Biochemistry: a short course
Gespeichert in:
| Hauptverfasser: | , , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
New York, NY [u.a.]
Freeman
2013
|
| Ausgabe: | International 2. ed. |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | Getr. Zählung Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9781464104367 1464104360 |
Internformat
MARC
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| 020 | |a 9781464104367 |9 978-1-4641-0436-7 | ||
| 020 | |a 1464104360 |9 1-4641-0436-0 | ||
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| 100 | 1 | |a Tymoczko, John L. |d 1948-2019 |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)124601103 |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Biochemistry |b a short course |c John L. Tymoczko ; Jeremy M. Berg ; Lubert Stryer |
| 250 | |a International 2. ed. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a New York, NY [u.a.] |b Freeman |c 2013 | |
| 300 | |a Getr. Zählung |b Ill., graph. Darst. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Biochemie |0 (DE-588)4006777-4 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
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| 689 | 0 | 0 | |a Biochemie |0 (DE-588)4006777-4 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | |5 DE-604 | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Berg, Jeremy M. |d 1958- |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)12460109X |4 aut | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Stryer, Lubert |d 1938-2024 |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)124601197 |4 aut | |
| 856 | 4 | 2 | |m Digitalisierung UB Regensburg |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025118814&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Inhaltsverzeichnis |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1806595482662731776 |
|---|---|
| adam_text |
Brief
Contents
PARTI
THE MOLECULAR DESIGN OF LIFE
SECTION
1
Biochemistry Helps Us
Understand Our World
1
Chapter
1
Biochemistry and the Unity of Life
3
Chapter
2
Water, Weak Bonds, and the Generation
of Order Out of Chaos
17
section
2
Protein Composition
and Structure
33
Chapters
Amino
Acids
35
Chapter
4
Protein Three-Dimensional Structure
45
section
з
Basic Concepts and Kinetics
of Enzymes
67
Chapter
5
Basic Concepts of Enzyme Action
69
Chapter
6
Kinetics and Regulation
81
Chapter
7
Mechanisms and Inhibitors
99
Chapter
8
Hemoglobin, an Allosteric Protein
115
section
4
Carbohydrates and Lipids
129
Chapter
9
Carbohydrates
131
Chapter
10
Lipids
153
SECTION
5
Cell Membranes, Channels,
Pumps, and Receptors
165
Chapter
11
Membrane Structure and Function
167
Chapter
12
Signal-Transduction Pathways
185
PART II
TRANSDUCING AND STORING ENERGY
SECTION
б
Basic Concepts and Design
of Metabolism
205
Chapter
13
Digestion: Turning a Meal into
Cellular Biochemicals
207
Chapter
14
Metabolism: Basic Concepts and Design
217
SECTION
7
Glycolysis and Cluconeogenesis
239
Chapter
15
Glycolysis
241
Chapter
16
Gluconeogenesis
269
SECTION
8
The Citric Acid Cycle
385
Chapter
17
Preparation for the Cycle
387
Chapter
18
Harvesting Electrons from the Cycle
399
section
9
Oxidative Phosphorylation
317
Chapter
19
The Electron-Transport Chain
319
Chapter
20
The Proton-Motive Force
337
SECTION
10
The Light Reactions
of Photosynthesis and the Calvin Cycle
355
Chapter
21
The Light Reactions
357
Chapter
22
The Calvin Cycle
375
section
11
Clycogen Metabolism
and the Pentose Phospate Pathway
389
Chapter
23
Glycogen Degradation
391
Chapter
24
Glycogen Synthesis
403
Chapter
25
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
417
SECTION
12
Fatty Acid and
Lipid
Metabolism
429
Chapter
26
Fatty Acid Degradation
431
Chapter
27
Fatty Acid Synthesis
447
Chapter
28
Lipid
Synthesis: Storage Lipids,
Phospholipids, and Cholesterol
461
section
із
The Metabolism
of Nitrogen-Containing Molecules
485
Chapter
29
Amino
Acid Degradation
and the Urea Cycle
487
Chapter
30
Amino
Acid Synthesis
505
Chapter31 Nucleotide Metabolism
519
PART III
SYNTHESING THE MOLECULES OF LIFE
SECTION
14
Nucleic Acid Structure
and
DNA
Replication
537
Chapter
32
The Structure of Informational
Macromolecules:
DNA
and
RNA
539
Chapter
33 DNA
Replication
559
Chapter
34 DNA
Repair and Recombination
575
SECTION
15
RNA
Synthesis, Processing,
and Regulation
587
Chapter
35
RNA
Synthesis and Regulation
in Bacteria
589
Chapter
36
Gene Expression in Eukaryotes
605
Chapter
37
RNA
Processing in Eukaryotes
619
SECTION
16
Protein Synthesis
and
Recombinant
DNA
Techniques
631
Chapter
38
The Genetic Code
633
Chapter
39
The Mechanism of Protein Synthesis
689
(Section
17
is online at www.whfreeman.com/tymoako2e)
SECTIONS Experimental Biochemistry
667
Chapter
40
Techniques in Protein Biochemistry
669
Chapter
41
Recombinant
DNA
Techniques
693
xvi
Contents
PARTI
THE MOLECULAR DESIGN OF LIFE
SECTION
1
Biochemistry Helps Us Understand Our World
1
Chapter
1
Biochemistry and the Unity of Life
3
1.1
Living Systems Require a Limited Variety
of Atoms and Molecules
4
1.2
There Are Four Major Classes of Biomolecules
5
Proteins Are Highly Versatile
Biomolecule
5
Nucleic Acids Are the Information Molecules of the Cell
6
Lipids Are a Storage Form of Fuel and Serve As a Barrier
6
Carbohydrates Are Fuels and Informational Molecules
7
1.3
The Central Dogma Describes the Basic Principles
of Biological Information Transfer
7
1.4
Membranes Define the Cell and Carry Out
Cellular Functions
8
Biochemical Functions Are Sequestered in Cellular
Compartments
11
Some
Organelies
Process and Sort Proteins
and Exchange Material with the Environment
12
О
Clinical Insight Defects in
Organelle
Function
May Lead to Disease
14
Chapter
2
Water, Weak Bonds, and
the Generation of Order Out of Chaos
17
2.1
Thermal Motions Power Biological Interactions
18
2.2
Biochemical Interactions Take Place
in an Aqueous Solution
18
2.3
Weak Interactions Are Important Biochemical
Properties
20
Electrostatic Interactions Are Between Electrical Charges
20
Hydrogen Bonds Form Between an Electronegative
Atom and Hydrogen
21
van
der Waals
Interactions Depend on Transient Asymmetry
in Electrical Charge
21
Weak Bonds Permit Repeated Interactions
22
2.4 Hydrophobie
Molecules Cluster Together
22
Membrane Formation Is Powered by the
Hydrophobie
Effect
23
Protein Folding Is Powered by the
Hydrophobie
Effect
24
Functional Croups Have Specific Chemical Properties
24
2.5 pH
Is an Important Parameter of Biochemical
Systems
26
Water Ionizes to a Small Extent
26
An Acid Is a Proton Donor, Whereas a Base Is
a Proton Acceptor
27
Acids Have Differing Tendencies to Ionize
27
Buffers Resist Changes in
pH 28
Buffers Are Crucial in Biological Systems
29
new Making Buffers Is a Common Laboratory Practice
30
SECTION
2
Protein Composition and Structure
33
Chapter
3
Amino
Acids
35
Two Different Ways of Depicting Biomolecules
Will Be Used
35
3.1
Proteins Are Built from a Repertoire
of
20
Amino
Acids
36
Most
Amino
Acids Exist in Two Mirror-Image Forms
36
All
Amino
Acids Have at Least Two Charged Groups
36
3.2
Amino
Acids Contain a Wide Array
of Functional Croups
37
Hydrophobie
Amino
Acids Have Mainly Hydrocarbon
Side Chains
37
Polar
Amino
Acids Have Side Chains That Contain
an Electronegative Atom
39
Positively Charged
