Zemjata i chorata prez XVII - părvite desetiletija na XVIII vek: ovladjavane i organizacija na agrarnoto i socialnoto prostranstvo v Centralite i Južnite Balkani pod osmanska vlast
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Bulgarian |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Sofija
Akad. Izdat. "Prof. Marin Drinov"
2011
|
| Ausgabe: | 1. izd. |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | rezensiert in: Hungarian Historical Review, 2014, 3, S. 712-719 Abstract Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | PST: Land and people during 17th - first decades of 18th century. - In kyrill. Schr., bulg. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache |
| Beschreibung: | 482 S. |
| ISBN: | 9789543224227 |
Internformat
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1811916729750650880 |
|---|---|
| adam_text |
СЪДЪРЖАНИЕ
ВЪВЕДЕНИЕ/
13
УВОД
/17
В КОНТЕКСТА НА ОСМАНСКИЯ
XVII -
ПЪРВИТЕ ДЕСЕТИЛЕТИЯ
НА
XVIII
ВЕК
/17
ДЯЛ ПЪРВИ
СТРУКТУРА НА АГРАРНОТО И СОЦИАЛНОТО ПРОСТРАНСТВО
В СЕЛОТО: РАЙОНЪТ НА ОДРИН И ЮГОЗАПАДЕН ПЕЛОПОНЕС
/ 27
Статут на селата в Одринско
/ 27
Структура, съдържание и датиране на регистрите
/ 31
Мерна единица за повърхнина
/35
Глава първа
ЖИТЕЛИТЕ НА СЕЛАТА В ТЕХНИТЕ ДЕЛНИЦИ И ПРАЗНИЦИ
/ 41
1.
Състав на селата в Одринско
/ 41
Социален състав на жителите на селата
/41
Етнорелигиозни характеристики на селата
/ 43
Демографски потенциал на селата и динамика в броя на селските жители
/ 46
Приложение: Регистър на имената на немюсюлманите, жители на селата
/ 47
2.
Радости, грижи и страхове в ежедневието на селяните
/ 48
Околна среда
/ 52
Топонимия и
историческа памет
/ 58
Природни бедствия
/ 62
Смъртоносните болести на времето: сипаница и чума
/ 71
Закрилници и злосторници от въображаемия свят на селяните
/79
Места за поклонение и закрила
/ 89
Празници и веселия
/ 98
Глава втора
УСВОЯВАНЕ И ОРГАНИЗАЦИЯ НА АГРАРНОТО ПРОСТРАНСТВО
В СЕЛСКОТО ЗЕМЛИЩЕ
/106
1.
Статут на земята в Османската империя
/106
2.
Селското землище
/ 107
Граници на землището: законови норми и практика
/107
Площ на селското землище
/108
Усвояване и организация на земите в селското землище
/110
Орни земи (ниви)
/110
Неусвоена
/
празна земя, годна за засяване
/115
Преодоляване на недостига на орна земя
/118
Лозя/
123
Градини/
127
Пасищни зони: мера и ливади
/131
Гори/Ш
Приложение към Глава втора: таблици
1,2/136
Глава трета
РАЙЕТСКИЯТ ЧИФЛИК
/140
1.
Османският закон и земята на селянина
/140
2.
Плодородие на земеделските култури и производствен капацитет
на райетския чифлик в Югозападен Пелопонес
/145
Плодородие на зърнените култури
/149
Реколтата от райетския чифлик в различните типове села, избрани
от османския регистратор като „модел"
/153
Производствен капацитет на средния райетски чифлик за района на казите
Аркадия и
Анаварин/
159
Плодородие на маслиновото дърво, лозята и памука
/ 162
3.
Аграрни стратегии в микроикономиката на различните типове села
/164
Селата в равнината: Филиатра
/165
Селата в планината: Мали
/168
Села от хълмистата и полупланинска зона: Варибоби и Християну
/169
Приложение към Глава трета: таблици
3—6/173
Глава четвърта
ИМУЩЕСТВЕНИ И СОЦИАЛНИ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКИ НА СЕЛЯНИТЕ
ОТ ЮГОИЗТОЧНА ТРАКИЯ: РАЙОНЪТ НА ОДРИН
/180
1.
Селяните и бедността
/186
Причини за ускоряване на процеса на обедняване
/186
Поведение на селяните в условията на нарастващо данъчно облагане
/199
Количествени измерения на бедността
/ 205
2.
Състоятелни селяни
/221
Селяните и търговията
с
аграрни излишъци: посоки, канали, механизми
/ 225
Зърното и вътрешният пазар
1
225
Селяните и международната търговия
/
контрабандата със зърно
1
235
Лозарството и пазарът
/241
Скотовъдството и пазарът
1
246
Селски пазари и панаири. Сливен през
XVI
в.
1
250
Щрихи от историята на Сливенския панаир
1
267
3.
