Research methods: a process of inquiry
Gespeichert in:
| Hauptverfasser: | , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Boston, Mass. [u.a.]
Pearson
2013
|
| Ausgabe: | 8. ed., internat. ed. |
| Schriftenreihe: | Always learning
|
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | XIX, 444 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9780205920914 0205920918 |
Internformat
MARC
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804149560648400896 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Titel: Research methods
Autor: Graziano, Anthony M
Jahr: 2013
CONTENTS
Preface xv
CHARTER ONE
Curiosity, Creativity, and Commitment 1
Classic Studies 1.1: Kitty Genovese and Bystander Apathy 2
An Opening Note to Students: Active Learning 3
SCIENCE 4
Science Is aWay of Thinking 4 / Asking Questions 5 / Historical Lesson 1.1: TheThree
Princes ofSerendip 6 / Science and Art 7 / Historical Lesson 1.2: Leonardo da Vinci 7
ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE 8
Tenacity 9 / Intuition 9 / Authority 9 / Rationalism 10
Empiricism 11 / Science 12
EMERGENCE OF SCIENCE 12
Early Civilization 12 / Greek Science 13 / Medieval Science 14
The Scientific Revolution 15 / The Goals of Science 16
PSYCHOLOGY 17
The History of Psychology 18 / Structuralism 18 / Functionalism 18
Psychodynamics 18 / Gestalt Psychology 19 / Behaviorism 19
Humanistic Psychology 19 / Cognitive Psychology 19 / Women and Minorities in
Psychology 19 / Modern Psychology 20 / The Science of Psychology 21
The Cost ofNeglect 1.1: Science and Pseudoscience 23
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES 25
USING THE RESOURCES OFTHIS TEXT 26
Exploring the Student Resource Website 26
SUMMARY 27
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 28
EXERCISES 28
111
JV CONTENTS
CHAPTERTWO
Research Is a Process of Inquiry 30
THE SCIENTIFIC PROCESS 31
Basic Assumptions of Science 31 / Observation and Inference: Facts and Constructs 31
Inductive and Deductive Thinking 34
MODELS AND THEORIES IN SCIENCE 36
Historical Lesson 2.1: The Wright Brothers as Scientists 37 / Types of Theories 38
Scientific Models 38
A MODEL OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS 41
Phases of Research 41 / Idea-Generating Phase 41 / Problem-Definition Phase 42
Procedures-Design Phase 43 / Observation Phase 43 / Data Analysis Phase 43
Interpretation Phase 43 / Communication Phase 44 / Levels of Constraint 46
Naturalistic Observation 49 / Case Study Research 49 / Correlational Research 49
Differential Research 50 / Experimental Research 50 / Moving front One Constraint Level to
Another 50
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES 52
SUMMARY 55
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 56
EXERCISES 56
CHAPTER THREE
The Starting Point: Asking Questions 58
ASKING AND REFINING QUESTIONS 59
PursutngYour Personal Interests 59 / Following Up on the Work of Others 59
Historical Lesson 3.1: Charles Darwin and Alfred Rüssel Wallace 60 / Basic, Applied,
and Translational Research 61 / Box 3. l.The New Translational Research Model 62
Refining Questions for Research 63
TYPES OF VARIABLES IN RESEARCH 65
Classifying Variables Based on Their Characteristics 65 / Behavioral Variables 65
Stimulus Variables 66 / Organismic Variables 66 / Classifying Variables Based on Their Use in
Research 66 / Independent and Dependent Variables 66 / Extraneous Variables 67
Variables and Constants 67
VALIDITY AND THE CONTROL OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES 68
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES 69
Ethical Principles for Human Research 69 / Institutional Review Boards 71
Ethical Checks 72 / Ethics and Diversity Issues in Research 72 / Ethical Principles for Animal
Research 73
CONTENTS
SUMMARY 75
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 75
EXERCISES 76
CHAPTER FOUR
Data and the Nature of Measurement 77
MEASUREMENT 78