Amino
Acids Are Hydrophilic
40
Negatively Charged
Amino
Acids Have Acidic
Side Chains
41
The lonizable Side Chains Enhance Reactivity
and Bonding
41
3.3
Essential
Amino
Acids Must Be Obtained
from the Diet
42
О
Clinical Insight Pathological Conditions
Result If Protein Intake Is Inadequate
42
Chapter
4
Protein Three-Dimensional Structure
45
4.1
Primary Structure:
Amino
Acids Are Linked by
Peptide
Bonds to Form Polypeptide Chains
46
Proteins Have Unique
Amino
Acid Sequences
Specified by Genes
47
Polypeptide Chains Are Flexible Yet Conformationally
Restricted
48
4.2
Secondary Structure: Polypeptide Chains
Can Fold into Regular Structures
50
The Alpha Helix Is a Coiled Structure Stabilized
by Intrachain Hydrogen Bonds
50
Beta Sheets Are Stabilized by Hydrogen Bonding
Between Polypeptide Strands
51
Polypeptide Chains Can Change Direction
by Making Reverse Turns and Loops
53
Fibrous Proteins Provide Structural Support
for Cells and Tissues
53
Ö
NEW Clinical Insight Defects in Collagen Structure Result
in Pathological Conditions
55
4.3
Tertiary Structure: Water-Soluble Proteins Fold
into Compact Structures
55
Myoglobin Illustrates the Principles of Tertiary Structure
55
The Tertiary Structure of Many Proteins Can Be Divided
into Structural and Functional Units
57
4.4
Quaternary Structure: Multiple Polypeptide
Chains Can Assemble into a Single Protein
57
XVII
xviii Contents
4.5
The
Amino
Acid
Sequence of a Protein Determines
Its Three-Dimensional Structure
Proteins Fold by the Progressive Stabilization
of Intermediates Rather Than by Random Search
new Some Proteins Are Inherently Unstructured and
Can Exist in Multiple Conformations
ШЇЛ
Clinical Insight Protein Misfolding and Aggregation
Are Associated with Some Neurological Diseases
SECTION
3
Basic Concepts and Kinetics
of Enzymes
Chapter
5
Basic Concepts of Enzyme Action
5.1
Enzymes Are Powerful and Highly Specific Catalysts
Proteolytic Enzymes Illustrate the Range
of Enzyme Specificity
new There Are Six Major Classes of Enzymes
58
59
60
61
5.2
Many Enzymes Require Cofactors for Activity
5.3
Free Energy Is a Useful Thermodynamic
Function for Understanding Enzymes
The Free-Energy Change Provides Information About the
Spontaneity but Not the Rate of a Reaction
The Standard Free-Energy Change of a Reaction Is
Related to the Equilibrium Constant
Enzymes Alter the Reaction Rate but Not the Reaction
Equilibrium
5.4
Enzymes Facilitate the Formation
of the Transition State
The Formation of an Enzyme-Substrate Complex
Is the First Step in Enzymatic Catalysis
The Active Sites of Enzymes Have Some
Common Features
The Binding Energy Between Enzyme and Substrate
Is Important for Catalysis
Transition-State Analogs Are Potent Inhibitors
of Enzyme
Chapter
6
Kinetics and Regulation
6.1
Kinetics Is the Study of Reaction Rates
6.2
The Michaelis-Menten Model Describes
the Kinetics of Many Enzymes
О
Clinical Insight Variations in KM Can
Have Physiological Consequences
/См
and Vmax Values Can Be Determined
by Several Means
Km and Vmax Values Are Important Enzyme
Characteristics
Kcat
/Км
ls a Measure of Catalytic Efficiency
Most Biochemical Reactions Include
Multiple Substrates
■
6.3
Allosteric Enzymes Are Catalysts
and Information Sensors
Allosteric Enzymes Are Regulated by Products
of the Pathways Under Their Control
67
69
69
70
70
71
72
72
73
74
75
76
76
77
77
81
82
83
84
85
85
86
87
88
88
Allosterically Regulated Enzymes Do Not Conform
to Michaelis-Menten Kinetics
90
Allosteric Enzymes Depend on Alterations
in Quaternary Structure
90
Regulator Molecules Modulate the
R
^^
T
Equilibrium
92
The Sequential Model Also Can Account
for Allosteric Effects
92
El Clinical Insight Loss of Allosteric Control
May Result in Pathological Conditions
93
6.4
Enzymes Can Be Studied One Molecule
NEW at a Time
93
Chapter
7
Mechanisms and Inhibitors
99
7.1
A Few Basic Catalytic Strategies Are Used
by Many Enzymes
99
7.2
Enzyme Activity Can Be Modulated by Temperature,
pH,
and Inhibitory Molecules
100
Temperature Enhances the Rate of
Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
100
Most Enzymes Have an Optimal
pH
101
Enzymes Can Be Inhibited by Specific Molecules
102
Reversible Inhibitors Are Kinetically Distinguishable
103
Irreversible Inhibitors Can Be Used to Map
the Active Site
105
El Clinical Insight Penicillin Irreversibly Inactivates a
Key Enzyme in Bacterial Cell-Wall Synthesis
106
7.3
Chymotrypsin Illustrates Basic Principles
NEW of Catalysis and Inhibition
108
Serine
195
Is Required for Chymotrypsin Activity
108
Chymotrypsin Action Proceeds in Two Steps Linked
by a Covalently Bound Intermediate
109
The Catalytic Role of Histidine
57
Was Demonstrated
by Affinity Labeling
110
Serine
Is Part of a Catalytic Triad That Includes
Histidine and Aspartic Acid
110
Chapter
8
Hemoglobin, an Allosteric Protein
115
8.1
Hemoglobin Displays Cooperative Behavior
116
8.2
Myoglobin and Hemoglobin Bind Oxygen
in
Heme
Groups
116
El Clinical Insight Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging Reveals Regions of the Brain Posessing
Sensory Information
118
8.3
Hemoglobin Binds Oxygen Cooperatively
118
8.4
An Allosteric Regulator Determines
the Oxygen Affinity of Hemoglobin
120
О
Clinical Insight Hemoglobin's Oxygen
Affinity Is Adjusted to Meet Environmental Needs
120
H Biological Insight Hemoglobin Adaptations Allow
Oxygen Transport in Extreme Environments
121
El Clinical Insight Sickle-Cell Anemia Is a
Disease Caused by a Mutation in Hemoglobin
121
8.5
Hydrogen Ions and Carbon Dioxide Promote
the Release of Oxygen
123
SECTION
4
Carbohydrates and Lipids
129
Chapter
9
Carbohydrates
131
9.1
Monosaccharides Are the Simplest
Carbohydrates
132
Many Common Sugars Exist in Cyclic Forms
133
О
Clinical Insight Cyclic Hemiacetal Formation
Creates Another Asymmetric Carbon
135
Monosaccharides Are Joined to Alcohols and Amines
Through Clycosidic Bonds
136
Ш
new Biological Insight Clucosinolates Protect
Plants and Add Flavor to Our Diets
137
9.2
Monosaccharides Are Linked to Form
Complex Carbohydrates
137
Specific Enzymes Are Responsible
for Oligosaccharide Assembly
137
Sucrose, Lactose, and Maltose Are
the Common Disaccharides
138
Glycogen and Starch Are Storage Forms of Glucose
139
Cellulose, a Structural Component of Plants,
Is Made of Chains of Glucose
139
9.3
Carbohydrates Are Attached to Proteins
to Form Glycoproteins
141
Carbohydrates May Be Linked to Asparagine,
Serine,
or Threonine Residues of Proteins
141
О
Clinical Insight The Hormone Erythropoietin
Is a Clycoprotein
142
Proteoglycans, Composed of Polysaccharides
and Protein, Have Important Structural Roles
142
О
Clinical Insight Proteoglycans Are
Important Components of Cartilage
143
Mucins Are Glycoprotein Components of Mucus
144
О
Biological Insight Blood Groups Are Based on
Protein Glycosylation Patterns
145
О
Clinical Insight Lack of Glycosylation Can Result in
Pathological Conditions
146
9.4
Lectins Are Specific Carbohydrate-Binding Proteins
146
Lectins Promote Interactions Between Cells
147
О
Clinical Insight Lectins Facilitate Embryonic
Development
147
О
Clinical Insight Influenza Virus Binds to Sialic
Acid Residues
147
Chapter
10
Lipids
153
10.1
Fatty Acids Are a Main Source of Fuel
154
Fatty Acids Vary in Chain Length and Degree