Имуществени характеристики на някои професионални и социални
групи сред селяните
/ 273
Служители на християнския и мюсюлманския култ
/ 274
Занаятчиите
/ 283
Ябанджиите
/286
„Синовете на Абдуллах"
/ 288
Жените
/299
Приложение към Глава четвърта: таблици
1-22/311
Глава пета
АСКЕРИ ЧИФЛИЦИ В ОДРИНСКО
/ 347
1.
Количествени характеристики на чифлишките стопанства според
поземлените регистри от
1669
г.
/ 348
Размери на поземлените имоти в ръцете на аскери
/ 349
Съотношение между чифлишките и райетските земи в селата
/ 359
2.
Портрет на
чифликчията в Одринско през
XVII
век
/ 361
Мустафа челеби,
син на
Махмуд бей от село Айнтаблъ
/361
Бекир
беше, син
на Абдуллах,
пешак
от с. Караагач
/ 365
Хасан
ага, бивш
бостанджибашия от
Одрин
/ 367
3.
Връзки
и взаимоотношения между
селяните
и аскерите
/370
Приложение
към
Глава пета:
документи
1-3/376
ДЯЛ ВТОРИ
ОВЛАДЯВАНЕ И ОРГАНИЗАЦИЯ НА АГРАРНОТО ПРОСТРАНСТВО
В ГРАДА
/ 389
Глава първа
ГРАД АРКАДИЯ
/ 393
Структура и организация на градското аграрно пространство
/ 396
1.
Структура на застроената част на града
/ 396
Крепостта
/ 396
Чаршията
/ 397
Махалите
/ 398
2.
Землището
на град Аркадия
/ 401
Маслинови насаждения и производство на зехтин
/ 403
Лозя
/ 404
Производство на коприна
/ 405
Овощни градини
/ 405
Ниви за зърнопроизводство и други култури
/ 406
Животновъдство
/ 408
Глава втора
СОФИЯ, ВИДИН И СИЛИСТРА
/411
1.
Овладяване и организация на аграрното пространство в застроената
част на градовете
/411
2.
Градско землище
/416
Ливади, овощни и зеленчукови градини
/417
Лозя
/ 420
Ниви
/421
Мера и животновъдство
/ 424
Приложение към Дял втори: таблици
1-3/429
ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ
/ 440
ТЕРМИНОЛОГИЧЕН РЕЧНИК
/ 446
ГЕОГРАФСКИ РЕЧНИК
/ 451
СЪКРАЩЕНИЯ
/ 457
ИЗВОРИ
/ 458
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
/ 462
SUMMARY
/475
CONTENTS
PREFACE
/ 13
INTRODUCTION
THE
CONTEXT
OF
THE OTTOMAN
17th
-
EARLY
18™
CENTURY
/17
PART ONE
STRUCTURE OF THE AGRARIAN AND THE SOCIAL SPACE
IN THE VILLAGE: THE REGION OF EDIRNE AND SOUTHWESTERN
PELOPONNESE
/ 27
Status of the Villages in the
Edirne
Region
/ 27
Structure, Contents and Dating of the Registers
/ 31
Unit of Square Measure
/35
Chapter One
THE INHABITANTS OF THE VILLAGES IN THEIR EVERYDAY LIFE
AND FESTIVITIES
/41
1.
Characteristics of the Villages in the
Edirne
Region
/ 41
Social Composition of the Village Population
/ 41
Ethno-Religious Characteristics of the Villages
/ 43
Demographic Potential of the Villages and Dynamics
/ 46
A p p e n d i x
:
List of the Names of the Non-Muslim Inhabitants
/ 47
2.
Joys, Worries and Fears in the Everyday Life of the Peasants
/ 48
Village Environment
/ 52
Toponyms and Historical Memory
/ 58
Natural Calamities
/ 62
Deadly Diseases: Variola and Plague
/ 71
Guardians and Villains in the Imaginary World of the Peasants
/ 79
Places of Worship and Protection
/ 89
Festivals and Celebrations
/ 98
Chapter Two
RECLAMATION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE AGRARIAN SPACE
IN THE VILLAGE TERRITORY
/106
1.
Status of the Land in the Ottoman Empire/
106
2.
The Village Territory
/107
Boundaries of the Village Territory: Legal Regulations and Practice
/107
Size of the Village Territory
/108
Reclamation and Organization of the Land in the Village Territory
/110
10
Arable
land (Fields)
/110
Unreclaimed
/
Vacant Land Suitable for Sowing
/115
Overcoming the Shortages of Arable Land I
118
Vineyards I
123
Gardens I
127
Grazing Areas: Common Pasture and Meadows
/131
Forests 1
132
Appendix to Chapter Two: Tables
1,2/ 136
Chapter Three
THE RAIYET
ÇIFTLIK
/ 140
1.
