they are most numerous in the South Central and Southwestern regions. The
farms with the highest economic size according to the standard differences are
„most typical" of the Northeastern and North Central regions. The low market
orientation of most of the farms is defined as one of their main problems in
the National Development Plan of the Republic of Bulgaria for the period
2007-
2013.
Labour Market in Bulgaria in the
1990s
and at the
Beginning of the 21st Century
The formation of labour market in Bulgaria as a specific market is one
of the elements of the systems transformation. Owing to the peculiarities of the
economic environment and demographic situation, the process of labour market
formation proceeds at slower rates than in the other Central European countries
with transforming economies. „The functioning of the labour market in Bulgaria
since the beginning of the
1990s
is characterized with features typical of any
restructuring economy. By its parameters the Bulgarian labour market differs
from that in the European countries but is quite similar to the situation in the
new
EU
member countries from Central and East Europe"
(Pazarat na truda
.
334
2004,
p.
22).
Human resources and their management are of growing importance
to the economic development of the individual territorial units in Bulgaria. The
population decrease of the country in the period of
1985-2007,
negative natural
increase, and the degraded age structure of the population adversely affect the
quantitative and qualitative characteristics of labour force and the functioning
of the labour market. The territorial disparities in the decline of the number of
population, of birth-rates, death-rates and of the natural increase are characterized
by various specificities and trends, which depend on the number and age
structure of the population, on its ethnic composition, on the socio-economic
situation in the respective territorial units, etc. Roughly half of the country's area
is remarkable for its highly-to- moderately unfavourable demographic situation;
141
municipalities are in the intermediate stage of demographic crisis, and
45
out of the total
264
municipalities of the country, displaying extremely negative
demographic indicators, are in the final phase (Mladenov,
2008).
The negative natural increase will remain unchanged and even in
the conditions of „zero emigration" the population will continue to decrease
(Nationaina
Strategia.,
2006).
This fact will result in further reduction of
the labour force, in accelerated population aging, in difficulties related to
maintenance of the necessary economic growth and to the efficient performance
of the social security and pension system, etc. As stated in the National
Strategy of Demographic Development
(2006)
the population aging and its
deformed structure are particularly acute problems both in the current and future
demographic development of Bulgaria.
The internal migrations nowadays tend to subside. In addition, it has
to be pointed out that the labour market in Bulgaria is strongly influenced by
emigration, whose economic and social consequences and the impact on
the demographic processes and on the functions of labour market are rather
ambiguous.
According to the elaborated prognoses, the unfavourable trends in the
dynamics of the demographic indicators will be preserved in the future. The
adverse demographic trends and the limited supply of labour are recognized as
a threat to Bulgaria's labour market development in the Updated Employment
Strategy
(Aktualizirana
Strategia.,
2007).
In
1988-2007
period the labourforce in the country was reduced by almost
22 %
as a result of the unfavourable processes in the population development,
and of the social and economic processes, which occurred at that time, including
the transition to market economy. „The bumpy road to market regulators in labour
market led to a collapse in employment, to an extremely high unemployment
level, to outflow of labour force from the country and to worsening of the quality
of labour resources" (Beleva, 2005a). The restriction of labour force is common
of all planning regions. Significant are the territorial differentiations within the
individual regions.
Acomparison shows that the economic activity of the Bulgarian population
remains lower than the
EU
average. Certain differences can also be observed
from region to region (the Southwestern and the Northwestern region are on the
335
two poles) and between districts. For over a decade or so
(1989-2001 )
the mean
annual number of the employed persons in the national economy has decreased
by one third. The employment reduction is a typical phenomenon in the periods
of economic restructuring, especially when the model of economic development
changes. As Beleva
(2001)
emphasizes, in Bulgaria this process is too long.
The trend towards a decrease in the number of employees and the
employment rate was a characteristic feature in all regions and districts in the
1990s.
