Sensorimotor control and learning: an introduction to the behavioral neuroscience of action
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Basingstoke [u.a.]
Palgrave Macmillan
2012
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| Ausgabe: | 1. publ. |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | XXXII, 879 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9780230371057 |
Internformat
MARC
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| 020 | |a 9780230371057 |c hardback |9 978-0-230-37105-7 | ||
| 035 | |a (OCoLC)815889639 | ||
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| 100 | 1 | |a Tresilian, James |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)1026514282 |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Sensorimotor control and learning |b an introduction to the behavioral neuroscience of action |c by James Tresilian |
| 250 | |a 1. publ. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Basingstoke [u.a.] |b Palgrave Macmillan |c 2012 | |
| 300 | |a XXXII, 879 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 650 | 4 | |a Motor Activity |x physiology | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Feedback | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Learning |x physiology | |
| 650 | 4 | |a Psychomotor Performance |x physiology | |
| 856 | 4 | 2 | |m SWB Datenaustausch |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025262861&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| 999 | |a oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-025262861 | ||
Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804149463454842880 |
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| adam_text | IMAGE 1
FIGURES AND TABLES XI
PREFACE XXVII
AUTHOR S ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XXIX
PERMISSIONS XXXI
PART I FUNDAMENTALS I
1 MOTOR BEHAVIOR AND CONTROL 3
1.1 GOAL-DIRECTED MOTOR BEHAVIOR 4
1.2 PRINCIPLES OF ERROR-CORRECTING FEEDBACK CONTROL 13
1.3 FEEDBACK CONTROL IS NOT ALL ABOUT CORRECTING ERRORS 24
1.4 ALTERNATIVES AND EXTENSIONS TO FEEDBACK CONTROL 30
2 NEUROMECHANICAL FOUNDATIONS 39
2.1 NEURONS 40
2.2 MOTOR COMPONENTS OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 57
2.3 NERVE AND MUSCLE 86
2.4 JOINT MOVEMENTS AND MUSCLES 102
3 SENSORIMOTOR FOUNDATIONS 123
3.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 124
3.2 THE VESTIBULAR SYSTEM 137
3.3 THE SOMATOSENSORY SYSTEM 153
3.4 PROPRIOCEPTIVE AFFERENCE AND KINESTHESIS 169
VISUOMOTOR FOUNDATIONS 195
4.1 EYES AND IMAGES 196
4.2 PATHWAYS AND PROCESSES 210
4.3 MOVING THE EYES AND HEAD 227
4.4 BRINGING IMAGES ONTO THE FOVEAS 242
SENSORIMOTOR CONTROL 265
5 STIMULUS-ELICITED BEHAVIOR 267
5.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF STIMULUS-ELICITED BEHAVIOR 268
5.2 REFLEXES 276
5.3 ELEMENTAL REFLEXES: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF REFLEX ACTION 281
5.4 THE COMBINATORIAL APPROACH TO FUNCTIONAL REFLEX ACTION 293
5.5 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN FUNCTIONAL REFLEXES
FT REFLEX CIRCUITRY AND VOLUNTARY MOTOR CONTROL 315
6.1 CENTRAL PROCESSES DETERMINE REFLEX EXCITABILITY 316
6.2 THE CONTRIBUTION OF REFLEX CIRCUITRY TO VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT 323
6.3 REFLEXES AND FEEDBACK CONTROL 334
6.4 THE STRETCH REFLEX AND VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT 341
IMAGE 2
6.5 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ^-EQUILIBRIUM POINT HYPOTHESIS 349
7 ORIENTING TO THE ENVIRONMENT AND CONTROLLING UPRIGHT STANCE 365
7.1 SENSORIMOTOR ORIENTATION TO THE GRAVITATIONAL VERTICAL 366
7.2 ORIENTATION TO THE GRAVITOINERTIAL VERTICAL 377
7.3 MECHANICS OF STANDING POSTURE 389
7.4 QUIET STANDING AND POSTURAL SWAY 401
7.5 PERTURBED STANCE 421
S LOCOMOTION ON LEAS 4-^7
8.1 DESCRIBING LOCOMOTION ON LEGS 438
8.2 MUSCLES, FORCES AND ENERGETICS 450
8.3 GENERATOR OF LOCOMOTOR PATTERNS 460
8.4 SENSORY INFLUENCES ON LOCOMOTOR PATTERN GENERATION 474
9 GETTING AROUND: VISUAL CONTROL 0/LOCOMOTOR MANEUVERS 485
9.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF VISION FOR LOCOMOTION ON LEGS 486
9.2 THE ROLE OF VISION IN GUIDANCE AND DECISION MAKING 496
9.3 TIMING AND AVOIDANCE OF CONTACT 505
10 STAYING ON TRACK 521
10.1 STAYING ON TRACK BY CORRECTING ERRORS 522
10.2 PERCEIVING THAT YOU ARE GOING IN THE RIGHT DIRECTION 536
10.3 PERCEPTUAL INFORMATION AND COMPENSATORY STEERING CONTROL 546
10.4 CORNERING AND STEERING ALONG WINDING PATHS 559
11 PROGRAMS AND PATTERN GENERATION IN VOLUNTARY ACTION 571
11.1 THE NATURE OF MOTOR PROGRAMS 572
11.2 PROGRAM STRUCTURES FOR AIMED MOVEMENT 590
12 AIMING TO BE ACCURATE 623
12.1 ACCURACY OF MOVEMENTS AIMED AT VISIBLE TARGETS 624
12.2 THE SPEED-ACCURACY TRADE-OFF 640
12.3 EFFECTS OF ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS ON MOVEMENT KINEMATICS 652
12.4 AIMING TO REACH A PARTICULAR PLACE AT A PARTICULAR TIME 661
SUCCESSFUL INFORMATICS PRACTICE 683
13.1 A COMBINATORIAL APPROACH TO SERIAL ACTION 684
13.2 SPEECH PRODUCTION 697
13.3 WRITING AND DRAWING 712
PART III SENSORIMOTOR LEARNING 729
14 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORIMOTOR LEARNING 731
14.1 LEARNING AND MEMORY 732
14.2 EXPERIENCE CHANGES ELICITED BEHAVIOR: LEARNING NOT TO RESPOND 756
14.3 EXPERIENCE CHANGES ELICITED BEHAVIOR: LEARNING TO ANTICIPATE 767
15.1 LEARNING FROM CONSEQUENCES 786
15.2 SENSORIMOTOR ADAPTATION 804
15.3 AUTOMATICITY AND SEQUENCE LEARNING 816
REFERENCES 825
INDEX 861
IMAGE 3
FIGURES AND
TABLES
FIGURES I. I DIFFERENT MOTOR PATTERNS THAT PRODUCE THE SAME OUTCOME ARE
MOTOR EQUIVALENT 7
1.2 A SEQUENCE OF THREE FRAMES IN A CARTOON OF A PERSON STRIKING A DRILL
OR COLD CHISEL 7
1.3 A FORCE-PRODUCTION TASK THAT REQUIRES PRESSING ON A PAD WITH THE
INDEX AND MIDDLE FINGERS TO PRODUCE A TOTAL FORCE OF 30 NEWTONS 8
1.4 THE DRAUGHTSMAN AND THE PICTURES HE CREATES 10
1.5 MALE MUDFLAT FIDDLER CRAB (UCA RAPAX) WAVING HIS MAJOR CLAW 10
1.6 COMMON ROUGH WOODLOUSE, PORCELLIO SCABER 12
1.7 STEERING AROUND A BEND 14
1.8 THREE BASIC TYPES OF BLOCK CONNECTIVITY 16
1.9 BLOCK DIAGRAMS SHOWING THE CONNECTION BETWEEN CONTROLLER AND THE
CONTROLLED SYSTEM 17 1.10 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL
SYSTEM 18
1.11 WATER TANK AND COMPONENTS THAT REGULATE WATER LEVEL 22
1.12 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF WATER TANK CONTROL SYSTEM 23
1.13 FAST AND SLOW CHANGES OF CONTROLLED VARIABLE IN RESPONSE TO A SHIFT
IN THE REQUIRED VALUE (SET-POINT) 24
1.14 OVERSHOOT IN SYSTEM RESPONSE 24
1.15 OSCILLATION IN SYSTEM RESPONSE 25
1.16 COIL SPRING 26
1.17 GRAPH OF THE OSCILLATION OF A COIL SPRING FOLLOWING RELEASE 26
1.18 GRAPH OF LENGTH AS FUNCTION OF TIME FOR A DAMPED SPRING 27
1.19 FORCES ACTING ON A STRETCHED SPRING 27
1.20 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ONE VARIANT OF PROPORTIONAL-DERIVATIVE CONTROL 29
1.21 ANALOGY BETWEEN PROPORTIONAL-DERIVATIVE CONTROL AND A
SPRING-AND-DAMPER SYSTEM 29 1.22 ATTEMPTING TO ADJUST A FAUCET SO AS TO
ACHIEVE A COMFORTABLE WATER TEMPERATURE 31 1.23 OPEN-LOOP CONTROL OF
SHOWER TEMPERATURE 32
1.24 COMBINED OPEN-AND CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEM 34
1.25 ACTION OF THE PUPILIARY LIGHT REFLEX 35
1.26 DIFFERENT APERTURES IN A CAMERA 35
1.27 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SENSORY FEEDFORWARD CONTROL 36
2.1 TYPE OF CEREBELLAR NEURON 41
2.2 THREE BASIC FORMS EXHIBITED BY MAMMALIAN NEURONS 42
2.3 TWO TYPES OF SYNAPSE 43
2.4 DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES ACROSS A CELL MEMBRANE 45
2.5 INTRACELLULAR RECORDING OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL 47
2.6 EXTRACELLULAR RECORDING OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL 47
2.7 RESPONSE OF A NEURON TO ELECTRIC SHOCKS OF VARIOUS STRENGTHS 48
2.8 TEMPORAL SUMMATION OF SUB THRESHOLD STIMULI 50
2.9 OLIGODENDROCYTES FORM MYELIN SHEATHS WITHIN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM 51
2.10 SPIKE PROPAGATION SPEED AS A FUNCTION OF AXON DIAMETER 52
2.11 SPIKE TRAIN RECORDED FROM AN AXON 53
2.12 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM CONVENTIONS 54
IMAGE 4
XII
2.13 PATTERNS OF NEURAL INTERCONNECTIVITY 5 5
2.14 LOCAL FEEDBACK CONNECTIVITY 55
2.15 BURSTING BEHAVIOR IN NEURONS 57
2.16 CARDINAL DIRECTIONS 58
2.17 DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN ROSTRAL-CAUDAL AND ANTERIOR-POSTERIOR