The Ottoman Law and the Peasant Land
/ 140
2.
Crop Yields and Productive Capacity of the Raiyet
Çifílik
1
145
Cereal Yields
/149
Annual Production of Cereals in the Raiyet
Çiftlik
in the Villages Designated by
the Ottoman Registrar as "Models"
/153
Productive Capacity of an Average Raiyet
Çiftlik
in the Districts of Arcadia and
Anavarin
/159
Olives, Grape and Cotton Yields
/162
3.
Agrarian Strategies in the Micro Economy of the Different Villages
/164
Villages in the Plain: the Village of Filiatra/
165
Villages in the Mountain: the Village of Mali
/168
Villages in the Semi-mountain and Hilly Areas: the Villages of Varibobi and
Christianu/
169
Appendix to Chapter Three: Tables
3-6/173
Chapter Four
PROPERTY CHARACTERISTICS AND SOCIAL PROFILES OF THE PEASANTS
IN SOUTHEASTERN THRACE: THE REGION OF EDIRNE
/ 180
1.
The Peasants and the Poverty
/186
Causes for the Accelerated Impoverishment
/ 186
The Peasants Behaviour in the Context of Increased Tax Burden
/199
Quantitative Parameters of Poverty
/ 205
2.
Well-to-do Peasants
/ 221
Peasants and the Commercialization of Agricultural Surplus: Directions, Channels,
Mechanisms
/ 225
Grain and the Local Market 1
225
Peasants and the International Trade
/
Grain Smuggling I
'235
Viticulture and the Market 1
241
Stock-breeding and the Market 1
246
Rural Markets and Fairs. The Village of
Sirven
in the 16h Century 1
250
Some Aspects of the History of the Sliven Trade Fair I
267
3.
Property Characteristics of Some Professional and Social Groups Among the
Village Inhabitants
/ 273
The Religious Functionaries
-
Christians and Muslims
/ 274
The Artisans
/ 283
The Strangers
-
Yabancis 1
286
The "Sons of Abdullah"
/ 288
The Women
/ 299
Appendix to Chapter Four: Tables
1-22 /311
Chapter Five
ASKERI
ÇIFTLIKS
IN THE EDIRNE REGION
/ 347
1.
Quantitative Characteristics of the Askeri
Landholdings
According to Data
from the Land Registers of
1669 / 348
11
Size of the Askeri
Landholdings / 349
Ratio Between Askeri and Raiyet
Landholdings in
the Villages
/ 359
2.
Portrait of the Askeri
Çiftlik
Holder-
Çiftlikçi
in the
Edirne
Region in the
17th Century
/361
Mustafa
Çelebi,
Son of
Mahmud
Bey from the Village of Ayntabh
/ 361
Bekir
Beşe,
Son of Abdullah from the Village of
Karaagaç
/ 365
Hasan
Aga,
a Former
Bostancibaşi
from
Edirne
/367
3.
Relationships Between the Peasants and the Askeris 1
370
Appendix to Chapter Five: Documents
1—3/376
PART TWO
RECLAMATION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE AGRARIAN SPACE
IN THE TOWN
/ 389
Chapter One
THE TOWN OF ARCADIA
/ 393
Structure and Organization of the Urban Agrarian Space
/ 396
1.
Structure of the Built-up Area of the Town
/ 396
The Fortress
/ 396
The Market Place
-
Carşu
/ 397
The Residential Area
-
Mahalles 1
398
2.
Town Territory of Arcadia
/ 401
Olive Groves and Production of Olive Oil
/ 403
Vineyards
/ 404
Silk Production
/ 405
Orchards
/ 405
Fields for the Production of Cereals and Other Crops
/ 406
Stock-Breeding
/ 408
Chapter Two
THE TOWNS OF SOFIA,
VIDIN
AND SILISTRA
/ 411
1.
Reclamation and Organization of the Agrarian Space in the Built-up Area of
the Towns
/411
2.
Town Territory
/416
Meadows, Orchards and Vegetable Gardens
/417
Vineyards
/ 420
Fields
/421
Common Pasture and Stock-Breeding
/ 424
Appendix to Part Two: Tables
1-3 / 429
CONCLUSION
/ 440
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
/ 446
INDEX OF GEOGRAPHIC NAMES
/ 451
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
/ 457
ARCHIVAL SOURCES
/ 458
BIBLIOGRAPHY
/ 462
SUMMARY
/ 475
12
LAND AND PEOPLE
During 17th- First Decades of
18'"
Century
Reclamation and Organization of the Agrarian and Social Space
in the Central and Southern Balkans under the Ottoman Rule
Stefka
Parveva
S
ummary
The monograph has a preface, an introduction, two parts, conclusion, two maps,
a glossary, an index of geographic names, a list of abbreviations, archival sources and
published scholarship. Tables with data from the sources are inserted in the chapters
as annexes.