The analysis of the situation, concerning the national and regional labour
markets, suggests that the growing polarization in employment is related to the
regional polarization in the development of economy, to its sectoral and branch
structure, to the investments, to differences in the demographic processes, the
quantitative and qualitative characteristics of labourforce, etc. The differentiations
in the employment by municipalities are still greater, accompanied by significant
employment variations in the urban and rural areas.
Alongside with the quantitative changes, a process of employment
restructuring becomes apparent during the period of investigation. Against the
background of a decrease in the number of those employed in the national
economy, the number and share of the people, employed in private enterprises,
grow enormously. The changes in the employment structure result from changes
in the ownership as a crucial aspect of the structural transformation in Bulgaria.
The changes in the share of the employed in private sector at a regional and
district level have different dynamics.
The transformation processes have caused fundamental changes in the
employment by economic sectors and branches. During the past two decades
(1990-2007)
the service sector has increased its share but the latter, however,
is still lower than that of other more advanced countries from Central Europe.
The development of service sectors, associated with market economy and
population, is characteristic of the transformation process in the country. The
share of the employees in industries was decreasing by the end of the
1990s
and after
2000
it was slightly increasing. The share of the employed in primary
sector of the Bulgarian economy is high compared with some other countries but
it tends to decline.
Unemployment is quite a new phenomenon in the Bulgarian socio-
economic reality. The trends in the changed number of registered unemployed
persons by regions, districts, urban and rural areas generally coincide with the
nationwide trends. The unemployment territorial differentiations are caused by
a lot of factors, operating at a national, regional or local level.
Most numerous are the unemployed persons in the regions with the
biggest population and labour force in the country. They incorporate the districts,
which have recorded the largest number of unemployed. A comparison with
previous investigations reveals the preservation of persistent trends in the
territorial concentration of unemployment during
1998-2007
in the same regions
and districts.
In the
1990s
the unemployment level in Bulgaria is higher than that
in the majority of the countries in transition and much higher as compared to
EU
15.
Due to the successful active measures and programs for employment
336
encouragement,
the unemployment rate drops and in
2007
it is a bit lower than
the average indicator for EU27.
I n recentyears the regions have tried to bridge the gap in the unemployment
level, although it is still impressive. The inequalities between districts and
municipalities are more substantial. It can be seen from the comparisons that
the differences between the municipalities deepen. The unemployment rate in
the villages remains higher than that in the towns and the average for the country
during
2000-2007,
too.
In
2007
the number of unemployed people, competing for one vacancy,
is less than the previous years. In comparison with some other countries, this
indicator for Bulgaria is lower. The unemployed people with low educational level
and no professional qualifications face considerable difficulties in finding and
starting work. Different aspects of unemployment as a serious socio-economic
problem prevail in the individual territorial units. The National Employment
Agency records higher unemployment with women as a steady tendency. Very
unfavourable are the consequences of high unemployment among young people
in the national and regional labour markets. The long duration of unemployment
and the great number of registered people, who are unemployed for more than
a year, are also among the serious problems in the national, regional and local
labour markets. The discouraged people, who do not look for a job, constitute
a separate group in the labour market in Bulgaria. Although in recent years of
the period of investigation their number has decreased, it is still quite large.
The Ministry of Labour and Social Policy claims that special actions are to be
undertaken in order to stimulate this multiple group, particularly in the context of
low economic activity and population aging in the country
(Nationalen Plan.,
2005).
The employment reduction, the relatively low employment rate, the low
labour productivity, the appearance of unemployment, the economic hardships
and many other factors have had in the past two decades a negative impact
on people's incomes and expenditures, and on population polarization. What is
typical of the transition period is the significant impoverishment of the population
and „thinning of the layer of moderately wealthy people" (Stoilova,
2001).
The
formation of the middle class is delayed.
In the first years of transition most of the financial resources in the labour
market were spent to implement a passive policy. The active policy, regarding
the labour market in the country, started in
1991.