DIRECTIONS IN THE H U M AN BODY 59 2.18 CARDINAL PLANES 59
2.19 BASIC PLAN OF THE MAMMALIAN BRAIN 60
2.20 MID-SAGITTAL SECTION THROUGH A H U M AN BRAIN 61
2.21 CORONAL SECTION OF A H U M AN BRAIN 62
2.22 TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION 67
2.23 CORTICAL LOBES 68
2.24 MOTOR AREAS OF THE H U M AN CEREBRAL CORTEX 69
2.25 THE MOTOR HOMUNCULUS 70
2.26 LATERAL CONNECTIVITY IN MI 71
2.27 ACTION ZONES IN THE MOTOR CORTEX 72
2.28 CORONAL SECTION OF THE LEFT SIDE OF A H U M AN BRAIN, SHOWING THE
THALAMUS AND COMPONENT NUCLEI OF THE BASAL GANGLIA 74
2.29 BLOCK DIAGRAM SHOWING THE BASIC INTERCONNECTIVITY BETWEEN NUCLEI OF
THE BASAL GANGLIA ON ONE SIDE OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR CONNECTIONS TO
OTHER IMPORTANT IPSILATERAL STRUCTURES (CORTEX, THALAMUS AND
PEDUNCULOPONTINE NUCLEUS, PPN) 75
2.30 PRIMARY EFFECTS OF DAMAGE TO THE SUBTHALAMIC NUCLEUS (STN) 76
2.31 PRIMARY EFFECTS OF DAMAGE TO THE SUBSTANTIA NIGRA (SN) 77
2.32 DORSAL VIEW OF THE BRAINSTEM AND THALAMUS TOGETHER WITH A SERIES OF
TRANSVERSE SECTIONS 78
2.33 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE BASIC CONNECTIVITY OF THE COMPONENTS OF THE
RIGHT CEREBELLUM 79
2.34 VESTIBULOSPINAL AND RUBROSPINAL TRACTS (ORIGINATING FROM RIGHT SIDE
ONLY) 81
2.35 CORTICOSPINAL TRACT ORIGINATING FROM NEURONS IN THE LEFT CEREBRAL
CORTEX 82
2.36 TRANSVERSE SECTIONS THROUGH THE H U M AN SPINAL CORD AT THE
THORACIC LEVEL AND THE CERVICAL LEVEL 83
2.37 SPINAL CORD AND VERTEBRAE OF THE SPINAL COLUMN 84
2.38 BASIC CONNECTIVITY OF PROPRIOSPINAL NEURONS IN THE CERVICAL
PROPRIOSPINAL SYSTEM 86
2.39 DIFFERENT ARRANGEMENTS OF MUSCLE FIBERS 87
2.40 A SINGLE TWITCH CONTRACTION 90
2.41 CONTRACTIONS EVOKED BY TRAINS OF ACTION POTENTIALS 90
2.42 A LARGER MOTOR UNIT AND A SMALLER ONE 91
2.43 FORCE-TIME PROFILES OF FAST- AND SLOW-TWITCH MOTOR UNITS 92
2.44 TYPICAL APPEARANCE OF A RAW (UNPROCESSED) ELECTROMYOGRAM 95
2.45 ELECTROMYOGRAM FROM FIGURE 2.44 RECTIFIED AND FILTERED 96
2.46 STRETCHING A PIECE OF RUBBER BAND 97
2.47 FORCE-LENGTH CHARACTERISTIC 97
2.48 PASSIVE FORCE-LENGTH CHARACTERISTIC 98
2.49 ILLUSTRATIVE FORCE-LENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTIVE MUSCLE WITHOUT
REFLEXES AT THREE LEVELS OF ACTIVATION (HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW) 99
2.50 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORCE AND VELOCITY AT A SINGLE LENGTH 100
2.51 FORM OF THE FORCE-VELOCITY RELATIONSHIP 101
2.52 HINGE JOINTS 102
2.53 ELBOW (HUMEROULNAR) JOINT ANGLES 103
2.54 PIVOT JOINT 104
2.55 PRONATION-SUPINATION 104
2.56 MOVEMENTS OF THE INDEX FINGER ABOUT THE METACARPOPHALANGEAL JOINT
105
2.57 DEGREES-OF-FREEDOM OF A BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT 106
2.58 RADIOULNAR DEVIATION OF THE WRIST 107
2.59 ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT OF THE FOREARM THROUGH +75 0 108
2.60 ANGLE AND ANGULAR VELOCITY AS A FUNCTION OF TIME FOR TWO TYPES OF
MOVEMENT 108
2.61 ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ANGULAR ACCELERATION OF A SINGLE JOINT
MOVEMENT 109
2.62 DRAWING A STRAIGHT LINE 112
IMAGE 5
XIII
2.63 DRAWING A CURVED LINE. THE VELOCITY VECTOR (ARROW) IS SHOWN AT
THREE DIFFERENT TIMES 112
2.64 TRANSLATIONAL ACCELERATION (ARROWS REPRESENT VELOCITY VECTORS) 113
2.65 MUSCLE FORCE ACTS AT A DISTANCE FROM THE AXIS OF ROTATION 115
2.66 THE BRACHIORADIALIS MUSCLE 117
2.67 TRICEPS BRACHII AND BRACHIALIS ARE ANTAGONISTS 118
3.1 FOUR TYPES OF SENSORY RECEPTOR FOUND IN THE HUMAN BODY 126
3.2 TASTE AND VESTIBULAR RECEPTOR CELLS CONNECT TO AFFERENT NEURONS 127
3.3 RECEPTOR POTENTIAL AS A FUNCTION OF STIMULUS STRENGTH (STRETCH) 128
3.4 FIRING RATE OF A CUTANEOUS MECHANORECEPTOR AFFERENT AS A FUNCTION OF
STIMULUS STRENGTH 128 3.5 RESPONSE OF FAST AND SLOW ADAPTING SENSORY
RECEPTORS 129
3.6 FIRING IN AFFERENT AXON OF A FAST ADAPTING CUTANEOUS MECHANORECEPTOR
IN RESPONSE TO DIFFERENT RATES OF SKIN INDENDATION (STIMULUS) 130
3.7 SENSORY INSTRUMENTS * 135
3.8 CUTAWAY SHOWING STRUCTURES OF THE MIDDLE AND INNER EAR 138
3.9 THE (LEFT) MEMBRANOUS VESTIBULAR LABYRINTH 139
3.10 DEFLECTION OF HAIRS OF A VESTIBULAR HAIR CELL 140
3.11 EFFECTS OF DEFLECTING THE SENSORY HAIRS ON THE CELL MEMBRANE
POTENTIAL AND THE AFFERENT FIRING RATE 140
3.12 DEFLECTION OF SENSORY HAIRS IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS 141
3.13 SCHEMATIC OF THE ANATOMY OF A SEMICIRCULAR CANAL 141
3.14 STIMULUS AND RESPONSE FOR A SEMICIRCULAR CANAL 142
3.15 FIRING RATE OF CANAL AFFERENTS FOLLOWS THE ANGULAR VELOCITY DURING
ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION 143
3.16 ORIENTATION OF THE THREE SEMICIRCULAR CANALS 144
3.17 ACCELERATION ABOUT DIFFERENT AXES OF ROTATION STIMULATES DIFFERENT
CANALS 144
3.18 THREE CARDINAL AXES OF HEAD ROTATION 145
3.19 VESTIBULAR NUCLEI 145
3.20 AFFERENT CONNECTIONS BETWEEN LEFT OTOLITHS AND IPSILATERAL
VESTIBULAR NUCLEI 146 3.21 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE HORIZONTAL CANALS
AND ASSOCIATED CIRCUITRY ILLUSTRATING THEIR PUSH-PULL ARRANGEMENT 147
3.22 SMALL SEGMENT OF THE MACULA OF AN OTOLITH 148
3.23 THE OTOLITHIC MACULAE, SHOWING THE STRIOLAE AND THE POLARIZATION
PATTERNS OF THE HAIR CELLS 149
3.24 EFFECTS OF HEAD TILT ON THE UTRICULAR MACULAE 149
3.25 EFFECT OF TRANSLATIONAL ACCELERATION OF THE HEAD ON THE UTRICULAR
MACULAE 150
3.26 CONNECTIVITY OF THE VESTIBULAR NUCLEI 152
3.27 APPROXIMATE LOCATIONS OF THE CORTICAL REGIONS THAT RECEIVE
VESTIBULAR INFORMATION VIA THE THALAMUS 152
3.28 TWO WAYS OF PRODUCING A CYCLICAL PATTERN OF SKIN INDENTATION 155
3.29 THRESHOLD LEVEL OF SKIN INDENTATION FOR MEISSNER AND PACINIAN
CORPUSCLES 156
3.30 RECEPTIVE FIELDS OF SELECTED AFFERENTS IN THE HUMAN HAND 158
3.31 STRUCTURE OF A MUSCLE SPINDLE 159
3.32 INNERVATION OF INTRAFUSAL FIBERS 160
3.33 RESPONSES OF TYPE LA AND TYPE II AFFERENTS TO FAST AND SLOW
STRETCHES 161
3.34 EFFECT OF Y-MN STIMULATION ON THE RESPONSE OF SPINDLE AFFERENTS TO
STRETCH 162
3.35 GOLGI TENDON ORGAN 163
3.36 SOMATOSENSORY PATHWAYS TO THE CEREBRAL CORTEX 165
3.37 DORSAL SPINOCEREBELLAR TRACT 166
3.38 SOMATOSENSORY AREAS OF THE HUMAN CEREBRAL CORTEX 167
3.39 THALAMOCORTICAL PROJECTIONS 167
3.40 SAGITTAL SECTION THROUGH SI SHOWING DIVISION INTO SUB-AREAS 168
3.41 CORTICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE BODY SURFACE OVER SI 169
3.42 KINESTHETIC MATCHING TASK 172
3.43 KINESTHETIC MATCHING TASK IN WHICH THE PERSON ATTEMPTS TO MATCH THE
POSTURE OF THE RIGHT ARM WITH THE LEFT ARM 172
IMAGE 6
XIV
3.44 TASK INVOLVING A VISUAL-KINESTHETIC MATCH 173
3.45 TWO POSTURES OF THE H A ND USED IN THE STUDY OF KINESTHETIC
PERCEPTION OF MOVEMENT OF THE DISTAL INTERPHALANGEAL JOINT OF THE MIDDLE
FINGER 174
3.46 DISCRIMINATION OF MOTION OF THE DISTAL INTERPHALANGEAL JOINT OF THE
MIDDLE FINGER UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS 175
3.47 MECHANICAL EFFECT OF HOLDING A VIBRATING PROBE AGAINST A TENDON 176
3.48 THE PINOCCHIO ILLUSION 177
3.49 SET-UP FOR EVOKING THE RUBBER HAND ILLUSION 179
3.50 SET-UP FOR EVOKING AN ILLUSION OF OWNERSHIP OF A MODEL FINGER 180
3.51 RESULTS FROM A KINESTHETIC MATCHING TASK IN WHICH THE RIGHT FOREARM
AND HAND WERE PARALYZED AND ANESTHETIZED 182
3.52 SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATICS OF TWO EXTREME VIEWS REGARDING THE PERCEPTION
OF EFFORT 182
3.53 DIFFERENT TYPES OF COORDINATE SYSTEM 183
3.54 POLAR COORDINATE REPRESENTATION OF FINGER TIP LOCATION 184 -
3.55 AN EXAMPLE OF A KINESTHETIC LOCALIZATION TASK 185
3.56 RESULTS FROM A KINESTHETIC LOCALIZATION TASK 186
3.57 EXPERIMENTAL TASK FOR STUDYING THE HAPTIC PERCEPTION OF LENGTH 187
3.58 RESULTS FROM AN EXPERIMENT USING THE TASK SHOWN IN FIGURE 3.57 188
3.59 EXPLORATORY PROCEDURES FOR HAPTIC PERCEPTION 190
4.1 BASIC STRUCTURE OF TWO KINDS OF CAMERA 4.2 HUMAN EYE: THE
CROSS-SECTION ON THE RIGHT SHOWS THE LOCATION OF THE LENS 198
4.3 IMAGES OF MORE DISTANT OBJECTS ARE FOCUSED CLOSER TO THE LENS 199
4.4 FOCUSING ACTION OF THE ACCOMMODATIVE REFLEX 200
4.5 ANGLE OF VIEW OF AN EYE 200
4.6 FIELD OF VIEW OF AN EYE IN THE TRANSVERSE (HORIZONTAL) PLANE 201
4.7 NODAL POINTS AND VISUAL ANGLES 202
4.8 EXTENT OF THE VISUAL FIELDS IN THE TRANSVERSE PLANE OF THE HEAD. THE
BINOCULAR OVERLAP IS SHADED DARKER 202
4.9 FIELD OF VIEW OF THE RABBIT 203
4.10 CARTOON ILLUSTRATION OF THE CONCEPT OF OPTIC FLOW 204
4.11 EYE MOVING THROUGH AN ENVIRONMENT. INSET, MOTION OF POINTS ON THE