of Unsaturation
155
The Degree and Type of Unsaturation Are Important
to Health
156
10.2
Triacylglycerols Are the Storage Form of
Fatty Acids
157
10.3
There Are Three Common Types
of Membrane Lipids
158
Contents
xix
Phospholipids Are the Major Class
of Membrane Lipids
158
Membrane Lipids Can Include Carbohydrates
160
Steroids Are Lipids That Have a Variety of Roles
160
О
Biological Insight Membranes of Extremophiles
Are Built from Ether Lipids with Branched Chains
161
Membrane Lipids Contain a Hydrophilic
and
a
Hydrophobie
Moiety
161
Some Proteins Are Modified by the Covalent
Attachment of
Hydrophobie
Groups
162
О
Clinical Insight Premature Aging Can Result
from the Improper Attachment of
a
Hydrophobie
Group to a Protein
163
SECTION
5
Cell Membranes, Channels, Pumps,
and Receptors
165
Chapter
11
Membrane Structure and Function
167
11.1
Phospholipids and Glycolipids
Form Bimolecular Sheets
168
О
Clinical Insight
Lipid
Vesicles Can Be Formed
from Phospholipids
169
Lipid
Bilayers Are Highly Impermeable to Ions
and Most Polar Molecules
169
11.2
Membrane Fluidity Is Controlled by Fatty
Acid Composition and Cholesterol Content
170
11.3
Proteins Carry Out Most Membrane Processes
171
Proteins Associate with the
Lipid
Bilayer in a
Variety of Ways
171
ШЛ
Clinical Insight The Association of Prostaglandin
H2 Synthase-I with the Membrane Accounts for
the Action of Aspirin
173
11.4
Lipids and Many Membrane Proteins Diffuse
Laterally in the Membrane
173
11.5
A Major Role of Membrane Proteins Is to
Function As Transporters
174
The
1\1а+-ѓ^ АТРаѕе
Is an Important Pump in
Many Cells
175
О
Clinical Insight Digitalis Inhibits the Na^lC1" Pump
by Blocking Its Dephosphorylation
176
О
Clinical Insight Multidrug Resistance Highlights
a Family of Membrane Pumps with ATP-Binding Domains
176
О
Clinical Insight Harlequin Ichthyosis Is a Dramatic
Result of a Mutation in an ABC Transporter Protein
177
Secondary Transporters Use One Concentration
Gradient to Power the Formation of Another
177
Specific Channels Can Rapidly Transport Ions
Across Membranes
178
О
new Biological Insight Venomous Pit Vipers Use Ion
Channels to Generate a Thermal Image
178
The Structure of the Potassium Ion Channel
Reveals the Basis of Ion Specificity
179
The Structure of the Potassium Ion Channel Explains
Its Rapid Rate of Transport
180
XX
Contents
Chapter
12 Signal-Transduction
Pathways
185
12.1 Signal
Transduction Depends on Molecular Circuits
186
12.2
Receptor Proteins Transmit Information
into the Cell
187
Seven-Transmembrane-Helix Receptors Change
Conformation in Response to Ligand Binding
and Activate
G
Proteins
187
Ligand Binding to 7TM Receptors Leads to the
Activation of
С
Proteins
188
Activated
G
Proteins Transmit Signals by
Binding to Other Proteins
189
Cyclic AMP Stimulates the Phosphorylation of Many
Target Proteins by Activating Protein Kinase A
189
G
Proteins Spontaneously Reset Themselves
Through GTP Hydrolysis
190
О
Clinical Insight Cholera and Whooping Cough
Are Due to Altered G-Protein Activity
191
The Hydrolysis of Phosphatidylinositol
Bisphosphate
by Phospholipase
С
Generates Two Second
Messengers
192
12.3
Some Receptors Dimerize in Response
to Ligand Binding and Recruit Tyrosine Kinases
193
Receptor Dimerization May Result in Tyrosine Kinase
Recruitment
193
Some Receptors Contain Tyrosine Kinase Domains
Within Their Covalent Structures
194
Ras
Belongs to Another Class of Signaling
G
Protein
196
12.4
Metabolism in Context: Insulin Signaling
Regulates Metabolism
196
The Insulin Receptor Is a DimerThat Closes Around
a Bound Insulin Molecule
197
The Activated Insulin-Receptor Kinase Initiates a
Kinase Cascade
197
Insulin Signaling Is Terminated by the Action of
Phosphatases
198
12.5
Calcium Ion Is a Ubiquitous Cytoplasmic
Messenger
198
12.6
Defects in Signal-Transduction Pathways
Can Lead to Disease
199
0
Clinical Insight The Conversion of Proto-oncogenes
into Oncogenes Disrupts the Regulation of Cell Growth
199
О
Clinical Insight Protein Kinase Inhibitors May Be
Effective
Anticancer
Drugs
200
PART II
TRANSDUCING AND STORING ENERGY
SECTION
6
Basic Concepts and Design of Metabolism
205
Chapter
13
Digestion: Turning a Meal into
Cellular Biochemicals
207
13.1
Digestion Prepares Large Biomolecules
for Use in Metabolism
208
13.2
Proteases Digest Proteins into
Amino
Acids
and Peptides
208
13.3
Dietary Carbohydrates Are Digested by
Alpha-Amylase
210
13.4
The Digestion of Lipids Is Complicated by
Their Hydrophobicity
211
IH
Biological Insight Snake Venoms Digest from
the Inside Out
212
13.5
Metabolism in Context: Cell Signaling
new Facilitates Caloric Homeostasis
213
The Brain Plays a Key Role in Caloric Homeostasis
213
Signals from the Gastrointestinal Tract Induce
Feelings of Satiety and Facilitate Digestion
214
Leptin and Insulin Regulate
Long-Term
Control
of Caloric Homeostasis
214
Chapter
14
Metabolism: Basic Concepts
and Design
217
14.1
Metabolism Is Composed of Many
Interconnecting Reactions
218
Metabolism Consists of Energy-Yielding Reactions
and Energy-Requiring Reactions
219
AThermodynamically Unfavorable Reaction Can Be
Driven by a Favorable Reaction
219
14.2
ATP Is the Universal Currency of Free Energy
220
ATP Hydrolysis Is Exergonic
220
ATP Hydrolysis Drives Metabolism by Shifting
the Equilibrium of Coupled Reactions
221
The High Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential of ATP Results
from Structural Differences Between ATP and Its
Hydrolysis Products
222
Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential Is an Important Form
of Cellular Energy Transformation
223
El Clinical Insight Exercise Depends on Various
Means of Generating ATP
224
14.3
The Oxidation of Carbon Fuels Is an Important
Source of Cellular Energy
225
Carbon Oxidation Is Paired with a Reduction
225
Compounds with High Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential
Can Couple Carbon Oxidation to ATP Synthesis
226
14.4
Metabolic Pathways Contain Many
Recurring Motifs
227
Activated Carriers Exemplify the Modular Design
and Economy of Metabolism
227
El Clinical Insight Lack of Activated Pantothenate
Results in Neurological Problems
230
Many Activated.Carriers Are Derived from Vitamins
231
14.5
Metabolic Processes Are Regulated
in Three Principal Ways
233
The Amounts of Enzymes Are Controlled
233
Catalytic Activity Is Regulated
234
The Accessibility of Substrates Is Regulated
234
SECTION
7
Clycolysis and Cluconeogenesis
239
Chapter
15
Glycolysis
241
15.1
Clycolysis
Is an Energy-Conversion Pathway
242
Hexokinase
Traps Glucose in the Cell and Begins
Glycolysis
242
Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Is Generated
from Glucose 6-phosphate
244
The Six-Carbon Sugar Is Cleaved into Two
Three-Carbon Fragments
245
The Oxidation of an Aldehyde Powers the Formation
of a Compound Having High Phosphoryl-Transfer
Potential
246
ATP Is Formed by Phosphoryl Transfer from
U-Bisphosphoglycerate
247
Additional ATP Is Generated with the Formation
of Pyruvate
248
Two ATP Molecules Are Formed in the Conversion
of Glucose into Pyruvate
249
15.2
NAD+Is Regenerated
from the Metabolism of Pyruvate
249
Fermentations Are a Means of Oxidizing NADH
249
Fermentations Provide Usable Energy in the
Absence of Oxygen