Its main priorities are in
harmony with the European Employment Strategy. The active policy addresses
the disadvantaged groups and the districts with an unemployment level higher
than the national average. It contributes a lot to the development of regional and
local labour markets.
Territorial Differences in the Achieved Level
of Socio-Economic Transformation
This research work uses as basic territorial units for studying the regional
differences the six planning regions, delineated in
2004,
which is predetermined
337
by the time span of investigations and the available information. The changes in
their borders and size in
2004
and
2008
are an obstacle or in Tarkowski's words
(2008)
they are a barrier, impeding the study of regional differentiations. As
main units for analyzing the
intraregional
differences serve the
28
administrative
districts, created in
1999,
to replace previously existing nine larger administrative
districts. The change of administrative division and the establishment of planning
regions as new territorial framework and organizational structure for future
sustainable and balanced regional development in compliance with the process
of integration of Bulgaria into the European structures and for carrying out
relevant regional policy can be evaluated as a specific aspect of transformation
in the country.
Comparisons on the gross domestic product per capita by regions, on the
proportion of the share of the most advanced and most backward region in
2006
and in
1999,
and the growing dispersion of regions, occupying the best and the
worst position, show that the territorial inequalities, resulting from the ongoing
transformation processes and regions' development, become more drastic.
The gap between the Southwestern region and the remaining five regions is
increasing.
The analysis provided and the comparisons on the basis of the gross
domestic product as an indicator, which characterizes the achieved level of
transformation, give grounds to label the Southwestern region „a winner" of the
transformation against the background of the other five planning regions. But if
the assessment is made on the basis of NUTS2 in the countries with transforming
economies or in the whole
EU,
then the Southwestern region should be assigned
to the group of „losers" from the transformation because it produces
52%
of the
gross domestic product per capita in EU27
(2005).
The remaining five regions in Bulgaria together with five regions in
Rumania form the group of the ten poorest regions in European Union
(2005).
In the enlarged
EU
the poorest regions in Bulgaria and Romania have taken
the place of the poorest regions in Poland in the ranking, based on the indicator
of
GDP (Horváth,
2009).
It can be seen from the calculations that in
2005
the
Bulgarian richest region (the Southwestern) was much poorer than the richest
NUTS2 in the countries in transition from Central Europe (Check republic, Poland,
Hungary, Slovakia, etc.). According to data, supplied by
Eurostat, in 2008
the
Northwestern region (in its borders from
2008)
was the poorest region in EU27.
Besides regional differences, there are considerable
intraregional
ones
-
at a district and municipal level. The territorial disparities between districts in
the process of transformation are widening which can be proved by changes in
the share of the gross domestic product of the districts, occupying the first and
the last three positions in their ranking list, by the almost two-fold increase of
the number of insufficiently developed districts (which produce less than
75%
of
GDP per capita in the country) in
2006
in comparison with
1999.
A comparison
on the positions, held by the individual districts, points to marked differences
between the best and the worst developed one. The degree of their dispersion
was rising to reach
3,55
in
2006.
Czyz
(1998)
establishes a similar scale of
dispersion between the voivodships in Poland during the second half of the
338
1990s (3,4)-
The differences between districts are about twice as big as these
between regions. Hrubi
(2002)
reveals in his research similar proportions and
changes in the period
1994-2000
between NUTS2 and NUTS3 in Hungary.
The measurement of the territorial differences by means of the regional
human development index, based on
1999
figures, makes it possible to divide
the districts into three groups (Ilieva,
2002).
The districts with a high index of
human development, which can be defined as „engines of growth", are spread
all over the country. The potential for growth in this respect is not concentrated in
just one geographic region as is the case with many other countries
(Nationalen
Doklad.,
2000,
p.
9).
The assessment of the achieved degree of transformation in the
28
districts
is done through the use of a large number of indicators selected by the author of
this study to describe the essential features of the processes of systematic and
structural transformation. Based on theoretical and methodological formulations
for the study of transformation and on the availability of necessary information,
it attempted to measure the achieved degree of transformation in the different
districts by applying the integral (synthetic) indicator as well.