RETINA 205
4.12 RADIAL OUTFLOW PATTERN IS PRODUCED WHEN AN EYE MOVES TOWARDS A
SURFACE WITHOUT ROTATION 206 4.13 IMAGE FLOW DUE TO EYE ROTATION 206
4.14 THE IDEA BEHIND EXPERIMENTS DEMONSTRATING THAT PEOPLE CAN USE
MOTION PARALLAX TO PERCEIVE THE LAYOUT OF VISIBLE SURFACES 208
4.15 STRUCTURE OF THE PRIMATE RETINA OUTSIDE THE CENTRAL (FOVEAL) AREA
211
4.16 CROSS-SECTION OF THE EYE SHOWING THE OPTIC DISC (BLIND SPOT) AND
THE FOVEA 212
4.17 PHOTORECEPTOR DISTRIBUTION IN THE H U M AN RETINA 212
4.18 VISUAL ACUITY ACROSS THE RETINA 213
4.19 DIVISIONS OF THE RETINA 214
4.20 RECEPTIVE FIELDS OF RETINAL GANGLION CELLS 215
4.21 GANGLION CELL RECEPTIVE FIELDS AND THEIR RESPONSES TO STIMULATION
216
4.22 AXONS FROM THE LEFT AND RIGHT HEMIRETINAE PROJECT TO CORRESPONDING
SIDES OF THE BRAIN 217
4.23 LEFT AND RIGHT HALVES OF THE VISUAL FIELD ARE SENT TO STRUCTURES IN
THE LEFT AND RIGHT SIDES OF THE BRAIN, RESPECTIVELY 218
4.24 PROJECTIONS OF RETINAL GANGLION CELL AXONS TO NUCLEI IN THE BRAIN
219
4.25 VISUAL PATHWAYS FROM THE RETINAS TO THE SUPERIOR COLLICULI AND VI
220
4.26 RETINOTOPIC ORGANIZATION OF THE VISUAL PATHWAY 221
4.27 REPRESENTATION OF THE VISUAL FIELD IN VI OF THE TWO HEMISPHERES 222
4.28 THE DORSAL AND VENTRAL STREAMS OF VISUAL PROCESSING 223
4.29 DIFFERENT CONCEPTIONS OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TWO VISUAL STREAMS
224
4.30 CONSCIOUS VISUAL PROCESS CAN AFFECT MOTOR CONTROL 224
4.31 PROJECTIONS FROM THE RETINA TO THE DORSAL STREAM 225
4.32 THE VISUAL AXIS 228
IMAGE 7
XV
4.33 GAZE ANGLE AND EYE POSITION 229
4.34 AN EYE S THREE DEGREES-OF-FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT 230
4.35 TWO TYPES OF EYE MOVEMENT 231
4.36 THE EXTRAOCULAR MUSCULATURE 231
4.37 THE MECHANICAL ACTIONS OF THE EXTRAOCULAR MUSCLES WHEN IN THE
CENTRAL POSITION 232 4.38 HEAD AND EYE MOTIONS RELATIVE TO THE
ENVIRONMENT WHEN STANDING AND FIXATING 233 4.39 ANGULAR VELOCITY OF THE
HEAD WHILE WALKING 235
4.40 COUNTER-ROTATIONAL EYE MOVEMENTS KEEP GAZE STEADY WHEN WALKING 235
4.41 COUNTER-ROTATIONAL EYE MOVEMENT IN THE TRANSVERSE PLANE OF THE HEAD
236
4.42 VERTICAL AND TORSIONAL COUNTER-ROTATIONAL EYE MOVEMENTS 237
4.43 OSCILLATORY MOTION OF THE HEAD AND COUNTER-ROTATIONAL EYE MOVEMENTS
238
4.44 GAIN OF THE HORIZONTAL ROTATIONAL-VOR 239
4.45 TRANSLATIONAL MOTION OF THE HEAD (BOBBING AND WEAVING) WHILE
WALKING. COUNTER-ROTATIONAL EYE MOVEMENTS PRESERVE GAZE DIRECTION DURING
HEAD TRANSLATIONS 240
4.46 AS A BIRD FLIES ALONG A CURVED PATH, ITS HEAD AND EYES ROTATE
RELATIVE TO THE ENVIRONMENT 240 4.47 THE OPTOKINETIC DRUM 241
4.48 NYSTAGMIC EYE MOVEMENT PATTERN INDUCED BY OPTOKINETIC STIMULATION
242
4.49 A TYPICAL SACCADIC EYE MOVEMENT 244
4.50 PEAK VELOCITY AND MOVEMENT TIME OF SACCADIC EYE MOVEMENTS AS A
FUNCTION OF AMPLITUDE 245 4.51 SMALL AMPLITUDE (6O) EYE-HEAD SACCADE
246
4.52 EYE, HEAD AND GAZE MOVEMENT DURING A LARGE AMPLITUDE (205 0 )
EYE-HEAD (GAZE) SACCADE 247 4.53 HORIZONTAL EYE POSITION AS A FUNCTION
OF TIME DURING A SUSTAINED FIXATION 248
4.54 AN EYE PURSUES A MOVING OBJECT 249
4.55 THE ANGULAR VELOCITY OF THE TARGET RELATIVE TO THE HEAD IS THE RATE
OF CHANGE OF (3 249 4.56 EYE S ANGULAR POSITION DURING PURSUIT OF A
CONSTANT VELOCITY TARGET 250
4.57 PURSUIT MOVEMENT WITH CATCH-UP SACCADES 250
4.58 PURSUIT OF A MOVING TARGET WITH BOTH HEAD AND EYE MOVEMENTS 252
4.59 CONVERGENCE AND DIPLOPIA 253
4.60 PURE CONVERGENCE ALONG THE MID-SAGITTAL PLANE 254
4.61 VERGENCE ANGLE IS THE SAME FOR ALL POINTS ON A VEITH-MULLER CIRCLE.
ONLY VERGENCE CHANGES BETWEEN POINTS ON HILLEBRAND HYPERBOLAS 256
4.62 TWO POINTS THAT LIE ON DIFFERENT VEITH-MULLER CIRCLES AND DIFFERENT
HILLEBRAND HYPERBOLAS 256 4.63 ONLY THE RIGHT EYE NEED MOVE TO SHIFT
FIXATION 257
4.64 SHIFTING FIXATION BY MAKING A VERGENCE MOVEMENT, THEN A CONJUGATE
MOVEMENT 258 4.65 MUSCLES AND MOTONEURON POOLS INVOLVED IN HORIZONTAL
EYE MOVEMENTS 258
4.66 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF HERING S LAW 259
4.67 CHANGES IN FIXATION THAT REQUIRE BOTH VERGENCE AND CONJUGATE
MOVEMENTS 260
5.1 ELICITING A BLINK USING A PUFF OF AIR 269
5.2 A SEQUENCE OF THREE FRAMES OF A MOVIE SHOWING A GRAYLAG GOOSE
RETRIEVING AN EGG 271 5.3 NEURAL PATHWAY FROM RECEPTOR TO MUSCLE 272
5.4 WATER TANK WITH SPRING-LOADED VALVE ON THE OUTLET 273
5.5 PARTIAL PREFERENCE CHART FOR EGG RETRIEVAL 275
5.6 A STIMULUS CAN ELICIT BOTH AUTONOMIC AND SKELETOMOTOR REFLEX
RESPONSES 277
5.7 FROG WIPING REFLEX: THE FROG WIPES OFF AN IRRITATING STIMULUS WITH
ITS RIGHT FOOT 278
5.8 POSITION OF FOOT PRIOR TO WIPING DEPENDS ON THE STIMULUS LOCATION
278
5.9 SCRATCHING RESPONSE EVOKED BY STRONG AND WEAK STIMULATION 280
5.10 A RHYTHM GENERATOR PRODUCES RHYTHMIC BURSTS OF ACTION POTENTIALS
(EFFERENT ACTIVITY) IN RESPONSE TO A CONTINUOUS TRAIN OF ACTION
POTENTIALS (TONIC AFFERENT INPUT) 281
5.11 A NATURAL REFLEX MECHANISM IS BUILT FROM A NUMBER OF ELEMENTAL
MECHANISMS 282 5.12 RESPONSE COMPONENTS OF THE AUTOGENIC STRETCH REFLEX
283
5.13 EMG RESPONSES (RECTIFIED, SMOOTHED) TO IMPULSIVE AND STEP STRETCH
STIMULI 284
5.14 EMG RESPONSES TO STEP AND RAMP STRETCH STIMULI 284
5.15 VARIOUS REFLEX ARCS 285
5.16 MONOSYNAPTIC STRETCH REFLEX ARC 286
IMAGE 8
5.17 A SINGLE LA AFFERENT MAKES CONNECTIONS WITH MANY A-MNS 287
5.18 CARTOON OF THE KNEE-JERK RESPONSE TO A TAP ON THE PATELLAR TENDON
287
5.19 THREE DIFFERENT REFLEX ARCS THAT SHARE THE SAME LA AFFERENT 288
5.20 SIMPLE METHOD FOR OBSERVING THE EFFECT OF RECIPROCAL LA INHIBITION
289
5.21 RESPONSE VIGOR DEPENDS ON STIMULUS STRENGTH 290
5.22 MUSCLE STRETCH PLOTTED AS LENGTH AGAINST TIME AND AS SPEED OF
LENGTHENING AGAINST TIME 291 5.23 RESPONSE LATENCY DEPENDS ON STIMULUS
STRENGTH DUE TO TEMPORAL SUMMATION 292 5.24 BASIC CIRCUITRY OF THE
HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OF THE ROTATIONAL-VOR 294
5.25 THE DIRECT AND INDIRECT VOR PATHWAYS CONTRIBUTE PHASIC AND TONIC
COMPONENTS OF REFLEX ACTION 295
5.26 TWO REFLEX ARCS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO WITHDRAWAL OF THE FOOT 297
5.27 THE MOVEMENT REQUIRED FOR WITHDRAWAL DEPENDS ON THE LOCATION OF THE
STIMULATION 297 5.28 STIMULATION SITES ON A RAT S FOOT 298
5.29 WITHDRAWAL REFLEX RECEPTIVE FIELDS (RF) OF TWO MUSCLES 299
5.30 SCHEMATIC OF THE REFLEX ARCS INVOLVED IN WITHDRAWAL OF A RAT S FOOT
299
5.31 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF THE WITHDRAWAL CIRCUITS ASSOCIATED
WITH THE GASTROCNEMIUS AND TIBIALIS ANTERIOR MUSCLES 300
5.32 DIRECTION OF WITHDRAWAL MOVEMENT IN RESPONSE TO AVERSIVE
STIMULATION OF THE HAND ASSOCIATED WITH SUPINE AND PRONE POSTURES 301
5.33 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF HYPOTHETICAL WITHDRAWAL REFLEX
CIRCUITRY 301 5.34 HYPOTHETICAL WITHDRAWAL REFLEX CIRCUITRY OF FIGURE
5.33 SUPPLEMENTED WITH A POSTURAL MODULATION CIRCUIT 302
5.35 FIVE DIFFERENT ELEMENTAL REFLEX ARCS THAT SHARE THE SAME AFFERENT
BUT HAVE DIFFERENT THRESHOLDS 303 5.36 ELEMENTAL REFLEX PATHWAYS WITH
OVERLAPPING RECEPTIVE FIELDS (RFS) 305
5.37 INHIBITION OF ELEMENTAL REFLEX BY INFORMATION ABOUT THE POSTURAL
CONTEXT 305
5.38 WITHDRAWAL AND STRETCH REFLEX ARCS THAT ARE IN CONFLICT 307
5.39 SUPPRESSION OF SCRATCHING DURING WITHDRAWAL 308
5.40 MECHANISM BY WHICH WITHDRAWAL CAN SUPPRESS SCRATCHING 308
5.41 MUTUAL INHIBITION BETWEEN TWO REFLEX CIRCUITS 309
5.42 BINOCULAR FIXATION, BLUR AND DIPLOPIA 309
5.43 THE MECHANISMS OF THE FUSIONAL VERGENCE AND ACCOMMODATION REFLEXES
ARE CROSSLINKED 310
6.1 EXCITATORY AND INHIBITORY EFFECTS ON REFLEX PATHWAYS BY DESCENDING
AXONS 316
6.2 SYMMETRIC AND ASYMMETRIC TONIC NECK REFLEX RESPONSE POSTURES 318
6.3 BASEBALL FIELDER LEAPING TO MAKE A CATCH 319
6.4 PROPORTIONAL MEASURE OF AMOUNT OF WEIGHT LIFTED DURING SUCCESSIVE
BOUTS OF LIFTING WITH THE HEAD IN DIFFERENT POSITIONS ON THE SHOULDERS
320
6.5 REFLEX ARCS OF THE FLEXOR WITHDRAWAL AND CROSSED-EXTENSOR REFLEXES
321
6.6 A PERSON IS LOOKING STRAIGHT AHEAD WHEN A FLASH OF LIGHT APPEARS TO
THE LEFT. A FLASH ELICITS A REFLEX SACCADE THAT MOVES THE EYES SO THAT
GAZE IS DIRECTED IN THE DIRECTION OF THE FLASH 323
6.7 SIMPLIFIED BRAINSTEM CIRCUITRY RESPONSIBLE FOR GENERATING LEFTWARD,
HORIZONTAL SACCADES AND THE APPROXIMATE LOCATION OF THE NUCLEI INVOLVED
324
6.8 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF THE MAIN EXCITATORY PATHWAYS
INVOLVED IN VOLITIONAL AND VISUALLY EVOKED REFLEX SACCADIC EYE MOVEMENTS
325