The preface says that land in the Balkans and its agricultural reclamation and
use during the Ottoman rule has been one of the most extensively explored subjects
for scholars. This is why a valid reason for starting a study in this field could be the
discovery of sources which are essentially different from what has been previously
known and used, and which shed light on new aspects of the agrarian issue. It is
exactly this kind of new documents found by the author that provide groundwork
for this study. These are two types of population and land survey (defters) that were
unusual in the practice of the Ottoman administration.
The first type of defters were compiled in the late 1660s and early 1670s. They
include a description of the land of the individual rural households and the common
land in the village territory of
21
villages and two separate mezraas in the
Edirne
nahiyes of
Üsküdar
and Ada. These defters are kept at the Oriental Department of
the National Library in Sofia.
The second type ofdefters offer a description of the population and its property
in the towns, villages and
çiftliks
in the kazas of Arcadia and Anavarin in Southwest¬
ern
Péloponnèse.
The survey is compiled after the reconquest of the
Péloponnèse
by
the Ottomans from the Venetian Republic and dated
15
January
1716.
The defter of
the two kazas is part of the collection of the
Başbakanlik
Osmanli Arsivi in
Istanbul.
The information included in these documents is different from the standard
content of tapu tahrir defters, as compiled until the end of the 16!h century. The
analysis of these atypical sources clarifies certain aspects of the agrarian and social
life in the Balkans during the 17th and early 18th centuries that have generally re¬
mained understudied. The said sources are the backbone of this study. Work on them
was supported by other archive documents and studies which have been published
or have been discovered by the author in the Archives in Sofia, Istanbul and Athens.
The chronological boundaries of the study
-
the
1
7th and early
1
8th centuries, are
set by the time scope of the main sources used by the author.
The introduction sets out the historical context of the study and underscores the
main trends in the demographic development of the population in the Balkans from
the late 16th
-
to the early decades of the 18th century, the monetary and financial
crisis in the Ottoman Empire, the military reform, the tax policy and economy, the
political power and military conflicts.
Part One of the monograph focuses on the economic and social aspects of vil¬
lage life in the region of
Edirne
and Southwestern
Péloponnèse.
475
The beginning of this part does an overview of the studied villages in
Edime
region grouped in three categories
-
villages belonging to vakifs, timars and
hases,
and included in the tax-farming (iltizam) system.
Next, this part offers a detailed analysis of the structure, contents and dating
of land surveys of the villages in
Edirne
region. It says that the manner, in which
the defters were compiled, was influenced by the method of registration of land and
population in Crete after its conquest by the Ottomans in
1669.
It pays special atten¬
tion to the Arab unit of square measure, the cerib, used in measuring and registering
the land in the villages, and how it compares to the Ottoman unit, the
dönüm.
Chapter One studies the population in the
Edirne
villages in their everyday life
and festivities. It starts with an overview of the number, social and ethno-religious
composition of the population in the
21
villages. The said villages had on register
681
men, who probably were heads of households
(hane)
which possessed and cul¬
tivated land. The majority of the registered peasants had the status of reaya. There
were also representatives of the ruling class (askeris) among the villagers. Their
presence was relatively insignificant:
59
men, or
9
per cent of the registered village
inhabitants. Four of the studied villages were inhabited only by Christians and two
others were Muslim-only. In the rest, which we would call mixed, people of the other
faith
-
Muslim or Christian
-
were very few in comparison with the total population
numbers. Overall, more than two-thirds of the registered men in the villages were
Christians
-
Bulgarians and Greeks. In addition to the local residents, the defters
have on register scores of peasants from other villages or townsmen from
Edirne
who had landholdings in the territory of villages under study.
Next, this chapter takes snapshots of the everyday life and festivities of vil¬
lage people and reconstructs some stereotypes of their attitudes and behaviour. It
highlights certain aspects of the real or imaginary world of people, which could help
better explore the land-use patterns and agricultural activity of villagers who lived
in the studied time and places. For this purpose, special attention is paid to the vil¬
lage environment, to the toponyms in the village boundaries as a carrier of historical
memory, to people's perceptions and reactions to natural disasters and the deadly
diseases of the time. Based on accounts by contemporaries, this chapter tell of the
guardians and villains in the imaginary world of peasants, offers descriptions of the
holy places for Christian and Muslim people from this area, chronicles their festivals
and celebrations.
Chapter Two deals with the issues of reclamation and organization of agrarian
space in the village territory. It studies the distribution of land in the village terri¬
tory, the methods and degree of its reclamation in the framework of Ottoman law
concerning agrarian land. It looks at the boundaries and size of the village territory
and their dependence on the geographic location of the village. It analyzes various
sectors of the village territory: fields, vineyards, gardens, forests, common pastures,
meadows and vacant fertile land. It studies various models of behaviour of village
people in the process of land acquisition and organisation of its cultivation. It seeks
the influence of the urban centre on the patterns of reclamation of agrarian land in
the near and far villages of its hinterland.