For calculation of integral indicators for the different districts are selected
25
single indicators. Among the indicators such ones are selected that would enable
not only to assess the results of the socio-economic transformation, but also the
overall changes in these processes through the dynamics of changes in some
indicators for which comparable information for the surveyed period is available.
An analysis of the relationship between standardized values of GDP per capita,
determined by many authors as the most important indicator for measuring the
socio-economic transformation, and the other
24
selected indicators, shows
different interactions between them. The indicators characterizing the dynamics
of the GDP per capita, GVA structure, FDI per capita, fixed assets per capita,
density of population and employment by areas, etc.
(10
in number) have the
lowest correlation coefficients
-
of
-0,01
(dynamics of the unemployment rate)
to
0.58
(dynamics of the share of services in GVA). The only exception is the
dynamics of population density
(0.65).
Therefore, the indicators characterizing
the dynamics of change are not included in the calculation of the integral indicator.
The cluster analysis, using the method of nearest neighbour, characterizes the
relationship between standardized values of these parameters. The highest is
the interdependence between GDP per capita, FDI per capita, the existing fixed
assets and the expenditure on acquisition of tangible fixed assets per capita
which form a cluster. The lowest is the interdependence between some indicators,
characterizing the economic restructuring (e.g. the share of agriculture in GVA,
GVA in the private sector) and the social impact of socio-economic transformation
(e.g. the unemployment rate, the income per capita). Since these indicators are
important for characterizing certain aspects of the transformation process, all
15
indicators (share of employees in the private sector of the total number of
employees; share of production of GVA in private sector; share of fixed assets
in the private sector; share of the services in GVA; share of the industry in GVA;
share of the agriculture in GVA; coefficient of
entrepreneurship;
GDP per capita;
population density; FDI in the non-financial enterprises per capita; fixed assets
339
in the non-financial enterprises per capita; expenditure on acquisition of tangible
fixed assets in the non-financial enterprises sector per capita; employment rate;
unemployment rate; income per capita in the i-s territorial unit) are used to
determine the integral index.
Taking into consideration the theoretical and methodological formulations
for the study of transformation, the specific features of the ongoing processes
and the availability of necessary information for their characterization, the
calculated integral (synthetic) indicator for measuring the achieved degree of
transformation in the different districts is sub-divided into four main components
(integral intermediate indicators). Three of them, conventionally called „change
of ownership", „restructuring", „obtained level of development and influencing
factors" feature various aspects of economic transformation and one,
conventionally called „social consequences", refers to the social aspects of
transformation (Table
54).
It is very difficult to determine the threshold value of the integral indicator
and to say with certainty that the territorial units, having values above it, are
„winners" from the transformation process, and those with values below it, are
„losers". Therefore further research and concrete bases for comparisons are
necessary. So at this stage we restrain from establishing such limits.
The analysis of the integral indicator and of the
4
intermediate indicators,
affords opportunities to evaluate the territorial differences between the districts
on the basis of the combined effect of all applied indicators.
The calculated values of the integral indicator by districts widely range
-
from
-10.90
(Vratsa) to
28.81
(the district of the capital city of Sofia, Table
54;
Fig.
111
in main text). Most of the territorial units in North Bulgaria
(10
districts) have
negative values. The majority of the districts with positive values are situated
in South Bulgaria. This fact proves once again that considerable territorial
differences exist between North and South Bulgaria. Stoyanov and Dimov
(2006)
also focus on some disparities between North and South Bulgaria.