252
15.3
Fructose and
Galactose
Are Converted
into Glycolytic Intermediates
253
О
Clinical Insight Many Adults Are Intolerant of
Milk Because They Are Deficient in Lactase
255
El Clinical Insight
Galactose
Is Highly Toxic
If the
Transferase
Is Missing
256
15.4
The Glycolytic Pathway Is Tightly Controlled
257
Glycolysis in Muscle Is Regulated by Feedback
Inhibition to Meet the Need for ATP
257
The Regulation of Glycolysis in the Liver Corresponds
to the Biochemical Versatility of the Liver
258
A Family of Transporters Enables Glucose to Enter
and Leave Animal Cells
261
ti
Clinical Insight Cancer and Exercise Training
Affect Glycolysis in a Similar Fashion
262
15.5
Metabolism in Context: Glycolysis Helps
Pancreatic Beta Cells Sense Glucose
263
Chapter
16
Cluconeogenesis
269
16.1
Glucose Can Be Synthesized from
Noncarbohydrate Precursors
270
Gluconeogenesis Is
Nota
Complete Reversal
of Glycolysis
270
The Conversion of Pyruvate into Phosphoenolpyruvate
Begins with the Formation of Oxaloacetate
272
Oxaloacetate Is Shuttled into the Cytoplasm
and Converted into Phosphoenolpyruvate
274
The Conversion of Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate into
Fructose
б
-phosphate
and
Orthophosphate
Is
an Irreversible Step
274
The Generation of Free Glucose Is an Important
Control Point
275
Contents
XXI
Six High-Transfer-Potential Phosphoryl Groups
Are Spent in Synthesizing Glucose from Pyruvate
275
16.2
Gluconeogenesis and Glycolysis
Are Reciprocally Regulated
276
Energy Charge Determines Whether Glycolysis
or Gluconeogenesis Will Be More Active
276
The Balance Between Glycolysis and
Gluconeogenesis in the Liver Is Sensitive to
Blood-Glucose Concentration
277
О
Clinical Insight Insulin
Fausto
Inhibit
Gluconeogenesis in Type
2
Diabetes
279
Substrate Cycles Amplify Metabolic Signals
279
16.3
Metabolism in Context: Precursors Formed
by Muscle Are Used by Other Organs
280
SECTION
8
The Citric Acid Cycle
285
Chapteri
7
Preparation for the Cycle
287
17.1
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Forms
Acetyl
Coenzyme A from Pyruvate
288
The Synthesis of
Acetyl
Coenzyme A from Pyruvate
Requires Three Enzymes and Five Coenzymes
289
Flexible Linkages Allow Lipoamide to Move Between
Different Active Sites
291
17.2
The Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex
Is Regulated by Two Mechanisms
293
О
Clinical Insight Defective Regulation of Pyruvate
Dehydrogenase Results in Lactic Acidosis
294
О
new Clinical Insight Enhanced Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
Kinase Activity Facilitates the Development of Cancer
295
El Clinical Insight The Disruption of Pyruvate
Metabolism Is the Cause of Beriberi
295
Chapter18 Harvesting Electrons from the Cycle
299
18.1
The Citric Acid Cycle Consists of Two Stages
300
18.2
Stage One Oxidizes Two Carbon Atoms
to Gather Energy-Rich Electrons
300
Citrate Synthase Forms Citrate from Oxaloacetate
and
Acetyl
Coenzyme A
300
The Mechanism of Citrate Synthase Prevents
Undesirable Reactions
301
Citrate Is Isomerized into
Isocitrate
302
Isocitrate
Is Oxidized and Decarboxylated to Alpha-
Ketoglutarate
302
Succinyl Coenzyme A Is Formed by the Oxidative
Decarboxylation of Alpha-Ketoglutarate
303
18.3
Stage Two Regenerates Oxaloacetate
and Harvests Energy-Rich Electrons
303
A Compound with High Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential
Is Generated from Succinyl Coenzyme A
303
Succinyl Coenzyme A Synthetase Transforms Types of
Biochemical Energy
304
Oxaloacetate Is Regenerated by the Oxidation of
Succi nate
305
xxii Contents
The Citric Acid Cycle Produces High-Transfer-Potential
Electrons, a NucleosideTriphosphate, and
Carbon Dioxide
305
18.4
The Citric Acid Cycle Is Regulated
308
The Citric Acid Cycle Is Controlled at Several Points
308
The Citric Acid Cycle Is a Source of Biosynthetic
Precursors
309
The Citric Acid Cycle Must Be Capable of Being
Rapidly Replenished
309
О
new Clinical Insight Defects in the Citric Acid
Cycle Contribute to the Development of Cancer
310
18.5
The Clyoxylate Cycle Enables Plants and
Bacteria to Convert Fats into Carbohydrates
310
SECTION
9
Oxidative Phosphorylation
317
Chapter
19
The Electron-Transport Chain
319
19.1
Oxidative Phosphorylation in Eukaryotes
Takes Place in Mitochondria
320
Mitochondria Are Bounded by a Double Membrane
320
О
Biological Insight Mitochondria Are the Result of an
Endosymbiotic Event
321
19.2
Oxidative Phosphorylation Depends
on Electron Transfer
322
The Electron-Transfer Potential of an Electron Is
Measured As
Redox
Potential
322
Electron Flow Through the Electron-Transport
Chain Creates a Proton Gradient
323
The Electron-Transport Chain Is a Series of Coupled
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
324
19.3
The Respiratory Chain Consists of Proton Pumps
new and a Physical Link to the Citric Acid Cycle
327
The High-Potential Electrons of NADH Enter the
Respiratory Chain at NADH-Q Oxidoreductase
327
Ubiquinol Is the Entry Point for Electrons from
FADH2 of Flavoproteins
328
Electrons Flow from Ubiquinol to Cytochrome
с
Through Q-Cytochrome
с
Oxidoreductase
329
The
Q
Cycle Funnels Electrons from a Two-Electron
Carrier to a One-Electron Carrier and Pumps Protons
329
Cytochrome
с
Oxidase
Catalyzes the Reduction of
Molecular Oxygen to Water
330
О
Biological Insight The Dead Zone: Too Much Respiration
332
Toxic Derivatives of Molecular Oxygen Such As
Superoxide
Radical Are Scavenged by Protective Enzymes
333
Chapter
20
The Proton-Motive Force
337
20.1
A Proton Gradient Powers the Synthesis of ATP
338
ATP Synthase Is Composed of a Proton-Conducting
Unit and a Catalytic Unit
339
Proton Flow Through ATP Synthase Leads to the
Release of Tightly Bound ATP
340
Rotational Catalysis Is the World's Smallest
Molecular Motor
341
Proton Flow Around the
с
Ring Powers ATP Synthesis
341
20.2
Shuttles Allow Movement Across
Mitochondrial Membranes
343
Electrons from Cytoplasmic NADH Enter
Mitochondria by Shuttles
343
The Entry of ADP into Mitochondria Is Coupled to
the Exit of ATP
345
Mitochondrial Transporters Allow Metabolite Exchange
Between the Cytoplasm and Mitochondria
346
20.3
Cellular Respiration Is Regulated by the
Need for ATP
346
The Complete Oxidation of Glucose Yields About
30
Molecules of ATP
346
The Rate of Oxidative Phosphorylation Is Determined
by the Need for ATP
347
EH new Biological Insight Regulated Uncoupling Leads
to the Generation of Heat
348
Oxidative Phosphorylation Can Be Inhibited at
Many Stages
350
О
Clinical Insight Mitochondrial Diseases Are Being
Discovered in Increasing Numbers
351
Power Transmission by Proton Gradients Is a
Central Motif of Bioenergetics
351
SECTION
10
The Light Reactions of Photosynthesis
and the Calvin Cycle
355
Chapter
21
The Light Reactions
357
21.1
Photosynthesis Takes Place in Chloroplasts
358
О
Biological Insight Chloroplasts, Like Mitochondria,
Arose from an Endosymbiotic Event
359
21.2
Photosynthesis Transforms Light Energy
into Chemical Energy
359
Chlorophyll Is the Primary Receptor in Most
Photosynthetic Systems
360
Light-Harvesting Complexes Enhance the Efficiency of
Photosynthesis
361
ü
Biological Insight Chlorophyll in Potatoes Suggests
the Presence of a Toxin
363
21.3
Two
Photosystems
Cenerate a
Proton