In conclusion, this chapter notes the existence among peasants of a pronounced
interest in the cultivation of extensive amounts of land. The defters reveal an impor¬
tant degree of land reclamation at a time of adverse economic and political reality
that could have had a negative impact on agricultural activities. If the territories of
21
villages and two mezraas are considered as a whole,
71
per cent of the land that is
suitable for sowing is reclaimed and cultivated. Aggregate data about the individual
village territories show that in more than a half
(67
per cent) of the studied villages
476
the process of land reclamation was considerably advanced (between
65
and
97
per
cent) or has been completed. The two mezraas have no wasteland, as well. In the rest
of the villages
(1/3
of the total number) the share of reclaimed land was below
50
per cent and far lower compared to the villages from the first group. In fact, the most
of these villages are situated in areas with a more mountainous relief, have large ter¬
ritories and common pastures which make them more suitable for cattle-breeding.
The scarcity of land in the villages was not an insurmountable obstacle to the
economic activity of farmers. In close proximity to their villages they had an ad¬
ditional stock of land which offset the land shortage in their own territory. That was
the arable land of the mezraas, the miisellem
çifiliks
and the territory of neighbouring
villages that contained still vacant and unreclaimed land. It was there that the strang¬
ers cultivated their scattered (perakende) fields.
The distribution of land in the village territory also offers an opportunity to
establish the influence of the large consumer and market centre,
Edirne,
on the struc¬
ture of agricultural production in the rural hinterland. Data from the sources indicate
that the more distant villages opted for the production of grain and, in some cases,
for viticulture. At the same time, the nomenclature of production
-
and subsequently
the structure of village territory
-
of villages in the immediate vicinity of the city
were influenced to a considerable degree by the requirements of the large consumers,
the janissary barracks and the sultan's palace, as well as by the opportunity to sell
quickly perishable goods. This seems to have been the main reason for the existence
of relatively large areas in these villages' territories under orchards or vegetable
gardens, or even vineyards.
Chapter Three focuses on the raiyet
çiftlik (çift).
It starts by looking at the legal
regulation of peasant-land relations. It outlines the structure of the
çift-hane
system
and the principles of its functioning. It examines some demographic features of the
rural population: composition of the average household and pattern of marital be¬
haviour.
The yield of grain crops and the productive capacity of the raiyet
çiftlik
are
central to the third chapter. It offers a historical reconstruction of the "model of pro¬
duction" of cereals in one raiyet
çiftlik
in the kazas of Arcadia and Anavarin based
on villagers' reports about the yield ratio of grain, the tax legislation and cereals'
consumption rates. The results indicate as follows: villagers in Southwestern
Pélo¬
ponnèse
applied a three-field system of crop rotation as they cultivated their fields.
They sowed wheat, barley, oats, millet and rye but not all villages had the full scope
of crops. Villagers sowed between
12
and
20
kile
in one raiyet
çiftlik.
In a regular
year they harvested
3.7
to
7
times more grain that they had sown. Wheat was not the
dominant crop sown in the villagers' field and normally made up about one-third of
the harvest. There were villages where it reached
48
per cent. The cereal harvest in
the raiyet
çiftliks
in the two kazas was enough to feed the family, pay the tithe and
the salariye, and put aside what it needed for sowing. Some quantity of grain was
leftover and this surplus ranged between
10
per cent and
45
per cent of the whole
harvest. The surplus was biggest in the villages and
çiftliks
in the plain
(32
per cent
to
45
per cent). The harvest in the hilly, semi-mountain and mountain areas left much
smaller surplus, between
10
per cent and
16
per cent. Both the quantity and the
monetary equivalent of the grain surplus varied from highs of
1823
akçes
in the flat
areas to lows of
164-272
akçes
in the hilly and highland areas. Among all possibili¬
ties for the productive capacity of the raiyet
çiftlik,
there was the case of the village
of Licudisi which produced a harvest with an
18
per cent deficit.
Next is a reconstruction of the productive capacity of an average raiyet
çiftlik
in the kazas of Arcadia and Anavarin. This time the analysis of the figures focuses
477
on the grain surplus that was left in the farmers' hands after they paid their tithe and
salariye, and put aside what they needed for subsistence and for the next sowing. It
is established that villagers sowed an average of
16.9
kile
of grain in the fields of a
çifi.
The harvest from that was
5.5
times more, or
92.5
kile
(2.4
tones). Nearly a third
(31 %)
of this grain remained as surplus for the producer. The average monetary
equivalent of this surplus was
739
akçes.
In the period under review, this amount was
enough to cover the old regular monetary taxes
-
the poll tax (ciziye), even after it
was reformed and increased in
1691,
and the
ispençe. But
it was not enough for all
other levies of the avanz category and of the new set of provincial taxes.