The lowest values of the integral indicator are recorded for the districts
of Vratsa and
Vidin,
Montana, Targovishte and Razgrad. They can certainly be
labeled as the greatest „loosers" from transformation compared to the other
districts. The district of the capital city of Sofia is remarkable for the highest value
of the integral indicator. The districts of Varna and Burgas come next. The analysis
allows these three districts to be defined as „winners" from transformation. But if
compared with NUTS3 within the Central European countries with transforming
economies or with the
EU,
even the district of the capital city of Sofia falls into
the category of underdeveloped territorial units of that type. The findings of this
research and the fact that the biggest cities of the country are located in the
aforesaid districts, having a significant share of their economic and demographic
potential, come only to prove the opinion of many researchers who define the
metropolitan, capital and big cities as „winners" from transformation processes.
Fassmann (1997)
claims that the increased importance of urban
agglomerations as poles of growth of the national economy are one of the regional
consequences of transformation. The biggest agglomerations of Bulgaria
-
those of Sofia, Plovdiv, Vama-Devnya and Burgas-Kameno
-
are formed in area,
340
Table
54.
Integral indicator
of the achieved degree of socio-economic
transformation by districts
Districts
Integral (synthetic) intermediate indicators,
characterizing:
Integral (synthetic)
indicator
Change of
ownership
Restructuring
Obtained level
of
development
and
influencing
factors
Social
consequences
Vidin
-1,93
-0,27
-2,79
-2,86
-7,85
Vratsa
-10,96
-1,41
0,19
1,28
-10,90
Montana
-0,99
-0,76
-3,02
-1,90
-6,67
Lovech
0,95
-0,12
-1,47
0,75
0,11
Pleven
-0,32
-0,18
-2,15
0,59
-2,06
Veliko
Tarnovo
1,01
0,01
-1,72
-0,90
-1,60
Gabrovo
2,45
0,61
-0,65
2,14
4,55
Ruse
2,09
-0,66
-0,04
1,29
2,68
Razgrad
-0,07
-0,35
-2,12
-3,13
-5,67
Silistra
-0,32
-0,11
-2,60
-1,46
-4,49
Varna
0,34
2,26
5,23
2,11
9,94
Dobrich
1,08
-0,05
-1,53
-1,23
-1,73
Targovishte
-0,07
-0,85
-1,65
-3,36
-6,03
Shumen
0,38
-0,39
-1,61
-0,52
-2,14
Burgas
1,59
1,64
2,94
1,60
7,77
Sliven
0,58
-0,25
-2,10
-0,80
-2,57
Yambol
1,16
0,01
-2,82
1,40
-0,25
Stara Zagora
-3,36
-0,41
3,16
0,13
-0,48
Kardzhali
-0,32
-0,51
-2,49
0,19
-3,13
Pazardzhik
1,32
-1,66
-1,75
1,50
-0,59
Plovdiv
1,31
0,28
1,17
0,57
3,33
Smolyan
1,53
0,70
-1,73
1,75
2,25
Haškovo
1,51
0,72
-2,41
0,14
-0,04
Blagoevgrad
0,42
0,47
-1,71
2,17
1,35
Kyustendil
-2,67
-0,08
-2,34
0,38
-4,71
Pernik
0,82
-0,74
-0,01
0,88
0,95
Sofia
2,65
-1,46
3,60
-0,91
3,88
Sofia-capital
-0,87
2,47
22,52
4,69
28,81
Source: Author's calculations on the basis of the National Statistical Institute data
341
characterized in this study by a high degree of socio-economic transformation
(Table
54).
Of the remaining big cities in the country only Pleven is a core of an
urban agglomeration
(Hiev, 1995).
The integral indicator for the district of Pleven
has a negative value. A significant role in the processes of transformation is
attributed to the towns
-
regional centers of the respective areas
-
which at this
stage are not agglomeration cores. Further detailed investigations are needed to
elucidate the contribution of the urban agglomerations and big cities in Bulgaria
to the transformation processes, as well as surveys at a municipal and local
level.