6.9 ILLUSTRATION OF AGONIST AND ANTAGONIST MUSCLE AND MOTONEURON
ACTIVITY DURING A LEFTWARD SACCADE 326
6.10 ACTIVITY (FIRING RATES) IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE HORIZONTAL
SACCADE-GENERATING CIRCUIT SHOWN IN FIGURE 6.7 DURING THE PRODUCTION OF
A SACCADE TO THE LEFT 327
6.11 SIMPLE FEEDBACK MODEL OF HORIZONTAL SACCADE COMMAND GENERATION BY
BRAINSTEM CIRCUITS 328 6.12 MICROSTIMULATION EXPERIMENTS REVEAL SACCADIC
MOTOR MAPS IN THE DEEPER LAYERS OF THE MONKEY SUPERIOR COLLICULI 329
6.13 SCHEME FOR GENERATING SACCADES OF DIFFERENT AMPLITUDES AND
DIRECTIONS 331
6.14 TOPOGRAPHIC PROJECTION OF THE VISUAL FIELD INTO THE SUPERIOR
COLLICULI 332
6.15 LEFT UTRICULAR MACULA SHOWING THE HAIR CELL POLARIZATION PATTERN
336
IMAGE 9
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6.16 BASIC CIRCUITRY (REFLEX ARCS) MEDIATING THE CORONAL VESTIBULOCOLLIC
REFLEX 337
6.17 SIMPLIFIED CORONAL VESTIBULOCOLLIC REFLEX CIRCUITRY, AND ACTIVITY
IN VARIOUS LOCATIONS WITHIN IT, DURING A TILT OF THE HEAD TO THE LEFT
338
6.18 HIGHER CENTERS COUPLED TO CORONAL-VCR CIRCUITS 339
6.19 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE CORONAL-VCR 340
6.20 SHAPE OF FORCE-LENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX-ABSENT MUSCLE AND
REFLEX-INTACT MUSCLE 342 6.21 A REFLEX INTACT MUSCLE IS MORE ACTIVE THE
MORE IT IS STRETCHED 343
6.22 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FORCE-LENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF
REFLEX-INTACT AND REFLEX- ABSENT MUSCLE 343
6.23 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM FOR REGULATING
MUSCLE LENGTH 345 6.24 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A MUSCLE TOGETHER WITH ITS
INNERVATIONS BY MOTONEURONS AND TONIC STRETCH REFLEX CONNECTIONS 345
6.25 SHORTENING (CONTRACTION) OF MUSCLE STRETCHED BEYOND THE REFLEX
THRESHOLD 346
6.26 CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN THE NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM BLOCK
DIAGRAM AND THE STRETCH REFLEX CIRCUIT COMPONENTS 346
6.27 THE EFFECT OF ELECTRICAL STIMULATION STRENGTH (OF MIDBRAIN SITES)
ON THE FORCE-LENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX-INTACT MUSCLE 347
6.28 SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF SOME CENTRAL CONNECTIONS WITH ELEMENTS IN
THE TONIC STRETCH REFLEX ARC 350
6.29 THE EQUILIBRIUM LENGTH OF A MUSCLE SUBJECT TO A PARTICULAR LOAD
(PULL) DEPENDS ON THE THRESHOLD LENGTH (X) 351
6.30 IF THE THRESHOLD IS CONSTANT, A MUSCLE REACHES DIFFERENT
EQUILIBRIUM LENGTHS WHEN THE MAGNITUDE OF THE LOAD FORCE IS DIFFERENT
352
6.31 ILLUSTRATION OF HOW A SHIFT IN THE THRESHOLD ( TO X F ) CHANGES
THE EQUILIBRIUM POSITION (IN CONSTANT LOAD CONDITIONS) 353
6.32 ILLUSTRATIVE TORQUE-ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS OF FLEXOR AND EXTENSOR
MUSCLES 354
6.33 FLEXOR AND EXTENSOR TORQUE-ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS PLOTTED ON THE
SAME SET OF AXES 354 6.34 THE WEIGHT OF THE FOREARM EXERTS A TORQUE AT
THE ELBOW 355
6.35 DIFFERENT THRESHOLD JOINT ANGLES FOR THE FLEXOR AND EXTENSOR
MUSCLES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENT EQUILIBRIUM POSITIONS OF THE JOINT
356
6.36 THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE THRESHOLD JOINT ANGLES FOR THE FLEXOR AND
EXTENSOR MUSCLES DETERMINES THE MUSCLE TORQUES AT EQUILIBRIUM 357
6.37 A SHIFT IN THE THRESHOLD ANGLES IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS CHANGES THE
STIFFNESS OF THE JOINT (SLOPE OF THE JOINT TORQUE-ANGLE CHARACTERISTIC)
358
6.38 DIFFERENT WAYS IN WHICH THE R-COMMAND COULD SHIFT FROM AN INITIAL
LEVEL TO A FINAL LEVEL TO PRODUCE AN ELBOW FLEXION MOVEMENT 359
6.39 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE X-HYPOTHESIS
DIVIDED INTO CENTRAL (BRAIN LEVEL) PROCESSES AND PERIPHERAL (SPINAL AND
LIMB) LEVEL PROCESSES 360
7.1 BLUE SHARK AND HERON IN UPRIGHT ORIENTATIONS 366
7.2 A GROUSE WITH COUNTERSHADING AND WITHOUT IT 366
7.3 AN UPRIGHT BOTTLE 367
7.4 ARM HELD OUT STRAIGHT AND HORIZONTAL 368
7.5 A PERSON LEANS SO THAT THE HEAD AND TRUNK ARE AT DIFFERENT ANGLES
WITH RESPECT TO THE GRAVITATIONAL VERTICAL 368
7.6 ORIENTATION TASKS THAT INVOLVE ORIENTING A BODY PART OR AN OBJECT
WITH RESPECT TO THE VERTICAL 370
7.7 RESULTS FROM HAPTIC ORIENTATION EXPERIMENTS IN WHICH PITCH AND ROLL
TILT WERE VARIED 370 7.8 A- AND E-EFFECTS IN A VISUAL ORIENTATION TASK
371
7.9 A TILTED ROOM 373
7.10 A PERSON S PERCEPTIONS WITHIN A TILTED ROOM AND THE ACTUAL
SITUATION 374
7.11 PERSON IN A ROOM ROTATED THROUGH 90 0 376
7.12 A ROCKET CAPSULE IN SPACE 377
7.13 TO THE ASTRONAUT INSIDE THE CAPSULE, SITUATIONS A AND B ARE
INDISTINGUISHABLE 378
7.14 ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY IN A SPINNING SPACE STATION IS PROVIDED BY THE
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 379
IMAGE 10
7
7 7 7 7
.16 .17 .18
.19 . 20
7-21
7
7
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
7 7 7 7
7
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
7 7 7
7 7
. 22 .23
.24
* 25 .26
*27 .28 .29 *30 * 3I *32
*33 *34 *35 .36
*37 .38 *39 .40
* 41 *42
*43 *44 *45 . 4 6
*47 *48 *49 *50 *5I 7-52
7 7 7
7
*53 *54
*55 *56
XVIII
7.15 THE GRAVITOINERTIAL FORCE ACTING ON A PERSON S HEAD IS THE VECTOR
SUM OF THE GRAVITATIONAL
AND INERTIAL FORCES 379
FORCES ACTING ON A PERSON S CENTER OF MASS IN AN ACCELERATING TRAIN CAR
380
CROSS-SECTION THROUGH THE CAR OF A TILT-TRAIN AS IT TRAVELS AROUND A
CURVED SECTION OF TRACK 381 A CYCLIST TRAVELING AROUND A CURVE ON A
BANKED TRACK 381
THE HUMAN CENTRIFUGE APPARATUS 382
ACTUAL SITUATION AND THE PERSON S PERCEPTION DURING CENTRIFUGATION 383
A HUMAN CENTRIFUGE THAT IS FREE TO TILT ALIGNS ITSELF WITH THE GIF
VECTOR 384
ACTUAL SITUATIONS AND PERCEPTIONS IN NORMAL GRAVITY AND INCREASED
GRAVITY 385 WHEN ACCELERATING ALONG THE RUNWAY, THE PILOT IS VERTICALLY
ORIENTED WITH RESPECT TO GRAVITY, BUT TILTED BACKWARDS WITH RESPECT TO
THE GIF 387
THE PITCH-UP ILLUSION ARISES IN DARK-NIGHT TAKEOFFS AS A CONSEQUENCE OF
A SOMATOGRAVIC EFFECT 388 CONSEQUENCE OF CORRECTING FOR THE PITCH-UP
ILLUSION 388
THE WEIGHT FORCE ACTS AT THE CENTER OF GRAVITY 390
ROD BALANCED VERTICALLY ON A FINGER TIP 390
THE POSITION OF THE COG DEPENDS ON THE POSITION OF THE LIMB SEGMENTS 391
THE FOSBURY FLOP 391
THE TORQUE DUE TO THE WEIGHT TOPPLES THE ROD TO THE RIGHT 392
NORMAL AND INVERTED PENDULA 392
DIFFERENT TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM POINT 393
STABLE EQUILIBRIA WITH DIFFERING DEGREES OF STABILITY 393
A SADDLE POINT 394
A POLE CAN BE MADE MORE STABLE BY MOUNTING IT ON FEET OR ON A BASE 395
A POLE ON A DISC-SHAPED BASE IS STABLE IN THE UPRIGHT POSITION, PROVIDED
THAT ITS COG IS NOT MOVED OUTSIDE THE BASE. IN LANDSCAPE TERMS, THIS
CORRESPONDS TO A HILL WITH A CRATER IN THE TOP 395 THE BASE OF SUPPORT
WITH THE FEET IN DIFFERENT POSITIONS 396
GROUND REACTION FORCE ON A WALKING STICK 397
GROUND REACTION FORCE ON AN OBJECT WITH FOUR LEGS 398
A COMPOUND INVERTED PENDULUM 399
FOUR DIFFERENT UPRIGHT POSTURES IN WHICH THE COG IS ABOVE THE BASE OF
SUPPORT 400 GRAVITATIONAL TORQUES ABOUT THE ANKLE, KNEE AND HIP JOINTS
WHEN STANDING UPRIGHT 400 GENERIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FEEDBACK CONTROL FOR
POSTURAL STABILIZATION 402
FIRING A GUN IN A STANDING POSTURE 403
MUSCLES THAT MAY BE ACTIVE DURING QUIET STANCE, AND PATTERNS OF
ANTEROPOSTERIOR SWAY 404 ANTEROPOSTERIOR ANKLE JOINT ANGLE
(PLANTARFLEXION-DORSIFIEXION) DURING A PERIOD OF QUIET STANCE, WITH A
PEAK-TO-PEAK AMPLITUDE OF 1.5 0 405
DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF MEDIOLATERAL SWAY 406
MEDIOLATERAL SWAY DURING QUIET STANCE 407
MOTION OF THE BODY S COG IN THE ANTEROPOSTERIOR DIRECTION DURING A
PERIOD OF QUIET STANDING 407 POSITION OF THE CENTER OF PRESSURE AND THE
COG DURING A PERIOD OF QUIET STANCE 408 PERFORMING A COGNITIVE TASK
(MENTAL ARITHMETIC) DURING QUIET STANCE 410
HOLDING AN INVERTED PENDULUM IN AN UPRIGHT POSITION USING A PIECE OF
ELASTIC 411 INVERTED PENDULUM MODEL OF A STANDING PERSON 412
KEEPING A PENDULUM UPRIGHT WITH INTERMITTENT PUSHES 415
THE SWINGING ROOM APPARATUS 416
PATTERN OF RESULTS OBTAINED IN EXPERIMENTS IN WHICH STANDING
PARTICIPANTS SAW A STIMULUS THAT SIMULATED SINUSOIDAL RELATIVE MOTION
BETWEEN THEMSELVES AND A VERTICAL WALL 417 7.57 TASK SET-UP AND RESULTS
FROM A STUDY IN WHICH PEOPLE BALANCED A BODY-EQUIVALENT INVERTED