The quantified productive capacity of the average raiyet
çiftlik
brings to the
conclusion that when the
çift-hane
system was built and applied in an economic en¬
vironment that was more favourable for villagers, it was easier to strike the desired
balance of production, consumption and taxation. Obviously, this balance was in
jeopardy or already disturbed from the late 16th century onwards when the Ottoman
authorities, under the pressure of frequent socio-economic, military and political
crises, transformed extraordinary taxes into regular annual levies and introduced a
new set of provincial taxes. Their inclusion in the annual tax list of villagers created
a possibility to transform the average
çiftlik
into a deficit-making production unit
from a surplus-making one.
Finally, Chapter Three analyzes the agrarian strategies in the micro economy of
the various types of settlements, depending on the environmental conditions and the
production capacity of the raiyet
çiftlik,
the road and market infrastructure in the area
of the two explored kazas in Southwestern
Péloponnèse.
It establishes that in the
populous and fertile villages in the plain which were close to town markets and ports
and whose land produced a large grain surplus, villagers created a complex economy
that combined multi-crop farming, animal husbandry and crafts. Unlike them, peo¬
ple in the mountain villages, due to the restrictions of the natural resources and the
lower harvest from the raiyet
çiftlik,
usually focused solely on grain production and
livestock-breeding. Between these two types of agrarian strategies, a selection of
varieties existed that were characteristic of the settlements in the semi-mountain and
hilly areas. The reclaimed land in their territories displayed various combinations of
grain production, cultivation of cash crops and/or animal husbandry.
Chapter Four examines the property characteristics and social profiles of villag¬
ers in Southeastern Thrace —the
Edirne
region. The analysis of the economic and so¬
cial status of peasants is based on the "model of production" of cereals in one raiyet
çiftlik
and agrarian strategies applied in the villages of Southwestern
Péloponnèse.
Data about the peasant landholdings in the hinterland of
Edirne
bears evidence
of the existence of a growing polarization in the distribution of land among the mem¬
bers of the rural community. This is seen in the comparison between the size of land
cultivated by the poor in each village and the land of their affluent fellow villagers.
The difference is usually significant. To take a few examples, the area of the fields
of the wealthiest peasant in the village of Glavanh was three times larger than the
land of the poorest peasant in the same village; in the village of
Uruş
it was
21
times
larger, in Kabaoyuk
49
times, in
Diidiikçi Yenicesi
75
times. This polarization is also
evident in the comparison between villages when these are viewed as a community
of landholders.
The first part of this chapter examines the issue of poverty among villagers and
raises several major questions:
•
What were the specific causes that brought poverty to a certain village?
•
When did the Ottoman authorities designate a village as poor?
•
What terminology was used for that in the official records?
478
•
What followed for the taxpayers and the Treasury from the designation of the
village as poor?
•
What was the behaviour of villagers in time of impoverishment?
The efforts to answer the above questions shed light on several circles of issues.
This chapter first identifies the causes for the accelerated impoverishment of taxpay¬
ers in the reviewed period. Second, it looks at the peasant behaviour in the context of
increasing tax burden. Third, it tries to do a reconstruction of the quantitative aspects
of poverty at the level of the region as a whole, the individual nahiye and the indi¬
vidual village. It analyzes several specific cases which demonstrate various courses
of the processes of peasant impoverishment which had to do with infertile years and
poor crops, plague outbreaks and land deprivation of peasants.
A conclusion is made that within the framework of the imperial tax system
where taxes were levied on, and paid by, the community, the assessment of villagers'
poverty was based on their ability to pay up to the State treasury. For that reason, the
authorities kept track of the economic status of the taxpayers at the level of the settle¬
ment and not the individual household. In the official tax documents, "poor", "very
poor" and "extremely poor" were applied to a village whose residents, as a commu¬
nity of taxpayers, were unable to pay part or all of the taxes allotted to the village.
The quantitative parameters of poverty in the villages and their residents in the
nahiyes
Üsküdar,
Manastir
and Coke in the
kaza
of
Edirne are
studied on the basis
of data from the avanz defters of the 1670s and
16805.
Overall, only
7
per cent of
households in the three nahiye lived in
1676
in villages designated by the clerks as
"poor", "very poor" and "extremely poor", which were unable to pay part or all of
the due taxes. Certainly, that must have been the threshold of the ratio of the poor
peasants against the rest. The real situation at times of economic stagnation, dev¬
astating plague outbreaks and bad crops was surely different and the share of poor
taxpayers among the peasants then must have been bigger.
Poverty had certain, albeit insignificant, ethno-confessional "preferences", at
least in the villages of our three nahiyes in the
kaza
of
Edirne.