Gradient and NADPH
363
Photosystem
I Uses Light Energy to Generate
Reduced Ferredoxin, a Powerful Reductant
364
Photosystem
II Transfers Electrons to
Photosystem
I
and Generates a Proton Gradient
365
Cytochrome bf Links
Photosystem
II to
Photosystem
I
366
The Oxidation of Water Achieves Oxidation-Reduction
Balance and Contributes Protons to the
Proton Gradient
366
21.4
A Proton Gradient Drives ATP Synthesis
368
The ATP Synthase of Chloroplasts Closely Resembles
That of Mitochondria
368
Contents XXIII
Cyclic Electron Flow Through
Photosystem
I Leads
to the Production of ATP Instead of NADPH
369
The Absorption of Eight Photons Yields One O2,
Two NADPH, and Three ATP Molecules
370
The Components of Photosynthesis Are Highly
Organized
370
Biological Insight Many Herbicides Inhibit the Light
Reactions of Photosynthesis
371
Chapter
22
The Calvin Cycle
375
22.1
The Calvin Cycle Synthesizes Hexoses
from Carbon Dioxide and Water
375
Carbon Dioxide Reacts with Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate
to Form Two Molecules of S-Phosphoglycerate
376
Hexose Phosphates Are Made from Phosphoglycerate,
and Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate Is Regenerated
377
Three Molecules of ATP and Two Molecules of NADPH
Are Used to Bring Carbon Dioxide to the Level of
a Hexose
380
IÜ
Biological Insight A Volcanic Eruption Can Affect
Photosynthesis Worldwide
380
Starch and Sucrose Are the Major Carbohydrate
Stores in Plants
380
О
Biological Insight Why Bread Becomes Stale: The
Role of Starch
381
22.2
The Calvin Cycle Is Regulated by the
Environment
382
Thioredoxin Plays a Key Role in Regulating the
Calvin Cycle
382
Rubisco Also Catalyzes a Wasteful Oxygenase Reaction
383
The C4 Pathway of Tropical Plants Accelerates
Photosynthesis by Concentrating Carbon Dioxide
384
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Permits Growth in
Arid Ecosystems
386
Phosphorylase Kinase Is Activated by Phosphorylation
and Calcium Ions
397
SECTION
11
Glycogen Metabolism and the Pentose
Phospate Pathway
389
Chapter
23
Glycogen Degradation 39T
23.1
Glycogen Breakdown Requires Several Enzymes
392
Phosphorylase Cleaves Glycogen to Release Glucose
1
-phosphate
392
A Debranching Enzyme Also Is Needed for the
Breakdown of Glycogen
393
Phosphoglucomutase Converts Glucose
1
-phosphate
into Glucose 6-phosphate
394
Liver Contains Glucose 6-phosphatase, a Hydrolytic
Enzyme Absent from Muscle
394
23.2
Phosphorylase Is Regulated by Allosteric
Interactions and Reversible Phosphorylation
395
Muscle Phosphorylase Is Regulated by the
Intracellular Energy Charge
396
Liver Phosphorylase Produces Glucose for Use
by Other Tissues
396
Li Clinical Insight Hers Disease Is Due to a
Phosphorylase Deficiency
398
23.3
Epinephrine and Clucagon Signal the Need
for Glycogen Breakdown
398
G
Proteins Transmit the Signal for the Initiation
of Glycogen Breakdown
398
Glycogen Breakdown Must Be Rapidly Turned
Off When Necessary
400
ül
new Biological Insight Glycogen Depletion Coincides
with the Onset of Fatigue
400
Chapter
24
Clycogen Synthesis
403
24.1
Glycogen Is Synthesized and Degraded
by Different Pathways
403
UDP-Glucose Is an Activated Form of Glucose
404
Glycogen Synthase Catalyzes the Transfer of
Glucose from UDP-Glucose to a Growing Chain
404
A Branching Enzyme Forms Alpha-1,6 Linkages
405
Glycogen Synthase Is the Key Regulatory Enzyme
in Glycogen Synthesis
406
Glycogen Is an Efficient Storage Form of Glucose
406
24.2
Metabolism in Context: Glycogen Breakdown
and Synthesis Are Reciprocally Regulated
407
Protein Phosphatase
1
Reverses the Regulatory
Effects of Kinases on Glycogen Metabolism
407
Insulin Stimulates Glycogen Synthesis by Inactivating
Glycogen Synthase Kinase
409
Glycogen Metabolism in the Liver Regulates the
Blood-Glucose Level
409
U
Clinical Insight Diabetes Mellitus Results from
Insulin Insufficiency and Glucagon Excess
410
El Clinical Insight A Biochemical Understanding
of Glycogen-Storage Diseases Is Possible
411
Chapter
25
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
417
25.1
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway Yields NADPH
and Five-Carbon Sugars
418
Two Molecules of NADPH Are Generated in the
Conversion of Glucose 6-phosphate into Ribulose
5-phosphate
418
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway and Glycolysis
Are Linked by Transketolase and Transaldolase
418
25.2
Metabolism in Context: Glycolysis and the Pentose
Phosphate Pathway Are Coordinate^ Controlled
422
The Rate of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway Is
Controlled by the Level of NADP+
422
The Fate of Glucose 6-phosphate Depends on the
Need for NADPH, Ribose 5-phosphate, and ATP
422
25.3
Glucose 6-phosphate Dehydrogenase
Lessens Oxidative Stress
425
О
Clinical Insight Glucose 6-phosphate Dehydrogenase
Deficiency Causes a Drug-Induced Hemolytic Anemia
425
Ю
Biological Insight A Deficiency of Glucose 6-phosphate
Dehydrogenase Confers an Evolutionary Advantage
in Some Circumstances
426
XXIV Contents
SECTION
12
Fatty Acid and
Lipid
Metabolism
429
Chapter
26
Fatty Acid Degradation
431
26.1
Fatty Acids Are Processed in Three Stages
431
NEW Triacylglycerols Are Hydrolyzed by Hormone-
Stimulated Upases
432
Fatty Acids Are Linked to Coenzyme A Before They
Are Oxidized
433
0
Clinical Insight Pathological Conditions Result If Fatty
Acids Cannot Enter the Mitochondria
434
Acetyl
CoA, NADH, and FADH2 Are Generated
by Fatty Acid Oxidation
435
The Complete Oxidation of Palmitate Yields
106
Molecules of ATP
436
26.2
The Degradation of Unsaturated and
Odd-Chain Fatty Acids Requires
Additional Steps
437
An Isomerase and a Reductase Are Required for
the Oxidation of Unsaturated Fatty Acids
437
Odd-Chain Fatty Acids Yield Propionyl CoA in the
Final Thiolysis Step
439
26.3
Ketone
Bodies Are Another Fuel Source
Derived from Fats
439
Ketone-Body Synthesis Takes Place in the Liver
439
Animals Cannot Convert Fatty Acids into Glucose
440
26.4
Metabolism in Context: Fatty Acid Metabolism Is a
Source of Insight into Various Physiological States
441
Diabetes Can Lead to a Life-Threatening Excess of
Ketone-Body Production
441
Ketone
Bodies Are a Crucial Fuel Source
During Starvation
442
Chapter
27
Fatty Acid Synthesis
447
27.1
Fatty Acid Synthesis Takes Place in Three Stages
448
Citrate Carries
Acetyl
Groups from Mitochondria
to the Cytoplasm
448
Several Sources Supply NADPH for Fatty
Acid Synthesis
449
The Formation of Malonyl CoA Is the Committed Step
in Fatty Acid Synthesis
449
new Fatty Acid Synthesis Consists of a Series of Condensation,
Reduction, Dehydration, and Reduction Reactions
450
The Synthesis of Palmitate Requires
8
Molecules
of
Acetyl CoA,
14
Molecules of NADPH,
and
7
Molecules of ATP
452
Fatty Acids Are Synthesized by a
Multifunctional Enzyme Complex in Animals
452
El Clinical Insight Fatty Acid Synthase Inhibitors
May Be Useful Drugs
453
El Clinical Insight A Small Fatty Acid That Causes
Big Problems
453
27.2
Additional Enzymes Elongate and
Desaturate
Fatty Acids
454
Membrane-Bound Enzymes Generate Unsaturated
Fatty Acids
454
Eicosanoid Hormones Are Derived from
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
454
El Clinical Insight Aspirin Exerts Its Effects by Covalently
Modifying a Key Enzyme