Fassmann (2000)
calls the rural regions „islands of stability". Perhaps
such a statement is true for some countries in transition, where the reforms are
smaller or better implemented, but it definitely does not allpy to Bulgaria. The
research shows that the districts, embracing vast rural areas, have low values
of the integral indicator. Enyedi
(2005)
and
Horváth
(2009)
class the rural areas
under the group of „losers". In Horvath's opinion
(2009)
this is a special East-
European characteristic.
Czyż
(1998)
states that in the period of transformation a regional
polarization of the socio-economic development occurs, which is a challenge
to an active regional policy in the country. In Horvath's opinion
(2009)
the big
intraregional
disparities, experienced by the districts and municipalities of
Bulgaria indicate that „the implemented regional development policy does not
extend to the relevant addresses".
To make a comparative analysis, expressing adequately and with
comparable results the economic transformation is a procedure, which encounters
serious statistical, methodological and interpretational difficulties. Despite the
existing methodological barriers, the comparison on the socio-economic situation
in the countries can have cognitive and practical importance (Eberhardt,
Nieva,
2004).
The socio-economic reforms in the Central and East European countries
with transforming economies are of different duration. While various reasons slow
down Bulgaria's development, Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia, Hungary and Albania
reach the 1989-level of their GDP in the first ten years of the transformation
period
(1990-1999).
Bulgaria reaches this level much later
-
in
2007.
„Except
for some of the former Soviet Republics, Bulgaria has experienced the most
drastic production decrease in comparison with the countries from Central
and East Europe" (Ikonomikata.,
2001,
p.
172).
Irrespective of the achieved
results, Bulgaria still ranks last in Central and East Europe in terms of its GDP
per capita.
A reliable basis for comparisons between Bulgaria and the remaining
countries, transforming their economic system, is the ranking of the economic
performance, worked out by a group of eminent economists and published until
1999
in the journal „Central European Economic Review". According to the
1999
estimates, Bulgaria is tenth among the
19
Central and East European countries
in transition, included in this ranking.
Bulgaria's position among the countries in transition can be additionally
characterized by the implementation of the Lisbon Competitiveness Strategy,
342
aiming to turn the
EU
into the most competitive world economy on the basis
of knowledge. Bulgaria takes the last, tenth place among the
EU
new member
states. Some authors share the opinion that Bulgaria's evaluation from the
viewpoint of practical application of this Strategy requires the elaboration of a
national strategy for „overtaking development" as well as levers for its accelerated
implementation.
This research about the transformation processes in Bulgaria together
with the results obtained by other researchers in the course of their investigations
and the comparisons with countries in transition suggest that toward the end of
the study period Bulgaria should be classed under the group of „losers" among
the transforming countries.
This scientific work clearly indicates that the „Bulgarian mode" has its
characteristic features, resulting from the specific conditions in the country.
The necessity of deeper changes in Bulgaria slowed down the transformation
processes and extended their duration.
Alexandrova
(2008)
believes that the
delayed reforms put off the positive effects they are expected to have. Thus,
alongside with the anticipated favourable changes numerous unexpected
adverse have taken place in various fields of socio-economic life. The results
of the transformation processes in Bulgaria and the specificity, duration and
trends of transition depend not only on „internal causes" but also on the foreign
political situation in the Balkans during the first half of the
1990s.
Furthermore,
„the Bulgarian transition has coincided with powerful global and regional
transformation processes of various type and scope, which either exert a
synergic, accelerating influence on it or obstruct the national economic growth
and the successful solution of social problems" (Ganchev,
2007,
p.
134).
Conclusion
Owing to the application of a relevant methodology, elaborated by the
author, this research on the transformation processes in Bulgaria not only reveals
its specificity, territorial differences and place among the other countries with
transforming economies, but it also contributes to gain a better knowledge about
the processes in Central and East Europe at the current stage of development
and can be one of the numerous and necessary steps towards the elaboration of
a transformation theory.