The Cost ofNeglect 4.1: Missing Mars 80
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT 80
Nominal Scales 81 / Ordinal Scales 81 / Interval Scales 81 / Ratio Scales 82
MEASURING AND MANIPULATING VARIABLES 83
Measurement Error 83 / Operational Definitions 84
EVALUATING MEASURES 87
Reliability 87 / Interrater Reliability 87 / Test-Retest Reliability 87 / Internal
Consistency Reliability 88 / Effective Range 88 / Validity 90 / The Need for Objective
Measurement 91
ETHICAL PRINCffLES 92
SUMMARY 94
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 94
EXERCISES 95
CHAPTER FTVE
Statistical Analysis of Data 97
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 98
ORGANIZING DATA 99
Frequency Distributions 101 / Nominal and Ordered Data 101 / Score Data 101
Graphical Representation of Data 103
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 105
Measures of Central Tendency 105 / The Cost ofNeglect 5.1: Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics 106
Measures of Variability 107 / Understanding the Concept 5.1: Degrees ofFreedom 110
Measures of Relationship HO / Pearson Product-Moment Correlation 111
Other Correlations 112 / Regression 113 / Reliability Indices 113
Standard Scores 113
STATISTICAL INFERENCE 114
Populations and Samples 114 / The Null Hypothesis 115 / Statistical Decisions and Alpha
Levels 115 / Type I and Type II Errors 116
VI CONTENTS
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 117
Testing for Mean Differences 117 / Thet-Test 117 / Analysis ofVariance 117
The Power ofa Statistical Test 117 / Effect Size 118
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES 119
SUMMARY 120
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 120
EXERCISES 121
CHAPTER SIX
Field Research: Naturalistic and Case Study Research 122
THE CHALLENGE OF LOW-CONSTRAINT RESEARCH 123
Examples of Naturalistic Observation 123 / Biology 124 / Historical Lesson 6.1: Naturalistic
Research and Evolution 124 / Ethology 124 / Sociology 125 / Psychology 125
Examples of Case Study Research 126 / Sigmund Freud 126 / E.LWhitmer 126
Jean Plaget 127 / Contemporary Case Studies 127
THE VALUE OF LOW-CONSTRAINT METHODS 127
Conditions for Using Low-Constraint Research 128 / Exploratory Research 128 / Creative
Starting Point for Research 128 / Familiarize Oneselfwitha New Research Area 128
Demonstrating Feasibility 128 / Testing Generalizability 128 / Understanding the Conceptö.l:
The Therapist as Scientist 129 / Information Gained from Low-Constraint Research 129
Identifying New Information 129 / Negating a General Proposition 130 / Identifying
Contingencies 130 / Qualitative Research Methods 130
USING LOW-CONSTRAINT METHODS 132
Problem Statements and Research Hypotheses 132 / Making Observations 132 / Howto
Observe 133 / Unobtrusive Measures 133 / Archival Measures 135 / Sampling of
Participants 136 / Sampling of Situations 137 / Sampling of Behaviors 137 / Evaluating
and Interpreting Data 138
LIMITATIONS OF LOW-CONSTRAINT METHODS 139
Poor Representativeness 139 / Poor Replicability 139 / Causal Inference and Low-Constraint
Research 139 / Limitations of the Observer 141 / Going Beyond the Data 141
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES 142
SUMMARY 143
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 144
EXERCISES 144
CONTENTS Vll
CHAPTER SEVEN
Correlational and Differential Methods of Research 145
DEFINING CORRELATIONAL AND DD7FERENTIAL RESEARCH METHODS 146
Correlational Research Methods 146 / Differential Research Methods 147 / Cross-Sectional
versus Longitudinal Research 147 / Artifacts and Confounding 148 / Comparing These
Methods 149 / When to Use These Methods 150
CONDUCTING CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 151
Problem Statements 151 / Secondary Analyses 151 / Measuring the Variables 152
Sampling 153 / Analyzing the Data 153 / Interpreting the Correlation 154
CONDUCTING DIFFERENTIAL RESEARCH 155