455
27.3
Acetyl CoA
Carboxylase Is a Key Regulator
of Fatty Acid Metabolism
455
Acetyl CoA
Carboxylase Is Regulated by Conditions
in the Cell
455
Acetyl
CoA Carboxylase Is Regulated by a
Variety of Hormones
456
27.4
Metabolism in Context:
Ethanol
Alters Energy
Metabolism in the Liver
457
Chapter
28
Lipid
Synthesis: Storage Lipids,
Phospholipids, and Cholesterol
461
28.1
Phosphatidate Is a Precursor of Storage Lipids
and Many Membrane Lipids
461
Triacylglycerol Is Synthesized from Phosphatidate
in Two Steps
462
Phospholipid Synthesis Requires Activated Precursors
462
Sphingolipids Are Synthesized from Ceramide
464
El Clinical Insight Gangliosides Serve As Binding
Sites for Pathogens
465
О
Clinical Insight Disrupted
Lipid
Metabolism
Results in Respiratory Distress Syndrome and
Тау
-Sachs Disease
465
new PhosphatidicAcid Phosphatase Is a Key Regulatory
Enzyme in
Lipid
Metabolism
466
28.2
Cholesterol Is Synthesized from
Acetyl
Coenzyme A in Three Stages
467
The Synthesis of Mevalonate Initiates the Synthesis of
Cholesterol
467
Squalene
(С30)
Is Synthesized from Six Molecules of
Isopentenyl
Pyrophosphate
(C5)
468
Squalene Cyclizes to Form Cholesterol
469
28.3
The Regulation of Cholesterol Synthesis
Takes Place at Several Levels
470
28.4
Lipoproteins Transport Cholesterol and
Triacylglycerols Throughout the Organism
472
Low-Density Lipoproteins Play a Central Role in
Cholesterol Metabolism
473
El Clinical Insight The Absence of the LDL Receptor
Leads to Hypercholesterolemia and Atherosclerosis
474
El Clinical Insight HDL Seems to Protect Against
Atherosclerosis
476
28.5
Cholesterol Is the Precursor of Steroid Hormones
476
Bile Salts Facilitate
Lipid
Absorption
476
Steroid Hormones Are Crucial Signal Molecules
476
Vitamin
D
Is Derived from Cholesterol by the Energy
of Sunlight
477
El Clinical Insight Vitamin
D
Is Necessary for Bone
Development
477
El Clinical Insight Androgens Can Be Used to
Artificially Enhance Athletic Performance
478
Contents xxv
Oxygen
Atoms Are
Added to Steroids by Cytochrome
P450 Monooxygenases
479
Metabolism in Context:
Ethanol
Also Is Processed
by the Cytochrome P450 System
479
SECTION
13
The Metabolism of Nitrogen-Containing
Molecules
485
Chapter
29
Amino
Add
Degradation
and the Urea Cycle
487
29.1
Nitrogen Removal Is the First Step in the
Degradation of
Amino
Acids
488
Alpha-Amino Groups Are Converted into Ammonium
Ions by the Oxidative Deamination of
Glutamate
488
Peripheral Tissues Transport Nitrogen to the Liver
489
29.2
Ammonium Ion Is Converted into Urea in Most
Terrestrial Vertebrates
490
The Urea Cycle Is Linked to Gluconeogenesis
492
О
Clinical Insight Metabolism in Context: Inherited
Defects of the Urea Cycle Cause Hyperammonemia
493
HI new Biological Insight Hibernation Presents Nitrogen
Disposal Problems
493
Ш
Biological Insight Urea Is Not the Only Means
of Disposing of Excess Nitrogen
494
29.3
Carbon Atoms of Degraded
Amino
Acids Emerge
As Major Metabolic Intermediates
494
Pyruvate Is a Point of Entry into Metabolism
495
Oxaloacetate Is Another Point of Entry into
Metabolism
496
Alpha-Ketoglutarate Is Yet Another Point of Entry
into Metabolism
496
Succi
nyl Coenzyme A Is a Point of Entry for Several
Nonpolar
Amino
Adds
497
The Branched-Chain
Amino
Acids Yield
Acetyl
Coenzyme A, Acetoacetate, or
Succi
nyl Coenzyme A
497
Oxygenases Are Required for the Degradation of
Aromatic
Amino
Acids
498
Methionine Is Degraded into Succinyl Coenzyme A
500
О
Clinical Insight Inborn Errors of Metabolism Can
Disrupt
Amino
Acid Degradation
500
Chapter
30
Amino
Add
Synthesis
505
30.1
The Nitrogenase Complex Fixes Nitrogen
506
The Molybdenum-Iron Cofactor of Nitrogenase Binds
and Reduces Atmospheric Nitrogen
507
Ammonium Ion Is Incorporated into an
Amino
Acid
Through
Glutamate
and
Glutaminę
507
30.2
Amino
Acids Are Made from Intermediates
of Major Pathways
508
Human Beings Can Synthesize Some
Amino
Acids
but Must Obtain Others from the Diet
509
Some
Amino
Acids Can Be Made by Simple
Transamination
Reactions
509
Serine,
Cysteine,
and
Glycine
Are Formed from
S-Phosphoglycerate
510
Tetrahydrofolate Carries Activated One-Carbon Units
510
5-Adenosylmethionine Is the Major Donor of
Methyl Groups
5П
О
Clinical Insight High Homocysteine Levels
Correlate with Vascular Disease
512
30.3
Feedback Inhibition Regulates
Amino
Acid Biosynthesis
513
The Committed Step Is the Common Site of
Regulation
513
Branched Pathways Require Sophisticated
Regulation
513
Chapter
31
Nudeotide Metabolism
5Ί9
31.1
An Overview of Nucleotide Biosynthesis
and Nomenclature.
520
31.2
The Pyrimidine Ring Is Assembled
and Then Attached to a Ribose Sugar
521
CTP Is Formed by the
Amination
of UTP
522
Kinases Convert Nucleoside
Monophosphates
into NudeosideTriphosphates
523
NEW Salvage Pathways Recycle Pyrimidine Bases
523
31.3
The
Purine
Ring Is Assembled on Ribose Phosphate
524
AMP and GMP Are Formed from IMP
Enzymes of the Purine-Synthesis Pathway Are
Associated with One Another in Vivo
Bases Can Be Recycled by Salvage Pathways
31.4
Ribonucleotides Are Reduced to
Deoxyribonudeotides
Thymidylate Is Formed by the Methylation of
Deoxyuridylate
О
Clinical Insight Several Valuable
Anticancer
Drugs Block the Synthesis of Thymidylate
NEW
31.5
Nucleotide Biosynthesis Is Regulated
by Feedback Inhibition
Pyrimidine Biosynthesis Is Regulated by Aspartate
Transcarbamoylase
The Synthesis of
Purine Nudeotides
Is Controlled
by Feedback Inhibition at Several Sites
The Synthesis of Deoxyribonudeotides Is Controlled
by the Regulation of Ribonucleotide
Reducíase
31.6
Disruptions in Nucleotide Metabolism Can
Cause Pathological Conditions
О
Clinical Insight The Loss of Adenosine
Deaminase Activity Results in Severe Combined
Immunodeficiency
Ш
Clinical Insight Gout Is Induced by High
Serum Levels of
Urate
524
524
526
527
527
528
529
529
530
530
531
532
532
Clinical Insight Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome Is a Dramatic
Consequence of Mutations in a Salvage-Pathway Enzyme
533
NEW Clinical Insight
Folie
Acid Deficiency Promotes
Birth Defects Such As
Spina Bifida
533
XXVI
Contents
PART III
SYNTHESINC THE MOLECULES OF LIFE
SECTION
14
Nucleic Acid Structure and
DNA
Replication
537
Chapter
32
The Structure of Informational
Macromolecules:
DNA
and
RNA
32.1
539
A Nucleic Acid Consists of Bases Linked to a
Sugar-Phosphate Backbone
540
DNA
and
RNA
Differ in the Sugar Component and
One of the Bases
540
Nudeotides Are the
Monomeric
Units of Nucleic Acids
541
DNA
Molecules Are Very Long and Have Directionality
542
32.2
Nucleic Acid Strands Can Form a
Double-Helical Structure
543
The Double Helix Is Stabilized by Hydrogen Bonds
and the
Hydrophobie
Effect
543
The Double Helix Facilitates the Accurate
Transmission of Hereditary Information
545
Meselson and
Stahl
Demonstrated That Replication
Is
Semiconservative
545
The Strands of the Double Helix Can Be Reversibly
Separated
547
32.3 DNA
Double Helices Can Adopt Multiple Forms
547
Z-DNA Is a Left-Handed Double Helix in Which
Backbone Phosphoryl Croups Zigzag
548
The Major and Minor Grooves Are Lined by
Sequence-Specific Hydrogen-Bonding Croups
549
Double-Stranded
DNA
Can Wrap Around Itself
to Form Supercoiled Structures
549
32.4
Eukaryotic
DNA
Is Associated with Specific Proteins