PENDULUM BY MEANS OF MUSCULAR TORQUES EXERTED ABOUT THE ANKLE JOINTS 418
7.58 TASK SET-UP AND RESULTS FROM A STUDY IN WHICH PEOPLE STOOD STRAPPED
TO A LIGHTWEIGHT FAME TO PREVENT MOTION AT JOINTS OTHER THAN THE ANKLES
419
7.79 TASK SET-UP AND RESULTS FROM A STUDY IN WHICH PEOPLE STOOD
HEEL-TO-TOE AND COULD TOUCH A FIXED BAR WITH THEIR INDEX FINGER TIP 420
7.60 RESULTS FROM AN EXPERIMENT IN WHICH THE PLATFORM ON WHICH
PARTICIPANTS STOOD SHIFTED EITHER BACKWARDS OR FORWARDS 423
IMAGE 11
XIX
7.61 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE IDEA THAT POSTURAL SYNERGIES
UNDERLIE CORRECTIVE REACTIONS
TO DISTURBANCES TO UPRIGHT STANCE 424
7.62 RESULTS FROM AN EXPERIMENT IN WHICH PARTICIPANTS STOOD ON A SHORT
PLATFORM THAT SHIFTED UNEXPECTEDLY BACKWARDS OR FORWARDS 425
7.63 LOCATION OF THE MASTOID BONE ON THE LEFT SIDE 427
7.64 SWAY REACTIONS EVOKED BY GALVANIC VESTIBULAR STIMULATION 428
7.65 LIFTING THE LEFT LEG REQUIRES LEANING TO THE RIGHT TO KEEP THE COG
OVER THE BASE OF SUPPORT AND AVOID TOPPLING OVER 429
7.66 EXAMPLE RESULTS FROM AN EXPERIMENT IN WHICH PARTICIPANTS PULLED ON
A HANDLE AS SOON AS POSSIBLE AFTER THEY HEARD A TONE (IMPERATIVE
STIMULUS) 430
7.67 SIMPLE SCHEME FOR RECRUITMENT OF POSTURAL SYNERGY MECHANISMS (SI,
... , SN) EITHER BY SENSORY/PERCEPTUAL SIGNALS OR BY SIGNALS FROM
MECHANISMS THAT CONTROL VOLUNTARY ACTION 431
8.1 SEQUENCE OF FRAMES OF LEGS WALKING 439
8.2 STRIDE PATTERN FOR (SYMMETRICAL) HUMAN WALKING 440
8.3 STRIDE PATTERN DIAGRAMS OF SLOW AND FAST RUNNING 441
8.4 BONES IN THE HUMAN FOOT AND THE CAT FOOT 441
8.5 STRIDE PATTERN DIAGRAMS FOR THREE QUADRUPEDAL GAITS 442
8.6 HORSE, TROTTING, GALLOPING 443
8.7 STICK REPRESENTATION OF ONE LEG TAKING TWO STRIDES 444
8.8 STRIDE PATTERN DIAGRAM, KNEE JOINT ANGLES OF THE TWO LEGS AND STICK
DIAGRAM OF RIGHT LEG OVER THREE STRIDES OF A WALK 444
8.9 ILLUSTRATIVE TIME NORMALIZED KNEE AND ANKLE JOINT ANGLES (IN THE
SAGITTAL PLANE) DURING A SINGLE STRIDE OF THE RIGHT LEG WHEN WALKING AND
RUNNING 445
8.10 PELVIC ROTATION AND TILT DURING A SINGLE STRIDE WHEN WALKING 446
8.11 LATERAL MOVEMENT OF THE PELVIS WHEN WALKING 447
8.12 DEFINITION OF STRIDE LENGTH, STRIDE WIDTH AND STEP LENGTH 448
8.13 STRIDE LENGTH AND STRIDE RATE AS A FUNCTION OF WALKING SPEED 448
8.14 DURATION OF STANCE AND SWING PHASES AS A FUNCTION OF WALKING SPEED
IN HUMANS AND CATS 449 8.15 GAIT PARAMETERS AS A FUNCTION OF RUNNING
SPEED. STRIDE LENGTH AND STRIDE RATE; DURATION OF SWING AND STANCE
PHASES 45
8.16 ILLUSTRATION OF THE PATTERN OF EMG ACTIVITY IN THE LEG MUSCLES
DURING WALKING 450
8.17 GROUND REACTION FORCE (GRF) DURING THE STANCE PHASE OF WALKING 452
8.18 BONES OF THE RIGHT LEG AND HIP AT THREE MOMENTS DURING THE STANCE
PHASE, SHOWING THAT THE LEG BEHAVES RATHER LIKE A RIGID STRUT THAT
PIVOTS ABOUT THE ANKLE 453
8.19 THE MECHANISM OF OPERATION OF A WALKING TOY 455
8.20 COST OF TRANSPORT FOR WALKING UP DIFFERENT SLOPES AS A FUNCTION OF
SPEED 457
8.21 RATE OF ENERGY EXPENDITURE WHEN WALKING WITH DIFFERENT STRIDE RATES
457
8.22 RATE OF ENERGY EXPENDITURE AS A FUNCTION OF SPEED FOR WALKING AND
RUNNING 458
8.23 RATE OF ENERGY EXPENDITURE AND THE SPECIFIC COST OF TRANSPORT
PLOTTED AS A FUNCTION OF SPEED FOR THE THREE PRINCIPAL GAITS OF PONIES
AND HORSES 459
8.24 HYPOTHETICAL CPG MODULE IN THE COCKROACH 463
8.25 HALF-CENTER MODEL OF A CPG MODULE 464
8.26 MODEL OF A CPG MODULE INVOLVING TWO RHYTHM GENERATORS 465
8.27 A CPG MODULE FOR ONE LEG MAY BE COMPOSED OF THREE SUB-MODULES, ONE
FOR EACH JOINT 466 8.28 CPG MODULE FOR A SINGLE LEG, COMPOSED OF A
SINGLE PAIR OF RHYTHM GENERATORS THAT DRIVE ALL THE JOINTS OF THE LIMB
466
8.29 A BIPED CPG COMPOSED OF TWO COUPLED CPG MODULES 467
8.30 LOCATION OF THE MESENCEPHALIC LOCOMOTOR REGION (MLR) AND ITS
CONNECTION TO THE LOCOMOTOR CPG 469
8.31 HIP MOVEMENT OF A LOCOMOTING DECEREBRATE CAT DURING ELECTRICAL
STIMULATION OF THE MLR 470 8.32 ACTIVITY EVOKED BY EPIDURAL STIMULATION
IN SCI 473
8.33 CAT S HIND LEGS DURING WALKING ON A MOTORIZED TREADMILL 475
8.34 CONNECTIONS OF GOLGI TENDON ORGAN (TYPE IB) AFFERENTS WITH THE CPG
MODULE FOR ONE HIND LEG 476
IMAGE 12
XX
8.35 CONNECTIONS OF MUSCLE SPINDLE AFFERENTS WITH THE CPG MODULE FOR ONE
HIND LEG 476
8.36 CAT WALKING UP AN INCLINE 478
8.37 WALKING CAT APPROACHING A SMALL OBSTRUCTION IN THE PATH OF ITS LEFT
LEGS 479
8.38 EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS FOR STUDYING HUMAN RESPONSES TO UNEXPECTED
OBSTRUCTIONS DURING LOCOMOTION 480
8.39 REGIONS OF THE SKIN OF THE FOOT INNERVATED BY VARIOUS NERVES 481
8.40 PART OF THE SPINAL CIRCUITRY BELIEVED TO UNDERLIE THE STUMBLING
CORRECTIVE REACTION 482
9.1 LAYOUT OF AN EXPERIMENT REPORTED BY PATLA AND VICKERS (1997) 487
9.2 PATH OF THE COG WHILE WALKING A CURVED PATH 488
9.3 EXPERIMENTAL LAYOUT USED IN A STUDY BY HOLLANDS, VICKERS, PATLA
(2002) 489
9.4 EXPERIMENTAL LAYOUT AND RESULTS FROM A STUDY BY IMAI ET AL. 490
9.5 LAYOUT OF OBSTACLE COURSE. PARTICIPANTS WALK BLINDFOLDED FROM THE
START TO THE END OF THE COURSE 491
9.6 LAYOUT AND RESULTS FROM A BLIND-WALKING EXPERIMENT 492
9.7 RESULTS FROM A BLIND WALKING TASK WITH INITIAL DELAY PERIODS BETWEEN
2 AND 128 SECONDS 495 9.8 PATHS OF HIP, KNEE, HEEL AND TOE WHEN STEPPING
OVER AN OBSTACLE 496
9.9 TRAILING LEG TOES WILL COLLIDE WITH AN OBSTACLE IF THE FOOT STARTS
FROM TOO FAR AWAY OR TOO CLOSE 497
9.10 TIME LINE OF THE OBSTACLE DROP EXPERIMENT, SHOWING WHERE IN THE
STEP CYCLE THE OBSTACLE WAS DROPPED 498
9.11 APPROXIMATE LEG POSITION WHEN STEPPING ONTO A STAIR WITH THE
MAXIMUM STEPPABLE RISER HEIGHT 501
9.12 RESULTS FROM EXPERIMENT REPORTED BY WARREN (1984) 501
9.13 RESULTS FROM TWO EXPERIMENTS REPORTED BY WARREN (1984) 503
9.14 RESULTS FROM EXPERIMENT REPORTED BY WARREN AND WHANG (1987) 504
9.15 RESULTS FROM A STUDY OF GAP-PASSABILITY PERCEPTION REPORTED BY
WARREN AND WHANG (1987) 505 9.16 CARTOON SEQUENCE SHOWING A PERSON
APPROACHING A NARROW GAP AND TURNING SO AS TO PASS THROUGH 506
9.17 CYCLOPS (ONE-EYED MAN) APPROACHES A GAP IN THE WALL. GEOMETRY OF
IMAGE FORMATION IN THE HORIZONTAL PLANE 507
9.18 TIME LINE OF EVENTS WHEN TURNING THE SHOULDERS TO PASS THROUGH A
GAP 510
9.19 SEQUENCE OF PROCESSES INVOLVED IN INITIATING MOTOR COMMAND
GENERATION USING A CRITERION VALUE OF TIME TO ARRIVAL (TTA) 510
9.20 TIME LINE SHOWING THE SEQUENCE OF EVENTS IN A PREDICTION-MOTION
TASK 512
9.21 TICK COUNT MODEL OF RESPONSE INITIATION IN A PREDICTION-MOTION TASK
512
9.22 EXPERIMENTAL TASK AND RESULTS FROM A STUDY REPORTED BY PREVOST ET
AL. (2002) 514
9.23 NORTHERN GANNET DIVES INTO THE SEA; AS IT APPROACHES, AN EXPANDING
FLOW FIELD IS IMAGED ON ITS RETINAS 516
9.24 TWO-FRAME SEQUENCE OF A PERSON RUNNING OVER STEPPING STONES 517
9.25 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP IN EXPERIMENT REPORTED BY WARREN, YOUNG, LEE
(1986) 518
10.1 POINTING DIRECTION FOR MAN AND VEHICLE 522
10.2 HEADING ERROR ON A STRAIGHT SECTION OF ROAD AND UPON ENTERING A
CURVE 523
10.3 A VIRTUAL LANE DEFINED BY A SAFE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE VEHICLE AND
THE LANE EDGES 524 10.4 ZERO READER DISPLAY 526
10.5 THE PILOT AS AN ELEMENT IN A FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM 526
10.6 LABORATORY COMPENSATORY TRACKING TASK IN WHICH A PERSON ATTEMPTS TO
KEEP THE DOT OVER THE BAR BY MANIPULATING A JOYSTICK 527
10.7 TWO WAYS OF INTRODUCING RANDOM, UNPREDICTABLE VARIATION INTO THE
ERROR SIGNAL IN A COMPENSATORY TRACKING TASK 528
10.8 INPUTS TO ZERO, FIRST AND SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS LEADING TO DIFFERENT
TYPES OF OUTPUT 530 10.9 BODE DIAGRAM FOR PERFORMANCE OF A COMPENSATORY
TRACKING TASK WITH A FIRST ORDER SYSTEM 531 10.10 BODE DIAGRAM FOR
PERFORMANCE OF A COMPENSATORY TRACKING TASK WITH A FIRST ORDER SYSTEM
532 10.11 A BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF THE FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE OF
A PERSON WHEN THEY ARE
PERFORMING A COMPENSATORY TRACKING TASK 533
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10.12 DECLINE OF MEAN ABSOLUTE ERROR IN A COMPENSATORY TRACKING TASK
OVER A SERIES OF SESSIONS 533 10.13 SCHEMATIC BODE DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING
HOW PEOPLE CARRY OUT DIFFERENT TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE ERROR TO CONTROL
ACTIONS WHEN CONTROLLING SYSTEMS OF DIFFERENT ORDER IN SUCH A WAY AS TO
KEEP THE OVERALL SYSTEM DYNAMICS INVARIANT 534