Problem Statements 155 / Measuring the Variables 156 / Selecting Appropriate Control
Groups 156 / Sampling 159 / Analyzing the Data 160 / Interpreting the Data 160
LIMITATIONS OF CORRELATIONAL AND DIFFERENTIAL RESEARCH 162
Problems in Determining Causation 162 / Confounding Variables 164
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES 164
SUMMARY 166
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 166
EXERCISES 166
CHAPTER EIGHT
Hypothesis Testing, Validity, and Threats to Validity 168
HYPOTHESIS TESTING 169
Starting Research with an Initial Idea 170 / Statement of the Problem 171 / Operational
Definitions 172 / Research Hypothesis 173 / The Contribution of Theory to the Research
Hypothesis 174 / Testing the Research Hypothesis 175 / Null Hypothesis 175
Confounding Variable Hypothesis 176 / Causal Hypothesis 177
VALIDITY AND THREATS TO VALIDITY 179
Statistical Validity 180 / Construct Validity 180 / External Validity 181
Internal Validity 182
MAJOR CONFOUNDING VARIABLES 182
Maruration 182 / History 183 / Testing 183 / Instrumentation 184 / Regression
totheMean 184 / Selection 185 / Attrition 185 / Diffusion ofTreatment 185
Sequence Effects 186 / Examples of Confounding 186
SUBJECT AND EXPERIMENTER EFFECTS 187
Subject Effects 187 / Experimenter Effects 188
V1U CONTENTS
ETHICAL PRINCU LES 189
SUMMARY 190
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 190
EXERCISES 191
CHAPTER NINE
Controls to Reduce Threats to validity 192
GENERAL CONTROL PROCEDURES 193
PreparationoftheSetting 193 / Response Measurement 193 / Replication 194
CONTROL OVER SUBJECT AND EXPERIMENTER EFFECTS 195
Single- and Double-Blind Procedures 195 / Automation 197 / Using Objective
Measures 197 / Multiple Observers 197 / Using Deception 198 / Understanding
the Concept 9.1: Reliable Reliability 199
CONTROL THROUGH PARTICD7ANT SELECTION AND ASSIGNMENT 201
Participant Selection 201 / Random Sampling 203 / Stratified Random Sampling 203
AdHocSamples 205 / Participant Assignment 205 / Free Random Assignment 206
Randomizing within Blocks 207 / Matched Random Assignment 207 / Other Matching
Procedures 210 / Advantages of Random Selection and Assignment 211
CONTROL THROUGH EXPER1MENTAL DESIGN 211
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES 214
SUMMARY 216
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 216
EXERCISES 216
CHAPTER TEN
Single-Variable, Independent-Groups Designs 218
VARIANCE 219
SourcesofVariance 219 / Systematic Between-Groups Variance 219 / Nonsystematic
Within-Groups Variance 220 / Controlling Variance in Research 222 / Maximizing Experimental
Variance 222 / Controlling Extraneous Variance 224 / Minimizing Error Variance 225
NONEXPERIMENTALAPPROACHES 226
Ex Post Facto Studies 227 / Single-Group, Posttest-Only Studies 228 / Single-Group,
Pretest-Posttest Studies 229 / Pretest-Posttest, Natural Control-Group Studies 230
CONTENTS IX
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 231
Randomized, Posttest-Only, Control-Group Design 232 / Randomized, Pretest-Posttest, Control-Group
Design 233 / Multilevel, Completely Randomized, Between-Subjects Design 234 / Pretest-
Manipulation Interaction: A Potential Problem 235 / Variations on Experimental Designs 236
ANALYSES OF VARIANCE 236
Understanding the Concept 10.1: Statistical Power 241 / Specific Means Comparisons
in ANOVA 241 / Graphing the Data 242
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES 243
SUMMARY 244
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 245
EXERCISES 245
CHAPTER ELEVEN
Correlated-Groups and Single-Subject Designs 247
WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGNS 248
Using Within-Subjects Designs 248 / Sequence Effects 248 / Subtypes ofSequence
Effects 249 / Controlling Sequence Effects 250 / Random Order of Presentation 250
Counterbalancing 250 / Analyzing Data from Within-Subjects Designs 252 / Strengths and