551
Nudeosomes Are Complexes of
DNA
and Histones
551
Eukaryotic
DNA
Is Wrapped Around Histones to
Form Nudeosomes
552
11
Clinical Insight Damaging
DNA
Can Inhibit
Cancer-Cell Growth
554
32.5
RNA
Can Adopt Elaborate Structures
554
Chapter
33 DNA
Replication
559
33.1 DNA
Is Replicated by Polymerases
560
DNA Polymerase
Catalyzes Phosphodiester-Linkage
Formation
560
new The Specificity of Replication Is Dictated by the
Complementarity of Bases
562
new The Separation of
DNA
Strands Requires Specific
Helicases
and ATP Hydrolysis
562
Topoisomerases Prepare the Double Helix for
Unwinding
564
О
Clinical Insight Bacterial Topoisomerase Is a
Therapeutic Target
564
Many Polymerases Proofread the Newly Added
Bases and Excise Errors
565
33.2 DNA
Replication Is Highly Coordinated
566
DNA
Replication in Escherichia
coli
Begins at a
Unique Site
566
An
RNA
Primer Synthesized by
Primase
Enables
DNA
Synthesis to Begin
566
One Strand of
DNA
Is Made Continuously and the
Other Strand Is Synthesized in Fragments
567
DNA
Replication Requires Highly
Processive
Polymerases
567
The Leading and Lagging Strands Are Synthesized
in a Coordinated Fashion
568
DNA
Synthesis Is More Complex in EukaryotesThan
in Bacteria
570
Telomeres Are Unique Structures at the Ends of Linear
Chromosomes
570
О
Clinical Insight Telomeres Are Replicated by
Telomerase, a Specialized Polymerase That
Carries Its Own
RNA
Template
571
Chapter
34 DNA
Repair and Recombination
575
34.1
Errors Can Arise in
DNA
Replication
576
О
Clinical Insight Some Genetic Diseases Are Caused
by the Expansion of Repeats of Three Nudeotides
576
Bases Can Be Damaged by Oxidizing Agents,
Alkylating Agents, and Light
577
34.2 DNA
Damage Can Be Detected and Repaired
579
The Presence of Thymine Instead of Uracil in
DNA
Permits the Repair of Deaminated Cytosine
581
О
Clinical Insight Many Cancers Are Caused by
the Defective Repair of
DNA 581
fl
Clinical Insight Many Potential Carcinogens Can
Be Detected by Their Mutagenic Action on Bacteria
582
34.3 DNA
Recombination Plays Important Roles
in Replication and Repair
583
NEW Double Strand Breaks Can Be Repaired by
Recombination
583
DNA
Recombination Is Important in a Variety of
Biological Processes
584
SECTION
15
RNA
Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation
587
Chapter
35
RNA
Synthesis and Regulation in
Bacteria
589
35.1
Cellular
RNA
Is Synthesized by
RNA
Polymerases
589
new Genes Are the Transcriptional Units
590
RNA
Polymerase Is Composed of Multiple Subunits
591
35.2
RNA
Synthesis Comprises Three Stages
591
Transcription Is Initiated at Promoter Sites on the
DNA
Template
591
Sigma Subunits of
RNA
Polymerase Recognize
Promoter Sites
592
RNA
Strands Grow in the
5Чо-3'
Direction
593
Elongation Takes Place at Transcription Bubbles
That Move Along the
DNA
Template
594
An
RNA
Hairpin Followed by Several Uracil Residues
Terminates the Transcription of Some Genes
594
The Rho Protein Helps Terminate the Transcription
of Some Genes
595
Precursors of Transfer and Ribosomal
RNA
Are Cleaved
and Chemically Modified After Transcription
596
О
Clinical Insight Some Antibiotics Inhibit Transcription
597
35.3
The lac Operon Illustrates the Control of
Bacterial Gene Expression
598
An Operon Consists of Regulatory Elements and
Protein-Encoding Genes
598
Ligand Binding Can Induce Structural Changes
in Regulatory Proteins
599
Transcription Can Be Stimulated by Proteins That
Contact
RNA Polymerase
599
О
new Clinical and Biological Insight Many Bacterial
Cells Release Chemical Signals That Regulate Gene
Expression in Other Cells
600
new Some Messenger RNAs Directly Sense Metabolite
Concentrations
600
Chapter
36
Gene Expression in
Eu
kary
otes
605
36.1
Eukaryotic Cells Have Three Types of
RNA
Polymerases
606
36.2
RNA
Polymerase II Requires Complex Regulation
608
The TFIID Protein Complex Initiates the Assembly
of the Active Transcription Complex
609
Enhancer Sequences Can Stimulate Transcription
at Start Sites Thousands of Bases Away
609
О
Clinical Insight Inappropriate Enhancer Use May
Cause Cancer
610
Multiple Transcription Factors Interact with Eukaryotic
Promoters and Enhancers
610
О
new Clinical Insight Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
Can Be Generated by Introducing Four Transcription
Factors into Differentiated Cells
610
36.3
Gene Expression Is Regulated by Hormones
611
Nuclear Hormone Receptors Have Similar Domain
Structures
611
Nuclear Hormone Receptors Recruit Coactivators
and Corepressors
612
О
Clinical Insight Steroid-Hormone Receptors Are
Targets for Drugs
613
36.4
Histone Acetylation Results in Chromatin
Remodeling
614
new Metabolism in Context:
Acetyl
CoA Plays a Key Role
in the Regulation of Transcription
614
Histone Deacetylases Contribute to Transcriptional
Repression
616
Chapter
37
RNA
Processing in Eukaryotes
619
37.1
Mature Ribosomal
RNA
Is Generated by the
Cleavage of a Precursor Molecule
620
37.2
Transfer
RNA
Is Extensively Processed
620
37.3
Messenger
RNA
Is Modified and Spliced
621
Sequences at the Ends of
Introns
Specify Splice Sites
in mRNA Precursors
622
Small Nuclear RNAs in Spliceosomes Catalyze the
Splicing of mRNA Precursors
623
Contents
xxvii
El Clinical Insight Mutations That Affect Pre-mRNA
Splicing Cause Disease
624
Kl Clinical Insight Most Human Pre-mRNAs Can Be
Spliced in Alternative Ways to Yield Different Proteins
625
NEW The Transcription and Processing of mRNA Are Coupled
625
RNA
Editing Changes the Proteins Encoded by mRNA
626
37.4
RNA
Can Function As a Catalyst
627
SECTION
1
б
Protein Synthesis and
Recombinant
DNA
Techniques
631
633
Chapter
38
The Genetic Code
38.1
The Genetic Code Links Nucleic Acid
and Protein Information
634
The Genetic Code Is Nearly Universal
634
Transfer
RNA
Molecules Have a Common Design
635
Some Transfer
RNA
Molecules Recognize More Than
One Codon Because of Wobble in Base-Pairing
637
The Synthesis of Long Proteins Requires a Low Error
Frequency
638
38.2
Amino
Acids Are Activated by Attachment
to Transfer
RNA
638
Amino
Acids Are First Activated by Adenylation
639
Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases Have Highly
Discriminating
Amino
Acid Activation Sites
640
Proofreading by Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases
Increases the Fidelity of Protein Synthesis
640
Synthetases Recognize the Anticodon Loops and
Acceptor Stems of Transfer
RNA
Molecules
640
38.3
A Ribosome Is a Ribonucleoprotein Particle
Made of Two Subunits
641
Ribosomal RNAs Play a Central Role in Protein
Synthesis
641
Messenger
RNA
Is Translated in the
бЧо-З'
Direction
642
Chapter
39
The Mechanism of Protein Synthesis
647
39.1
Protein Synthesis Decodes the Information
in Messenger
RNA
647
Ribosomes Have Three tRNA-Binding Sites That
Bridge the 30S and 50S Subunits
648
The Start Signal Is
AUG
(or GUG) Preceded by Several
Bases That Pair with 16S Ribosomal
RNA
648
Bacterial Protein Synthesis Is Initiated by
Formylmethionyl Transfer
RNA
649
Formylmethionyl-tRNAf Is Placed in the
Ρ
Site of
the Ribosome in the Formation of the
70S
Initiation Complex
650
Elongation Factors Deliver Aminoacyl-tRNA to the
Ribosome
650
39.2
Peptidyl
Transferase
Catalyzes
Peptide-Bond
Synthesis
651
The Formation of
a
Peptide
Bond Is Followed by the
GTP-Driven