10.14 THE IMAGE FLOW PATTERN PRODUCED WHEN DRIVING DOWN THE MIDDLE OF
THE ROAD AND LOOKING IN THE DIRECTION OF HEADING 536
10.15 THE LOCOMOTOR FLOW LINE IS A VERTICAL LINE THROUGH THE FRO 537
10.16 DEFINITION OF SPLAY ANGLE 537
10.17 SIMPLE ENVIRONMENT CONSISTING OF A GROUND PLANE WITH DOTS. FLOW
PATTERN PRODUCED BY HORIZONTAL, STRAIGHT LINE MOVEMENT OVER THE GROUND
PLANE 539
10.18 RESULTS FROM A HEADING PERCEPTION EXPERIMENT REPORTED BY JOHNSTON,
WHITE, GUMMING (1973) 540 10.19 RESULTS FROM HEADING PERCEPTION
EXPERIMENTS 540
10.20 THE LOCATION OF THE FRO CAN BE FOUND BY TRACING BACK THE FLOW
LINES 541
10.21 IMAGE FLOWS IN WHICH THE FRO IS OUTSIDE THE VIEWING WINDOW 542
10.22 FIXATION OF A STATIONARY OBJECT WHILE MOVING THROUGH THE
ENVIRONMENT RESULTS IN AN IMAGE FLOW FIELD WITH A SWIRLING MOTION. THIS
IS THE SUM OF A COMPONENT DUE TO MOTION THROUGH THE ENVIRONMENT AND A
COMPONENT DUE TO EYE ROTATION 543
10.23 SIMULATED AND REAL PROTOCOLS FOR STUDYING HEADING PERCEPTION IN
THE PRESENCE OF EYE ROTATION 544 10.24 CORRECTING HEADING ERRORS DOES
NOT MAINTAIN LANE POSITION 546
10.25 CARTOON OF A CYCLIST STEERING TO PASS THROUGH A GAP IN A WALL 547
10.26 THREE FRAMES OF A CARTOON MOVIE OF A PERSON STEERING SO AS TO HEAD
TOWARDS A VISIBLE TARGET (LIGHT SOURCE) 548
10.27 AS A PERSON MOVES PAST A VISIBLE OBJECT, ITS EGOCENTRIC DIRECTION
CHANGES 548
10.28 BLOCK DIAGRAM SHOWING HOW DIFFERENT SOURCES OF HEADING-RELATED
INFORMATION CAN BE COMBINED TO GIVE AN OVERALL HEADING ERROR ESTIMATE
549
10.29 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TWO FEEDBACK LOOPS THAT COMBINE FOR THE CONTROL
OF STEERING 550 10.30 A WEDGE PRISM DISPLACES RETINAL IMAGES 550
10.31 WHEN WEARING PRISMS, PEOPLE SHOULD FOLLOW A CURVED PATH TO THE
TARGET 551
10.32 SCENE LAYOUT, PREDICTIONS, AND RESULTS (PERSON S POSITION IN THE
ENVIRONMENT RELATIVE TO THE START POSITION) FROM AN EXPERIMENT BY WARREN
ET A . (2001) 552
10.33 FLOW PATTERNS WHEN DRIVING DOWN THE MIDDLE OF A STRAIGHT ROAD OR
HEADING OFF TO THE LEFT 554 10.34 VIRTUAL CORRIDORS WITHOUT SPLAY
INFORMATION AND WITH IT 555
10.35 VIRTUAL CORRIDOR EXPERIMENT. A WAY OF CONSTRUCTING A CORRIDOR WITH
MOVING WALLS 556 10.36 SET-UP FOR EXPERIMENT IN WHICH VISION OF THE ROAD
AHEAD WAS RESTRICTED TO A GAP BETWEEN TWO SCREENS 557
10.37 DRIVER S VIEW THROUGH A NARROW SLIT WHEN DRIVING ALONG A ROAD WITH
A CENTER LINE BUT NO EDGE MARKINGS AND WITH EDGE MARKINGS BUT NO CENTER
LINE 558
10.38 TRACKING TASK IN WHICH THE PERSON ATTEMPTS TO KEEP THE PEN ON THE
TRACK 560
10.39 OVERHEAD VIEW OF A VEHICLE ENTERING A CURVE, DEFINING GEOMETRICAL
QUANTITIES. DRIVER S VIEW WHEN ENTERING A CURVE 561
10.40 GEOMETRY OF A VEHICLE TURN 563
10.41 SEQUENCE OF VEHICLE AND STEERING WHEEL POSITIONS WHILE NEGOTIATING
A CURVE 564 10.42 SEQUENCE OF GAZE AND HEADING DIRECTIONS WHILE STEERING
AROUND A BEND 565
10.43 FIXATING A SEQUENCE OF VIAPOINTS WHILE STEERING AROUND A CURVE 566
11.1 MOVING A STYLUS ACROSS A TABLET MOVES A CURSOR OVER A MONITOR
SCREEN 573
11.2 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM THAT RECEIVES COMMANDS FROM A
PROGRAM 576
11.3 COOKING IS ANALOGOUS TO COMPUTING 578
11.4 THREE POSSIBLE DIRECTIONS FOR SACCADIC EYE MOVEMENTS 580
11.5 POSITION AND SPEED PROFILES OF SACCADES OF DIFFERENT AMPLITUDE 580
11.6 TIME LINE OF EVENTS IN DOUBLE-STEP TRIALS 582
11.7 SAMPLE RESULTS FROM SINGLE- AND DOUBLE-STEP AIMING EXPERIMENT 582
11.8 FEEDBACK CAN ACT AT BOTH CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL LEVELS 584
11.9 THE PHRASE MOTOR EQUIVALENCE WRITTEN WITH DIFFERENT EFFECTORS 586
11.10 CRANKING AND TWISTING A HANDLE 587
IMAGE 14
XXII
11.11 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF A MOTOR PROGRAM FOR
SKILLED, VOLUNTARY ACTIONS 588
11.12 EXAMPLE OF A MANIPULANDUM THAT CONSTRAINS THE HAND TO MOVE IN A
PLANE 590
11.13 FOUR DIFFERENT PATHS BETWEEN START AND TARGET 591
11.14 SET-UP AND EXAMPLE RESULTS FROM A PLANAR AIMING TASK 592
11.15 PATHS FOLLOWED BY THE WORKING POINT (FINGER TIP) DURING
UNOBSTRUCTED AIMED MOVEMENTS IN THE VERTICAL PLANE 593
11.16 DATA FROM FIGURES 2 AND 3 IN DESMURGET ET AL. (1997A) 594
11.17 REPRESENTATIVE RESULTS FROM AN EXPERIMENT THAT TESTED THE FINAL
POSITION CONTROL HYPOTHESIS 597 11.18 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE FINAL
POSITION CONTROL HYPOTHESIS AND THE CONTINUOUS COMMAND SHIFT THAT
CHARACTERIZES TRAJECTORY PLANNING MODELS (FOR A SINGLE-JOINT MOVEMENT)
598 11.19 STUDY OF PEOPLE S ABILITY TO MOVE IN THE NOVEL FORCE FIELD
SHOWN IN PANEL A 600
11.20 WHEN THE VISUALLY PERCEIVED PATH IS CURVED, PEOPLE LEARN TO MOVE
SO THAT THE PATH APPEARS STRAIGHT 601
11.21 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP USED IN A STUDY OF THE ABILITY OF MONKEYS TO
FLEX OR EXTEND THE ELBOW SO THAT THE FOREARM POINTED AT AN ILLUMINATED
TARGET 602
11.22 EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND RESULTS FROM A STUDY OF REACHING WITH
AN UNSEEN HAND TO VISIBLE TARGETS 604
11.23 A PLANAR VIAPOINT MOVEMENT IS A MOVEMENT IN A PLANE FROM ONE
LOCATION TO ANOTHER VIA AN INTERMEDIATE POINT. MOVEMENTS VIA ONE
INTERMEDIATE POINT OFTEN HAVE BIMODAL (TWO-PEAKED) SPEED PROFILES 606
11.24 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE PROCESSES HYPOTHETICALLY UNDERLYING
TRAJECTORY GENERATION 608 11.25 -A SIMPLIFIED MODEL OF A COMMAND
TRAJECTORY GENERATOR 609
11.26 DIFFERENT POSITION VECTORS 610
11.27 THE CONFIGURATION OF THE ARM IN A PLANAR AIMING TASK IS DESCRIBED
BY THE ELBOW AND SHOULDER ANGLES. THE POSITION OF THE HAND (WORKING
POINT) CAN BE DESCRIBED IN A BODY-CENTERED COORDINATE SYSTEM SUCH AS THE
POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM 611
11.28 THE INVERSE KINEMATIC TRANSFORMATION TAKES THE MOTION OF THE
WORKING POINT IN EXTERNAL SPACE AND TRANSFORMS IT INTO A SET OF JOINT
MOTIONS (A MOTION THROUGH JOINT SPACE) 612
11.29 THREE DIFFERENT CONFIGURATIONS OF THE RIGHT ARM IN WHICH THE
FINGER TIP IS IN THE SAME PLACE 612 11.30 TRANSFORMATION OF THE OUTPUT
OF A WORKING POINT TRAJECTORY GENERATOR INTO MOTOR COMMANDS 613
11.31 ALTERNATIVE MODEL OF A TRAJECTORY GENERATOR 614
11.32 PEOPLE PREFER TO MAKE THIS PLANAR MOVEMENT TO THE TARGET ALONG A
CURVED PATH 615
11.33 TRAJ ECTORY GENERATOR OF FIGURE 11.31 SUPPLEMENTED WITH SENSORY
INPUTS 618
12.1 THREE DIFFERENT TWO-DIMENSIONAL TARGETS AND A STYLUS 624
12.2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL AIMING TASKS 625
12.3 FINAL POSITIONS OF THE POINTER IN ONE-DIMENSIONAL AIMING TASK OF
FIGURE 12.2A 625
12.4 TERMINAL POSITION DATA FROM A ONE-DIMENSIONAL AIMING TASK PLOTTED
AS A HISTOGRAM 627 12.5 COMPUTER-BASED AIMED MOVEMENT TASK AND EXAMPLE
RESULTS 629
12.6 DEFINITION OF THE CONSTANT ERROR IN THE 2-D AIMING TASK OF FIGURE
12.5 629
12.7 METHOD FOR CALCULATING THE VARIABLE ERROR IN A 2-D AIMING TASK 630
12.8 A TWO-DIMENSIONAL AIMING TASK IN WHICH DISTANCE ACCURACY IS NOT
NECESSARILY IMPORTANT. CONTACT POINTS AND THEIR AVERAGE LOCATION 631
12.9 POSSIBLE DISTRIBUTIONS OF CONTACT POINTS IN A TASK LIKE THAT IN
FIGURE 12.8A 631
12.10 AIMING A RIFLE BY POSITIONING THE TARGET BETWEEN THE CROSS-HAIRS
OF A TELESCOPIC SIGHT 632 12.11 AIMING AT A TARGET THROUGH A MISALIGNED
SIGHT 633
12.12 ILLUSTRATION OF THE PATTERN OF CONSTANT ERRORS PRODUCED BY A
CONTRACTION BIAS IN A 1-D AIMING TASK 634
12.13 RESULTS FROM WOODWORTH S REPETITIVE AIMING EXPERIMENT 636
12.14 RESULTS FROM A STUDY OF AN AIMED MOVEMENT TASK IN WHICH
PARTICIPANTS ATTEMPTED TO MOVE A SPECIFIED DISTANCE IN A SPECIFIED MT
637
12.15 AIMING TO TARGETS LOCATED AT DIFFERENT DISTANCES FROM THE START
LOCATION 639
12.16 VARIABLE ERRORS OF AIMING AND DISTANCE EXPRESSED AS A PROPORTION
OF TARGET DISTANCE 639 12.17 FITTS RECIPROCAL AIMING TASK AND RESULTS
FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF TARGET WIDTH AND DISTANCE 642
IMAGE 15
XXIII
12.18 DATA FROM FIGURE 12.17B PLOTTED AGAINST THE INDEX OF DIFFICULTY
642
12.19 WASHER TRANSFER TASK 643
12.20 RESULTS FROM TWO STUDIES OF THE DEPENDENCY OF MT ON TARGET
DISTANCE AND WIDTH 644 12.21 CONTACT CONFIGURATIONS BETWEEN THE END OF A
POINTER AND A TARGET 645
12.22 MOVEMENT TIME DATA FROM A DISCRETE AIMING TASK TO TARGETS OF WIDTH
2, 6, 10, 14 AND 18 MM PLOTTED AGAINST FITTS ID AND A MODIFIED ID THAT
TAKES POINTER SIZE INTO ACCOUNT 646 12.23 AIMING TO CONTACT A TARGET OF
WIDTH W A DISTANCE D FROM THE START LOCATION. THE STYLUS TIP COULD
FOLLOW MANY PATHS 647