Weaknesses of Within-Subjects Designs 253
MATCHED-SUBJECTS DESIGNS 255
Using Matched-Subjects Designs 255 / Why Use Matched-Subjects Designs 255 / Identifying
Matching Variables 256 / The Process ofMatching 256 / Deciding on the Matching
Variables 257 / Analyzing Data from Matched-Subjects Designs 258 / Strengths and
Weaknesses of Matched-Subjects Designs 259
SINGLE-SUBJECT EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 261
Historical Lesson 11.1: Neuropsychological Cases 261 / ABA Reversal Design 264
Multiple-Baseline Design 267 / Single-Subject, Randomized, Time-Series Design 267
Replication in Single-Subject Designs 270
ETHICAL PRINCWLES 272
SUMMARY 273
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 273
EXERCISES 273
CONTENTS
CHAPTER TWELVE
Factorial Designs 275
FACTORIAL DESIGNS 275
Main Effects and Interactions 277 / Running the Children s Dark-Fears Study 280 / Possible
Outcomes of Factorial Designs 283 / Analysis of Variance in Factorial Designs 286
VARIATIONS OF BASIC FACTORIAL DESIGN 288
Within-Subjects or Repeated-Measures Factorial 288 / Mixed Designs 289 / Between-Subjects
and Within-Subjects Factors 289 / Manipulated and Nonmanipulated Factors 290 / Mixed in
Both Ways 291
ANOVA: A POSTSCRD7T 292
Analysis of Covariance 293 / Multivariate Analysis of Variance 293
ETHICAL PRINCD7LES 294
SUMMARY 295
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 296
EXERCISES 296
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
A Second Look at Field Research: Field Experiments, Program Evaluation,
and Survey Research 298
CONDUCTING FIELD RESEARCH 299
Reasons for Doing Field Research 299 / Testing External Validity 299 / Studying Effects in the
Field 300 / Improving Generalization 300 / Difficulties in Field Research 302
Flexibility in Research 302
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 303
Nonequivalent Control-Group Designs 304 / Interrupted Time-Series Designs 308
PROGRAM EVALUATION RESEARCH 312
Historical Lesson 13.1: From Head Start to Heads Up 313 / Practical Problems in Program
Evaluation Research 313 / Issues of Control 314 / Selecting Appropriate Dependent
Measures 314 / Minimizing Bias in Dependent Measures 314 / Control through Research
Design in Program Evaluation 315 / Typical Program Evaluation Designs 315 / Randomized
Control-Group Design 315 / Nonequivalent Control-Group Design 315 / Single-Group,
Time-Series Design 315 / Pretest-Posttest Design 316 / Program Evaluation Research:
AnExample 316
SURVEYS 317
TypesofSurveys 318 / Status Surveys 318 / Survey Research 318 / Steps in
Survey Research 318 / Types of Survey Instruments 318 / Developing the Survey
Instrument 320 / Sampling Participants 321 / Sampling Considerations 321
CONTENTS XI
The Cost ofNeglect 13.1: Political Polling and Sampling 322 / Sampling Procedures 323
Sample Size and Confidence Intervals 323 / Survey Research Design 324 / Cross-Sectional
Design 324 / Longitudinal Design 324 / Sequential Design 324
ETHICAL PRINCD7LES 325
SUMMARY 326
PUTTING IT INTO PRACTICE 326
EXERCISES 327
A FINAL NOTE TO STUDENTS 329
APPENDIX A
Using the Student Resource Website 331
RESOURCES AVAILABLE 331
Student Resource Website 331 / MySearchLab Site 333
WHATTO DO IFYOUHAVE PROBLEMS 333
GETTING HELP 334
SUMMARY 335
APPENDLX B
Writing a Research Report in APA Publication Style 336
STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH ARTICLE 337
WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT 337
Using Levels of Headings to Organize 337 / Sections of a Research Report 338
Title Page 338 / Abstract 338 / Introduction 338 / Method 339
Results 340 / Discussion 341 / References 342
WRITING STYLE 342
SUMMARY 343
APPENDLX C
Conducting Library Research 344
USING THE LD3RARY 344
Library Resources 344 / The Reference Librarian 345
XU CONTENTS
HOW RESEARCH MATERIALS ARE ORGANIZED 345
Primary Sources 345 / Journal Articles 345 / Dissertations 345 / Secondary