343
Съдържание
Предговор
.9
Увод
.11
Актуалност и значимост на изследването на трансформационните
процеси в България
.11
Изученост на трансформационните процеси в България
.13
Цел, характер и обхват на изследването
.18
Теоретико-методологични основи на изследването на
трансформационните процеси
.24
Социално-икономическата трансформация
-
присъщ феномен
на съвременното развитие на страните в преход
.24
Същност и определения на социално-икономическата
трансформация
.24
Системна и структурна трансформация
.35
Териториални различия в трансформационните
процеси
.47
Оценка на териториалните различия в достигнатата
степен на трансформационните процеси
.53
Методологични подходи и методи на изследването
.59
Информационна осигуреност на изследването
.67
Трансформационни процеси в националното стопанство на България
през 90-те години на
XX
в. и в началото на
XXI
в
.70
Фактори и условия за развитие на националното стопанство
.70
Системна и структурна трансформация на българската
икономика
.76
Трансформация на икономическата система
.76
Преструктуриране на българската икономика
.90
Трансформационни процеси в българското селско стопанство през
90-те години на
XX
в. и в началото на
XXI
в
.108
Условия и фактори за развитие на селското стопанство
.108
Трансформация на собствеността в селското стопанство
.129
Преструктуриране на селското стопанство
.144
Промени в организационната структура на земеделските
стопанства
.145
Промени в използването на земята, отрасловата
структура и специализацията на селското стопанство
.155
Пазарът на труда в България през 90-те години на
XX
в. и в началото
на
XXI
в
.178
Формиране и функциониране на пазара на труда в България
. 178
Демографска обусловеност на пазара на труда
.182
Работна сила и заетост.
.198
Изменения и
териториални
различия в
работната
сила
и
заетостта
.198
Преструктуриране
на
заетостта
.212
Изменения в
заетостта
в облает София-столица
.214
Безработица
.220
Изменения и
териториални
различия
.220
Социални и икономически последици
от
безработицата
230
Политики на
пазара
на труда
.235
Териториални
различия в
достигнатата степен
на социално-
икономическата трансформация
.238
Териториални
различия в
достигнатата степен
на социално-
икономическата трансформация в
България
.238
Социално-икономическата трансформация в
България и други
страни
с
трансформиращи се икономики в Централна
и
Източна Европа
.265
Заключение
.279
Литература
.292
SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION
IN BULGARIA- PECULIARITIES
AND TERRITORIAL DIFFERENCES (summary)
.323
Contents
Foreword
. 9
Introduction
.11
Timeliness and Relevance of the Study on Transformation Processes in
Bulgaria
.11
Level of Knowledge about the Transformation Processes in Bulgaria
13
Objective, Nature and Scope of the Study
.18
Theoretical and Methodological Principles of Investigating the
Transformation Processes
.24
Socio-Economie
Transformation
-
a Phenomenon Inherent in the
Modern Development of the Countries in Transition
.24
Nature and Definition of Socio-Economic Transformation
.24
Systems and Structural Transformation
.35
Territorial Differences in Transformation Processes
.47
Assessment of the Territorial Differences in the Achieved
Level of Transformation Processes
.53
Methodological Approaches and Research Methods
.59
Information Availability
.67
Transformation Processes in the National Economy of Bulgaria in the
1990s
and at the Beginning of the 21st Century
.70
Factors and Conditions for the Development of National
Economy
.70
Systems and Structural Transformation of the Bulgarian
Economy
.76
Transformation of the Economic System
.76
Restructuring of the Bulgarian Economy
.90
Transformation Processes in Bulgarian Agriculture in the
1990s
and
in the Early Years of the 21st Century
.108
Conditions and Factors for the Development of Agriculture
.108
Transformation of Ownership in Agriculture
.129
Restructuring of Agriculture
.144
Changes in the Organizational Structure of Farms
.145
Changes in Land Use, Branch Structure and Specialization
of Agriculture
.155
Labour Market in Bulgaria in the
1990s
and at the Beginning of the 21st
Century
.178
Formation and Functioning of the Labour Market in Bulgaria
.178
Demographic Dependence of Labour Market
.182
Labour
Force
and Employment
.198
Changes and Territorial Differences in Labour Force and
Employment
. 198
Employment Restructuring
.212
Changes in the Employment in the Capital City of Sofia
District
.214
Unemployment
.220
Changes and Territorial Differences
.220
Social and Economic Consequences of Unemployment
.230
Labour Market Policies
.235
Territorial Differences in the Achieved Level of
Socio-Economie
Transformation
.238
Territorial Differences in the Achieved Level of Socio-Economic
Transformations in Bulgaria
.238
Socio-Economic Transformation in Bulgaria and Some Other Countries
with Transforming Economies from Central and East Europe
.265
Conclusion
.279
Literature
.292
SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION IN BULGARIA- PECULIARITIES
AND TERRITORIAL DIFFERENCES (Summary)*
.323
*The Book is published in Bulgarian while only its contents and summary are in English.