Even though poverty
inflicted peasants from both confessional groups, the Muslim reaya emerges as rela¬
tively more affected by adverse factors. The poor villages were home to
9
per cent of
the Muslim households and
6
per cent of the Christian households.
If we trust the judgment of the Ottoman registrars, we could say that poverty
also had uneven geographic distribution: it was more common to the North and
Northwest of
Edirne, in
the villages in the nahiyes
Üsküdar
and
Manastir,
than it was
in the villages to the Northeast, in the nahiye Coke. In the first two nahiyes the share
of poor households was
10
per cent against
1
per cent in the third. This indicates the
existence of factors which were at work on regional level and which determined the
different dynamics in the processes of impoverishment of the local population.
An analysis of the impoverishment of the villages in a period of some
20
years
(1669-1686)
shows several patterns in this process. It becomes clear that poverty was
brought about by long-term and short-term factors related to the changing economic
and military-political situation and the hardships, crises or recovery that went with
these. An equally important role was played by natural disasters which was followed
by bad crops and accompanied by deadly epidemics. The effect of all these factors
was temporary or lasting inability of villagers to cultivate their land, poor harvest
and high price of cereals, indebtedness, land deprivation and deserted villages. In
identical or similar economic, political and ecological conditions, different villages
in general and households in particular showed a different potential to overcome the
headships and deal with the challenges of their time: some recovered, others got poor
and still others went broke.
479
The second part of Chapter Four looks at the well-to-do peasants. The land
defter?, of the
Edirne
villages show that
29
per cent of the villagers with the status of
reaya cultivated two or more
çiftliks.
Those were people of diverse economic consti¬
tution based on the amount of their land possessions:
20
per cent were farmers who
cultivated
2
to
3.9
çifts
and
9
per cent cultivated
4
to
12
gifts.
The prerequisites for the formation of these well-to-do peasants can be sought
in the available opportunities for cultivation of more land which could bring good
crops resulting in the production of surplus, which could in turn be sold on the mar¬
ket. This chain of prerequisites could be supplemented by the surplus in animal hus¬
bandry and its commercialization. This part of Chapter Four analyzes the problems
in respect of the channels and mechanisms for inclusion of villagers in the commer¬
cial turnover of agrarian surplus. It pays special attention to trade in grain and the
participation of villagers in lawful and smuggled commercial exchange. It studies
the importance of marketable agricultural products for the budget of the peasant
family. It explores the role that was played by the village markets and fairs in the
process of selling the farm surpluses. As part of this, it analyzes in detail the demo¬
graphic and economic development of Sliven in the second half of the 16th century
-
the time before it turned from a village into a town with an annual fair. It also ex¬
amines certain aspects of the functioning of the Sliven fair and the everyday life of
the merchants who visited it in the early decades of the
Іб"1
century.
The last part of Chapter Four makes an attempt at drawing a profile of vari¬
ous professional and social groups in the rural communities. It outlines the prop¬
erty characteristics of the religious functionaries (priests and imams), of craftsmen,
strangers (yabanci), converted to Islam former Christians, and women, and analyzes
their landholdings and other sources of income. It also studies the motives of their
economic and social behaviour.
Finally, a conclusion is made that the availability of land that was suitable for
cultivation, the targe grain surplus from the raiyet
çiftlik,
and the surplus of other
crops in the villages with fertile territory, the opportunities for selling it on the mar¬
ket and its high monetary equivalent, all created incentives for investment in farming
and animal husbandry. A part of the village producers in the studied Edirne villages
took advantage of the existing stimuli in the agrarian sector of the imperial economy
and created farms whose arable land included several raiyet
çiftliks,
as well as vine¬
yards, orchards and vegetable gardens or meadows.
Along with the incentives and restrictions of the economic, political and geo¬
graphic milieu which created preconditions for property stratification of villagers,
there were fundamental reasons which did not allow the accumulation by the afflu¬
ent farmers to bring about a dramatic change in organisation of agrarian production
and land use patterns, and from there to a change in the economic system and social
order in the Empire. These reasons were enshrined in the Ottoman law regulating
the principles of land ownership and inheritance. As it is well-known, the ultimate
owner of the land was the State and peasants had only possession rights. This legal
regulation led to a number of restrictions in managing, inheriting and including land
in real commercial exchange, money-lending transactions and so on. This legisla¬
tive philosophy provided the Ottoman authorities with a tool for keeping control on
land and ensuring its cultivation to secure resources for the implementation of their
policies. At the same time it deprived farmers of any opportunity to make a wealth
based on privately owned and unconditionally inherited land. That also precluded
any economic initiative of a larger scale, the introduction of new crops, or any im¬
provements in agricultural technology or competition.
480
Chapter Five focuses on the askeri
çiftliks
in
Edirne
region and the attitude of
the representatives of the ruling class to land and the agrarian sector of the Ottoman
economy. It starts by analyzing the quantitative characteristics of the askeri land-
holdings according to data from the land surveys of
1669.