Translocation
of tRNAs and mRNA
651
Protein Synthesis Is Terminated by Release Factors
That Read Stop
Codons
653
xxviii Contents
39.3
Bacteria
and Eukaryotes Differ in the
Initiation
of
Protein
Synthesis
654
U
Clinical Insight Mutations in Initiation Factor
2
Cause a Curious Pathological Condition
655
39.4
A Variety of Biomolecules Can Inhibit
Protein Synthesis
656
О
Clinical Insight Some Antibiotics Inhibit Protein
Synthesis
656
О
Clinical Insight Diphtheria Toxin Blocks Protein
Synthesis in Eukaryotes by Inhibiting
Translocation
657
Q
Clinical Insight
Ricin
Fatally Modifies 28S
Ribosomal
RNA
658
39.5
Ribosomes Bound to the Endoplasmic Reticulum
new Manufacture Secretory and Membrane Proteins
658
Protein Synthesis Begins on Ribosomes That Are Free
in the Cytoplasm
659
Signal Sequences Mark Proteins for
Translocation
Across the Endoplasmic Reticulum Membrane
659
39.6
Protein Synthesis Is Regulated by a Number
of Mechanisms
660
Messenger
RNA
Use Is Subject to Regulation
660
The Stability of Messenger
RNA
Also Can Be Regulated
661
Small RNAs Can Regulate mRNA Stability and Use
661
(Section
17
isonlineatwww.whfreeman.com/tymoczko2e)
SECTION
17
Experimental Biochemistry
667
Chapter
40
Techniques in Protein Biochemistry
669
40.1
The Proteome Is the Functional Representation
of the Genome
670
40.2
The Purification of a Protein Is the First Step
in Understanding Its Function
670
Proteins Can Be Purified on the Basis of Differences
in Their Chemical Properties
671
Proteins Must Be Removed from the Cell
to Be Purified
671
Proteins Can Be Purified According to Solubility,
Size, Charge, and Binding Affinity
672
Proteins Can Be Separated by Gel Electrophoresis
and Displayed
674
A Purification Scheme Can Be Quantitatively Evaluated
677
40.3
Immunological Techniques Are Used
to Purify and Characterize Proteins
678
Centrifugation Is a Means of Separating Proteins
678
Gradient Centrifugation Provides an Assay
for the
Estrad¡ol-Receptor
Complex
679
Antibodies to Specific Proteins Can Be Generated
680
Monoclonal Antibodies with Virtually Any
Desired Specificity Can Be Readily Prepared
681
The Estrogen Receptor Can Be Purified by
Immunoprecipitation
683
Proteins Can Be Detected and Quantified with the
Use of an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
Western Blotting Permits the Detection of Proteins
Separated by Gel Electrophoresis
40.4
Determination of Primary Structure Facilitates
an Understanding of Protein Function
Amino
Acid Sequences Are Sources of Many
Kinds of Insight
684
684
686
688
693
Chapter
41
Recombinant
DNA
Techniques
41.1
Reverse Genetics Allows the Synthesis
of Nucleic Acids from a Protein Sequence
693
Protein Sequence Is a Guide to Nucleic Acid Information
694
DNA
Probes Can Be Synthesized by Automated Methods
694
41.2
Recombinant
DNA
Technology Has
Revolutionized All Aspects of Biology
695
Restriction Enzymes Split
DNA
into Specific Fragments
696
Restriction Fragments Can Be Separated by Gel
Electrophoresis and Visualized
696
Restriction Enzymes and
DNA
Ligase
Are Key Tools for
Forming
Recombinant
DNA
Molecules
697
41.3
Eukaryotic Genes Can Be Manipulated
with Considerable Precision
698
Complementary
DNA
Prepared from mRNA Can Be
Expressed in Host Cells
698
Estrogen-Receptor cDNA Can Be Identified by
Screening a cDNA Library
699
Complementary
DNA
Libraries Can Be Screened for
Synthesized Protein
700
Specific Genes Can Be Cloned from Digests of
Genomic
DNA 701
DNA
Can Be Sequenced by the Controlled
Termination of Replication
701
El Clinical and Biological Insight "Next-Generation"
Sequencing Methods Enable the Rapid
Determination of a Whole Genome Sequence
703
Selected
DNA
Sequences Can Be Greatly Amplified
by the Polymerase Chain Reaction
704
О
Clinical and Biological Insight PCR Is a Powerful
Technique in Medical Diagnostics, Forensics,
and Studies of Molecular Evolution
706
NEW Gene-Expression Levels Can Be Comprehensively
Examined
Appendices
Glossary
Answers to Problems
Index
Selected Readings
(online at www.whfreeman.com/tymoczko2e)
706
Al
Bl
Cl
Dl
El |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Tymoczko, John L. 1948-2019 Berg, Jeremy M. 1958- Stryer, Lubert 1938-2024 |
| author_GND | (DE-588)124601103 (DE-588)12460109X (DE-588)124601197 |
| author_facet | Tymoczko, John L. 1948-2019 Berg, Jeremy M. 1958- Stryer, Lubert 1938-2024 |
| author_role | aut aut aut |
| author_sort | Tymoczko, John L. 1948-2019 |
| author_variant | j l t jl jlt j m b jm jmb l s ls |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV040263080 |
| classification_rvk | WD 4010 |
| classification_tum | CHE 800f |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)891000348 (DE-599)BVBBV040263080 |
| dewey-full | 572 |
| dewey-hundreds | 500 - Natural sciences and mathematics |
| dewey-ones | 572 - Biochemistry |
| dewey-raw | 572 |
| dewey-search | 572 |
| dewey-sort | 3572 |
| dewey-tens | 570 - Biology |
| discipline | Biologie Chemie |
| edition | International 2. ed. |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV040263080 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-08-06T00:21:51Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9781464104367 1464104360 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-025118814 |
| oclc_num | 891000348 |
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| physical | Getr. Zählung Ill., graph. Darst. |
| publishDate | 2013 |
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| publisher | Freeman |
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| spelling | Tymoczko, John L. 1948-2019 Verfasser (DE-588)124601103 aut Biochemistry a short course John L. Tymoczko ; Jeremy M. Berg ; Lubert Stryer International 2. ed. New York, NY [u.a.] Freeman 2013 Getr. Zählung Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Biochemie (DE-588)4006777-4 gnd rswk-swf 1\p (DE-588)4123623-3 Lehrbuch gnd-content Biochemie (DE-588)4006777-4 s DE-604 Berg, Jeremy M. 1958- Verfasser (DE-588)12460109X aut Stryer, Lubert 1938-2024 Verfasser (DE-588)124601197 aut Digitalisierung UB Regensburg application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025118814&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk |
| spellingShingle | Tymoczko, John L. 1948-2019 Berg, Jeremy M. 1958- Stryer, Lubert 1938-2024 Biochemistry a short course Biochemie (DE-588)4006777-4 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4006777-4 (DE-588)4123623-3 |
| title | Biochemistry a short course |
| title_auth | Biochemistry a short course |
| title_exact_search | Biochemistry a short course |
| title_full | Biochemistry a short course John L. Tymoczko ; Jeremy M. Berg ; Lubert Stryer |
| title_fullStr | Biochemistry a short course John L. Tymoczko ; Jeremy M. Berg ; Lubert Stryer |
| title_full_unstemmed | Biochemistry a short course John L. Tymoczko ; Jeremy M. Berg ; Lubert Stryer |
| title_short | Biochemistry |
| title_sort | biochemistry a short course |
| title_sub | a short course |
| topic | Biochemie (DE-588)4006777-4 gnd |
| topic_facet | Biochemie Lehrbuch |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025118814&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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