Sources 345 / Review Articles 346 / Books and Chapters in Books 346 / Annual
Reviews 346
FINDING THE RELEVANT RESEARCH 346
Abstracting Services 346 / Psychological Abstracts 346 / ERIC 346 / Subject or Key-
word Services 346 / Library Catalogs 2*41 I Books in Print 347 / Index Medicus 347
Readers Guide to PeriodicalLiterature 347 / Literature Citation Indexes 347
SEARCH STRATEGIES 348
Searching by Topic 348 / Identifying Key Terms 348 / Computer Searches 348
Searching Backward 349 / Searching Forward 349
SUMMARY 350
APPENDIX D
Selecting Statistical Procedures 351
SELECTING APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL PROCEDURES 351
An Initial Example 352 / A Decision-Tree Model 353 / Decision-Tree Flowcharts 353
Describe the Study 353 / Identify the Study s Major Characteristics 356 / Select Appropriate
Statistics 357 / Secondary Analyses 360 / Post Hoc Analyses 360 / Analyses to Help to
Interpret Results 360 / Data Snooping 360 / Caveats and Disclaimers 361
Understanding the Concept DA: The Robust Nature ofParametric Statistics 361
SUMMARY 362
EXERCISES 362
APPENDLX E
Research Design Checklist 364
INITIAL PROBLEM DEFINITION 367
CLARITY OF THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESES 367
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURES 367
THEORETICAL BASIS AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS 367
ADEQUACY OF THE INDEPENDENT-VARIABLE MAND7ULATION 368
ADEQUACY OF DEPENDENT MEASURES 368
ARE ALL CONTROLS IN PLACE? 368
CONTENTS XU1
PARTICIPANTS 368
Participant Selection 368 / Sample Size 369 / Participant Assignment 369 / Participant
Availability 369 / Research Ethics Considerations 369
PREPARATION OF THE SETTING 370
Space and Equipment 370 / Personnel 370
ADEQUACY OF PARTICIPANT PREPARATION, INSTRUCTION, AND PROCEDURES 370
SUMMARY 370
APPENDLX F
Meta-Analysis 371
LOGIC OF META-ANALYSIS 371
LITERATURE REVIEWS 372
ALPHA LEVELS AND KNOWLEDGE 372
BETA LEVELSAND KNOWLEDGE 373
META-ANALYSIS AND THE PROBLEM OF TYPE IIERRORS 373
SUMMARY 374
APPENDLX G
Random Numbers 375
APPENDIX H
Answers to Quick-Check Review Questions 380
Glossary 389
References 407
Name Index 426
Subject Index 432
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| isbn | 9780205920914 0205920918 |
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| spelling | Graziano, Anthony M. Verfasser aut Research methods a process of inquiry Anthony M. Graziano ; Michael L. Raulin 8. ed., internat. ed. Boston, Mass. [u.a.] Pearson 2013 XIX, 444 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Always learning Psychologie (DE-588)4047704-6 gnd rswk-swf Forschungsmethode (DE-588)4155046-8 gnd rswk-swf Psychologie (DE-588)4047704-6 s Forschungsmethode (DE-588)4155046-8 s DE-604 Raulin, Michael L. Verfasser aut HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025342325&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Graziano, Anthony M. Raulin, Michael L. Research methods a process of inquiry Psychologie (DE-588)4047704-6 gnd Forschungsmethode (DE-588)4155046-8 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4047704-6 (DE-588)4155046-8 |
| title | Research methods a process of inquiry |
| title_auth | Research methods a process of inquiry |
| title_exact_search | Research methods a process of inquiry |
| title_full | Research methods a process of inquiry Anthony M. Graziano ; Michael L. Raulin |
| title_fullStr | Research methods a process of inquiry Anthony M. Graziano ; Michael L. Raulin |
| title_full_unstemmed | Research methods a process of inquiry Anthony M. Graziano ; Michael L. Raulin |
| title_short | Research methods |
| title_sort | research methods a process of inquiry |
| title_sub | a process of inquiry |
| topic | Psychologie (DE-588)4047704-6 gnd Forschungsmethode (DE-588)4155046-8 gnd |
| topic_facet | Psychologie Forschungsmethode |
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