12.24 TWO POSSIBLE DISTRIBUTIONS OF CONTACT POINTS OF MOVEMENTS AIMED AT
A TARGET (RECTANGLE) 647 12.25 DEFINITION OF THE EFFECTIVE TARGET WIDTH
(WE) AS THE REGION IN WHICH 95% OF THE END-POINTS OF THE AIMED MOVEMENT
ARE LOCATED 648
12.26 MOVING TO CONTACT A TARGET THAT IS WIDER THAN IT IS LONG (W L)
648
12.27 RESULTS OF A STUDY IN WHICH PARTICIPANTS AIMED TO CONTACT
RECTANGULAR TARGETS WITH A STYLUS TIP. BOTH THE WIDTH AND THE LENGTH OF
THE TARGET WERE VARIED 649
12.28 DATA FROM A STUDY IN WHICH PARTICIPANTS AIMED AT DIFFERENTLY SIZE
TARGETS 9CM DISTANT 651 12.29 EXAMPLE SPEED PROFILES FOR MOVEMENTS AIMED
AT TWO DIFFERENTLY SIZED TARGETS 652 12.30 PEAK SPEED OF AIMED MOVEMENTS
ARE GREATER FOR LARGER DISTANCES AND TARGETS 653 12.31 HARD AND SOFT
CONTACT IN AIMED MOVEMENT 654
12.32 CONTACT WITH SMALLER TARGETS IS SOFTER (LOWER SPEED) THAN CONTACT
WITH LARGER TARGETS 654 12.33 SPEED PROFILE WITH MULTIPLE PEAKS IN THE
DECELERATION PHASE 655
12.34 MULTIPLE PEAKS IN THE SPEED PROFILE OF AN AIMED MOVEMENT EXECUTED
MORE SLOWLY THAN NORMAL 656
12.35 T WO WAYS IN WHICH LONGER MTS TO SMALL TARGETS MIGHT BE PRODUCED
657
12.36 PERTURBATIONS TO OBJECT SIZE AND POSITION DURING A REACH-TO-GRASP
TASK 660
12.37 EXPERIMENT DEMONSTRATING RAPID, UNCONSCIOUS ADJUSTMENT TO AIMED
MOVEMENT IN RESPONSE TO CHANGES IN TARGET POSITION MADE DURING SACCADES
660
12.38 TIME LINE FOR THE TIME-MATCHING TASK 662
12.39 TASK LAYOUT AND RESULTS SHOWING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLE
TIME-MATCHING ERROR AND REQUIRED MT. DATA ARE AVERAGES OF A GROUP OF
PARTICIPANTS 662
12.40 DATA IN FIGURE 12.39(6) PLOTTED AGAINST THE AVERAGE SPEED (=
REQUIRED MT/DISTANCE) 663 12.41 PATTERN OF VARIABLE TIME-MATCHING ERROR
AS A FUNCTION OF ANGULAR SPEED FOR FOUR DIFFERENT REQUIRED MTS 663
12.42 VARIABLE TIME-MATCHING ERROR DATA FROM FIGURE 12.39 PLOTTED
AGAINST A FUNCTION OF THE REQUIRED MT AND DISTANCE 664
12.43 FOUR TWO-DIMENSIONAL INTERCEPTION CONFIGURATIONS 665
12.44 A HITTING TASK WITH A PERPENDICULAR APPROACH CONFIGURATION 667
12.45 EARLIEST AND LATEST MOMENTS WHEN CONTACT BETWEEN BAT AND TARGET IS
POSSIBLE IN THE TASK SHOWN IN FIGURE 12.44 667
12.46 IN A BASEBALL GAME, THE PITCHER THROWS THE BALL AT THE BATTER FROM
A DISTANCE OF ABOUT 17 METERS 668
12.47 TASK LAYOUT AND RESULTS OF AN EXPERIMENT THAT EXAMINED THE EFFECT
OF TARGET SPEED AND TARGET LENGTH ON PERFORMANCE OF MOVEMENTS MADE TO
INTERCEPT A MOVING OBJECT 669 12.48 MT DATA PLOTTED AGAINST THE TIME
WINDOW 670
12.49 MT DATA FROM PANEL B OF FIGURE 12.48 PLOTTED AGAINST B(L+W)/V +
C/V WITH B = 1 AND 0 = 35 671 12.50 DEFINITION OF THE TEMPORAL ERROR IN
THE TASK SHOWN IN FIGURE 12.44. VARIABLE TEMPORAL ERRORS PLOTTED AGAINST
THE MEAN MT FOR FOUR DIFFERENT TARGET SPEEDS 672
12.51 TASK THAT ALLOWS SPATIAL ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS TO BE MANIPULATED
INDEPENDENTLY OF TEMPORAL ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS 673
12.52 TIME LINE FOR AN INTERCEPTIVE TASK (EM DELAY = ELECTROMECHANICAL
DELAY) 675
12.53 SUMMARY OF THE PRE-PROGRAMMED HYPOTHESIS FOR THE CONTROL OF RAPID
INTERCEPTIVE ACTION 676 12.54 TIME TO ARRIVAL INFORMATION IS AVAILABLE
FROM THE EXPANDING IMAGE OF AN APPROACHING BALL 677
13.1 A PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF AN INTERNAL CHAINING SCHEME IN WHICH
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN ELEMENTAL PRODUCTION UNITS (MOTOR PROGRAMS MPS)
UNDERLIE THE SEQUENCING OF BEHAVIORAL ELEMENTS 687
IMAGE 16
13
13
13 13
*4 * 5
,6
*7
13.8 13
13 13 13 13
*9
.10
.I I
.12
* 13
XXIV
13.2 A PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF HOW PRODUCTION OF A BEHAVIORAL
SEQUENCE IN A NOVICE MAY
DIFFER FROM PRODUCTION BY AN EXPERT 13.3 ALTERNATIVE CONCEPTION OF THE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXPERT AND NOVICE PERFORMANCE, IN WHICH THE EXPERT
DEVELOPS A NEW ELEMENTAL PROGRAM TEMPORAL OCCURRENCE OF KEYSTROKES WHEN
TYPING THE WORD TROUBLE
INVARIANT RELATIVE TIMING PATTERNS IN TYPING ARE REVEALED WHEN
KEYSTROKES ARE PLOTTED ON A RELATIVE TIME SCALE (HORIZONTAL) 691
DURATIONS OF FINGER MOVEMENTS WHEN TYPING AN INSTANCE OF THE WORD EPIC
692
CHANGING LANES IS A TWO-PHASE MANEUVER 694
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND RESULTS FROM A STUDY OF LANE CHANGING IN A
DRIVING SIMULATION 696 SAGITTAL SECTION OF THE HUMAN HEAD, SHOWING
ANATOMICAL STRUCTURES OF THE MOUTH, NOSE AND THROAT 698
THE VIEW LOOKING DOWN THE THROAT AT THE VOCAL CORDS 701
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE SOURCE-FILTER MODEL OF SPEECH SOUND PRODUCTION 701
POSTURES OF THE SPEECH ARTICULATORS WHEN ARTICULATING DIFFERENT
CONSONANT SOUNDS 702 ACOUSTIC SIGNAL AND VERTICAL MOVEMENTS OF SELECTED
SPEECH ARTICULATORS DURING AN UTTERANCE OF/BAMIB/ 703
13.14 SCHEME FOR SPEECH PRODUCTION BASED ON SEQUENTIAL RECRUITMENT OF
CONTEXT-INSENSITIVE PHONEMIC PRODUCTION NODES 706
13.15 SCHEME FOR SPEECH PRODUCTION BASED ON SEQUENTIAL RECRUITMENT OF
CONTEXT-SENSITIVE PHONEMIC PRODUCTION NODES 707
13.16 MODEL OF PHONEME SEQUENCE PRODUCTION INCORPORATING A TRAJECTORY
GENERATOR FOR THE ARTICULATORS 708
13.17 SEQUENCE OF POSTURES WHEN UTTERING THE WORDS CUT AND TUCK 710
13.18 PHONEMIC TARGETS ARE SPECIFIED BY RANGES OF TRACT VARIABLES, AND
SO CORRESPOND TO REGIONS (VOLUMES) IN TRACT CONFIGURATION SPACE 711
13.19 APPROACHING A /K/ PHONEME TARGET FROM TWO DIFFERENT INITIAL TONGUE
CONFIGURATIONS 711 13.20 WRITTEN LETTERS AND THE TANGENTIAL SPEED OF THE
PENPOINT AS THEY WERE WRITTEN 713 13.21 KINEMATIC PATTERNS OF PEN MOTION
WHEN WRITING LETTERS SHOWS INVARIANT RELATIVE TIMING 714
13.22 A PLANAR VIAPOINT MOVEMENT AND ITS TANGENTIAL SPEED PROFILE 716
13.23 RADIUS OF CURVATURE CO-VARIES WITH THE SPEED OF THE WORKING POINT
716
13.24 TANGENTIAL SPEED AND RADIUS OF CURVATURE WHEN REPEATEDLY TRACING A
DOUBLE ELLIPSE 717 13.25 THE HANDWRITTEN LETTER STRING EYLEYL CAN BE
RESOLVED INTO A SEQUENCE OF 16 SEGMENTS BY TREATING THE POINTS OF
MAXIMUM CURVATURE AS THE BOUNDARIES BETWEEN NEIGHBORING SEGMENTS 719
13.26 A SPIRAL DRAWN BY AN EXPERIMENTAL PARTICIPANT AND THE MAGNITUDE OF
THE ANGULAR SPEED OF THE PEN AS THE SPIRAL WAS TRAVERSED, PLOTTED
AGAINST CURVATURE 273 719
13.27 PATH TRACED BY A STYLUS, AND THE TANGENTIAL SPEED OF THE STYLUS
TIP PLOTTED AGAINST RADIUS OF CURVATURE TO THE 1/3 POWER 720
13.28 A STROKE ENCODED AS A SEQUENCE OF TARGETS REQUIRES THAT THE
TARGETS BE FED TO THE TRAJECTORY GENERATOR WITH THE CORRECT TIMING, IN
ORDER THAT THE WORKING POINT BE DRIVEN ALONG A CURVILINEAR PATH 722
13.29 BASIC ARCHITECTURE OF STROKE-BASED MODELS OF HANDWRITING THAT
INCORPORATE A GENERAL-PURPOSE TRAJECTORY GENERATOR 723
13.30 OSCILLATION THEORY OF HANDWRITING 724
14.1 LOCATION OF THE HIPPOCAMPUS IN THE HUMAN BRAIN 734
14.2 MIRROR TRACING EXPERIMENT IN PATIENT HM 735
14.3 PURSUIT ROTOR EXPERIMENT COMPARING THE PERFORMANCE OF AN AMNESIC
PATIENT AND THE AVERAGE OF SIX NORMAL CONTROLS 736
14.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM WITH AN
ADJUSTABLE GAIN 737 14.5 TASK AND RESULTS FROM AN EXPERIMENT COMPARING
THE PERFORMANCE OF THREE GROUPS OF 25 PARTICIPANTS WHO TRAINED UNDER
THREE DIFFERENT CONDITIONS 741
14.6 TASK AND RESULTS FROM AN EXPERIMENT COMPARING THE PERFORMANCE OF
TWO GROUPS OF 10 PARTICIPANTS WHO PERFORMED UNDER A MASSED OR A SPACED
TRAINING SCHEDULE 742
IMAGE 17
XXV
147 RESULTS FROM A STUDY IN WHICH PARTICIPANTS PERFORMED A SEQUENCE OF
TRIALS ON A COMPENSATORY
TRACKING TASK; ONE GROUP PERFORMED AN EASY VERSION OF THE TASK, AND
ANOTHER A HARDER VERSION 744 14.8 RESULTS FROM TWO STUDIES OF
PERFORMANCE CHANGE WITH PRACTICE 746
14.9 PLATEAUS IN PERFORMANCE CURVES OF INDIVIDUAL PARTICIPANTS 748
14.10 AIMING TASK AND RESULTS OF A SINGLE PARTICIPANT FROM A STUDY OF
THE EFFECTS OF PRACTICE ON A RANGE OF MEASURES 751
14.11 RESULTS FROM BEFORE AND AFTER A SERIES OF SEVEN PRACTICE SESSIONS
MAKING ELBOW FLEXION MOVEMENTS OVER 54 0 753
14.12 RESULTS FROM A STUDY OF PIGEONS TRAINED TO PECK A RESPONSE KEY FOR
FOOD REWARD 754
14.13 RESULTS OF A STUDY OF DECLINE IN STARTLE RESPONSE AMPLITUDE OVER
REPEATED ELICITATIONS 757 14.14 HYPOTHETICAL RESULTS CHARACTERISTIC OF
AN HABITUATION EFFECT 758
14.15 HYPOTHETICAL RESULTS ILLUSTRATING DISHABITUATION: THE RESTORATION
OF RESPONSE VIGOR FOLLOWING PRESENTATION OF AN AVERSIVE STIMULUS 759
14.16 RESULTS OF A STUDY OF FLEXION WITHDRAWAL HABITUATION IN THE SPINAL