8 |
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| author | Ilieva, Margarita Milanova 20./21. Jh |
| author_GND | (DE-588)171910397 |
| author_facet | Ilieva, Margarita Milanova 20./21. Jh |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Ilieva, Margarita Milanova 20./21. Jh |
| author_variant | m m i mm mmi |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV040896446 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)843438128 (DE-599)BVBBV040896446 |
| edition | 1. izd. |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV040896446 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-08-10T01:09:35Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9789549531183 |
| language | Bulgarian |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-025876000 |
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| physical | 343 S. graph. Darst., Kt. |
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| spelling | Ilieva, Margarita Milanova 20./21. Jh. Verfasser (DE-588)171910397 aut Socialno-ikonomičeskata transformacija v Bălgarija osobenosti i teritorialni različija Margarita Ilieva 1. izd. Sofija TerArt 2012 343 S. graph. Darst., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier In kyrill. Schr., bulg. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Socio-economic transformation in Bulgaria Literaturverz. S. 292 - 322 Regionale Disparität (DE-588)4293657-3 gnd rswk-swf Sozioökonomischer Wandel (DE-588)4318539-3 gnd rswk-swf Bulgarien (DE-588)4008866-2 gnd rswk-swf Bulgarien (DE-588)4008866-2 g Sozioökonomischer Wandel (DE-588)4318539-3 s Regionale Disparität (DE-588)4293657-3 s DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025876000&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025876000&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Ilieva, Margarita Milanova 20./21. Jh Socialno-ikonomičeskata transformacija v Bălgarija osobenosti i teritorialni različija Regionale Disparität (DE-588)4293657-3 gnd Sozioökonomischer Wandel (DE-588)4318539-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4293657-3 (DE-588)4318539-3 (DE-588)4008866-2 |
| title | Socialno-ikonomičeskata transformacija v Bălgarija osobenosti i teritorialni različija |
| title_auth | Socialno-ikonomičeskata transformacija v Bălgarija osobenosti i teritorialni različija |
| title_exact_search | Socialno-ikonomičeskata transformacija v Bălgarija osobenosti i teritorialni različija |
| title_full | Socialno-ikonomičeskata transformacija v Bălgarija osobenosti i teritorialni različija Margarita Ilieva |
| title_fullStr | Socialno-ikonomičeskata transformacija v Bălgarija osobenosti i teritorialni različija Margarita Ilieva |
| title_full_unstemmed | Socialno-ikonomičeskata transformacija v Bălgarija osobenosti i teritorialni različija Margarita Ilieva |
| title_short | Socialno-ikonomičeskata transformacija v Bălgarija |
| title_sort | socialno ikonomiceskata transformacija v balgarija osobenosti i teritorialni razlicija |
| title_sub | osobenosti i teritorialni različija |
| topic | Regionale Disparität (DE-588)4293657-3 gnd Sozioökonomischer Wandel (DE-588)4318539-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Regionale Disparität Sozioökonomischer Wandel Bulgarien |
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