CAT. DUAL PROCESS THEORY ACCOUNT OF THE PATTERN OF DATA 761
14.17 SCHEMATIC CIRCUIT ILLUSTRATING THE LOCI OF DIFFERENT PROCESSES
UNDERLYING BEHAVIORAL CHANGE 762 14.18 GILL-WITHDRAWAL REFLEX OF APLYSIA
763
14.19 SIMPLIFIED CIRCUITRY UNDERLYING SENSITIZATION OF GILL-WITHDRAWAL
BY TAIL SHOCK 764
14.20 GROWTH AND LOSS OF SYNAPTIC TERMINALS IN LONG-TERM SENSITIZATION
AND HABITUATION IN APLYSIA 765 14.21 PROGRESSIVE DECLINE OF STRETCH
REFLEX AMPLITUDE OVER A SEQUENCE OF TOES-UP TILTS OF THE SUPPORT
PLATFORM (TI TO T4) AND ASSOCIATED DECREASE IN BODY SWAY 766
14.22 US-CS PAIRINGS IN VARIOUS TYPES OF PAVLOVIAN CONDITIONING
PROCEDURE 769
14.23 TRAINING AND TEST TRIALS IN EYE-BLINK CONDITION USING A DELAY
PROCEDURE 770
14.24 ACQUISITION OF CONDITIONAL EYE-BLINK RESPONSES IN RABBITS USING
THE DELAY CONDITIONING PROCEDURE 771
14.25 EFFECTIVENESS OF DIFFERENT CS-US DELAYS AT PRODUCING CONDITIONED
EYE-BLINKS AFTER TRAINING 772 14.26 ACQUISITION OF CONDITIONAL EYE-BLINK
RESPONSES IN TWO GROUPS OF RABBITS USING DELAY CONDITIONING PROCEDURES
773
14.27 DOUBLE-PEAKED BLINK CRS ARE ACQUIRED WHEN ANIMALS ARE TRAINED WITH
TWO DIFFERENT DELAY INTERVALS 773
14.28 PAVLOVIAN CONDITIONING OF THE GILL-WITHDRAWAL REFLEX IN APLYSIA
777
14.29 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF BRAINSTEM STRUCTURES INVOLVED IN
DELAY CONDITIONING OF EYE-BLINKS 778
14.30 ACQUISITION OF CONDITIONAL EYE-BLINK RESPONSES IN NORMAL
PARTICIPANTS AND AMNESIC PATIENTS DURING TRAINING WITH DELAY AND TRACE
PROCEDURES 779
15.1 TWO OF THORNDIKE S PUZZLE BOXES AND THE TIMES TAKEN TO ESCAPE OVER
A SEQUENCE OF TRIALS CARRIED OUT ON CONSECUTIVE DAYS 787
15.2 REPRESENTATION OF RESPONSE PRODUCTION MECHANISMS BEFORE AND AFTER
REPEATED PUZZLE-BOX EXPERIENCE, ACCORDING TO THE LAW OF EFFECT: MUTUALLY
INHIBITORY RESPONSE PRODUCTION CIRCUITS ARE ACTIVATED BY STIMULI TO
DIFFERENT EXTENTS, DEPENDING ON THE STRENGTH OF THE S-R CONNECTIONS 788
15.3 THE EFFECT OF REINFORCEMENT DELAY ON LEARNING IN INSTRUMENTAL
CONDITIONING EXPERIMENTS 793 15.4 INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING OF THE
H-REFLEX 795
15.5 PART OF THE CIRCUITRY INVOLVED IN THE INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING OF
THE H-REFLEX IN RATS 796 15.6 BLINDFOLDED LINE DRAWING 797
15.7 TASK AND RESULTS FROM SIMULATED INTERCEPTION EXPERIMENT WITH TWO KR
DELAYS 800
15.8 PERFORMANCE DURING ACQUISITION AND RETENTION OF A MOVEMENT PATTERN
WITH 100% AND 33% KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS (KR) 801
15.9 PERFORMANCE DURING ACQUISITION AND RETENTION WITH KR PRESENTED
AFTER EVERY TRIAL (100% KR) OR ONLY AFTER CERTAIN TRIALS 802
15.10 EFFECT OF HORIZONTAL R-VOR WITH AND WITHOUT INVERTING PRISMS 805
15.11 ADAPTIVE CHANGES TO THE GAIN OF THE HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OF THE
R-VOR IN MONKEYS 806 15.12 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MAJOR FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS
MEDIATING THE HORIZONTAL R-VOR AND ITS ADAPTATION 807
15.13 TYPICAL SET-UP FOR A TERMINAL DISPLAY PRISM ADAPTATION EXPERIMENT
808
IMAGE 18
XXVI
15.14 TYPICAL PATTERN OF RESULTS OBTAINED IN TERMINAL DISPLAY PRISM
ADAPTATION EXPERIMENTS IN
WHICH THE PARTICIPANT ATTEMPTS TO BRING A POINTER INTO CONTACT WITH A
TARGET 809
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND RESULTS FROM A PRISM ADAPTATION STUDY 811
ALTERNATIVE POSSIBILITIES FOR HOW ADAPTATION THAT OCCURS AS A RESULT OF
TRAINING AT ONE LOCATION MIGHT GENERALIZE TO NEW LOCATIONS 812
PRISM ADAPTATION ACCORDING TO THE FELT-POSITION HYPOTHESIS 813
THE THREE-STAGE DESCRIPTION OF SKILL ACQUISITION 817
INCREASE IN REACTION TIME WITH SEQUENCE LENGTH 818
REDUCTION OF THE RESPONSE COMPLEXITY EFFECT ON RT WITH PRACTICE 819
WORKING POINT PATHS AND SPEED PROFILES FOR MOVING IN SEQUENCE BETWEEN
TARGETS 820
DIFFERENT TYPES OF LESION 64
NUMBER OF FIBERS IN A SELECTION OF DIFFERENT MUSCLES 87
SOMATOSENSORY AFFERENT FIBER GROUPINGS 154
CUTANEOUS MECHANORECEPTOR ORGANS 155
SOMATOSENSORY AFFERENT FIBER GROUPINGS 156
PATHWAYS THAT CARRY SOMATOSENSORY INFORMATION TO THE BRAIN 166
DIFFERENT SOURCES OF HEADING-RELATED INFORMATION 546
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND RESULTS FROM A CRANKING-TWISTING EXPERIMENT
587 DISTANCES FROM THE TARGET CENTER OF THE DATA POINTS IN FIGURE 12.3
627
DIFFERENCES IN THE PERFORMANCE OF NOVICES AND EXPERTS 685
TWO-PHASE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN USED TO DEMONSTRATE THE CS-PRE-EXPOSURE
EFFECT 776 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN BEHAVIOR AND CONSEQUENCES (REINFORCING
OR PUNISHING) 792 EXAMPLES IN WHICH PRISM ADAPTATION SHOWS LIMITED OR NO
DETECTABLE TRANSFER TO A DIFFERENT ACTION OR TO DIFFERENT CONDITIONS OF
EXECUTION 815
15- 15-
15- 15- 15-
15- 15- TV, 1 LQ.I
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2.2
3.2
3.3 3-4 10. I I.
12.
13- H. 15- 15-
15 I6
17 18 19 20
21
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| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Tresilian, James |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1026514282 |
| author_facet | Tresilian, James |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Tresilian, James |
| author_variant | j t jt |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV040409878 |
| classification_rvk | CZ 1200 CZ 1300 CZ 1320 WT 5504 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)815889639 (DE-599)BVBBV040409878 |
| dewey-full | 612.8/11 |
| dewey-hundreds | 600 - Technology (Applied sciences) |
| dewey-ones | 612 - Human physiology |
| dewey-raw | 612.8/11 |
| dewey-search | 612.8/11 |
| dewey-sort | 3612.8 211 |
| dewey-tens | 610 - Medicine and health |
| discipline | Biologie Psychologie Medizin |
| edition | 1. publ. |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV040409878 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-10T00:23:26Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780230371057 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-025262861 |
| oclc_num | 815889639 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-11 DE-20 |
| owner_facet | DE-11 DE-20 |
| physical | XXXII, 879 S. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| publishDate | 2012 |
| publishDateSearch | 2012 |
| publishDateSort | 2012 |
| publisher | Palgrave Macmillan |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Tresilian, James Verfasser (DE-588)1026514282 aut Sensorimotor control and learning an introduction to the behavioral neuroscience of action by James Tresilian 1. publ. Basingstoke [u.a.] Palgrave Macmillan 2012 XXXII, 879 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Motor Activity physiology Feedback Learning physiology Psychomotor Performance physiology SWB Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025262861&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Tresilian, James Sensorimotor control and learning an introduction to the behavioral neuroscience of action Motor Activity physiology Feedback Learning physiology Psychomotor Performance physiology |
| title | Sensorimotor control and learning an introduction to the behavioral neuroscience of action |
| title_auth | Sensorimotor control and learning an introduction to the behavioral neuroscience of action |
| title_exact_search | Sensorimotor control and learning an introduction to the behavioral neuroscience of action |
| title_full | Sensorimotor control and learning an introduction to the behavioral neuroscience of action by James Tresilian |
| title_fullStr | Sensorimotor control and learning an introduction to the behavioral neuroscience of action by James Tresilian |
| title_full_unstemmed | Sensorimotor control and learning an introduction to the behavioral neuroscience of action by James Tresilian |
| title_short | Sensorimotor control and learning |
| title_sort | sensorimotor control and learning an introduction to the behavioral neuroscience of action |
| title_sub | an introduction to the behavioral neuroscience of action |
| topic | Motor Activity physiology Feedback Learning physiology Psychomotor Performance physiology |
| topic_facet | Motor Activity physiology Feedback Learning physiology Psychomotor Performance physiology |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025262861&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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