It reveals that the picture
oí
askeri
çiftliks
established in the region of
Edirne
is no exception in terms of the
proliferation of
çiftlik
agriculture in general and the scope of individual
çiftliks
in
the Balkans. The majority of'askeri landholdings were small in size. Their main task
was to provide subsistence for the household and bring extra income in the fam¬
ily budget. Along with these landholdings, however, there were
çiftliks
whose land,
monetary value, produce and number of hired labourers were indicative of impres¬
sive proportions. The production of these
çiftliks
was intended not only for the local
markets, but probably for export as well.
Second, this chapter analyzes the ratio between askeri and raiyet landholdings
in the villages in order to determine the involvement of the askeris in the process of
land reclamation in the village territory and to establish the place of the askeri
çiftliks
in the studied agrarian space. It finds that the process of including arable land in the
askeri
çiftliks
developed with a variable intensity. The presence of askeris was more
limited in the villages where land reclamation was undertaken primarily by Chris¬
tians. In such villages, either no land was registered to askeris, or if there was any,
it was limited to between
1
and
24
per cent of the arable land in the village territory.
The presence of askeris was of a much larger scale in villages with predominant or
all-Muslim population. In these villages, the share of askeri landholdings ranged
between
33
per cent and
79
per cent. That indicates that the main direction of invest¬
ments in agriculture, at least for the studied villages, were the villages with Muslim
population.
When the studied
21
villages and
2
mezraas are considered as a whole, one
finds that
72
per cent of the arable land belonged to the raiyet landholdings and
28
per cent to the askeri landholdings. Such distribution bears evidence of the roles that
the two social classes played in the agrarian economy of the Empire. It is yet another
proof that the reaya peasants remained the main producers and landholders. It was
their economic activity which basically supplied agricultural produce for the large
consumers, the markets and for export. Although the intervention of representatives
of the ruling class in agricultural production was obvious, the principles of the impe¬
rial agrarian system, founded on the raiyet
çiftlik,
were not compromised.
Next, this chapter draws a retrospective portrait of the
Edirne
çiftlik
holders
in the century under review. For this purpose it examines the inventories of inheri¬
tances
(tereké defters)
of three representatives of the askeri group, who held
çiftliks
in the villages under study. It puts to scrutiny their families, homes and standard of
living,
çiftlik
estates and economic activities.
Finally, this chapter analyzes the relationships between the peasants and the
askeris in their economic activity. It finds that the reaya peasants and askeris had
set in place a system of relations of a type which was departed from the model set
by the principles of imperial organization. Rather than being determined by the ef¬
fective law regulations, these relations were essentially a matter of personal agree¬
ment and arrangement. The new relations were formed on the basis of a heightened
interest in land and the urge to secure what was needed for its cultivation: farm¬
hand in the
çiftlik
for the askeris and loans to get seeds, livestock, equipment and
cash for the peasants to secure the functioning of their own farms. This synergy did
not alter the roles of the two groups in society neither did it change the social order
in the State. However, it was essential for establishing a balance in the evolving
structures and mechanisms in the Empire, connected, among other things, with the
31
Земята и хората.
4g]
changing attitude to land as one of the prime sources of income and a target for
investment.
Part Two addresses the issue of land reclamation and organization of the agra¬
rian space in the town. It has two chapters: Chapter One studies the town of Arcadia
and Chapter Two the towns of Silistra, Sofia and
Vidin.
The two chapters offer a re¬
construction and analysis of the agrarian space in the Balkan town, and the agrarian
activity of town dwellers in the period under study.
The data analysed proves the existence of well-mastered and organised agrarian
space in the town. Despite the various opportunities for economic activity offered by
the town, town dwellers preserved their interest in land cultivation. Attracted by the
opportunity to supply the insatiable town market, and the desire to avoid it when the
family subsistence was concerned, the townsmen invested capital, time and labour
in the cultivation of land and the breeding of livestock. As a result large and small
plots of land in the residential area and in the territory of the town were cultivated.
For some town dwellers, the involvement in agrarian activities was probably the
main source of income, for others, it was only an additional but necessary part of
the family budget, and for still others, the landholdings were a matter of wealth and
social status.
And yet, major differences existed between the agrarian activity of town dwell¬
ers and peasants. They were primarily manifested in their choice of the type of land-
holding and all aspects related to it: taxation, surplus producing expectations, op¬
portunity for selling it on the market and so on. While villagers focused their interest
on fields in their raiyet
çiftliks,
town dwellers invested their money and labour in the
vineyard, garden and meadow. It was difficult and unprofitable for peasants from
the remote villages to bring to the town market perishable fruit and vegetables. For
this reason, towns largely relied on their own resources made available through the
agrarian activity of their own residents. Some towns were even capable of exporting
agricultural produce to neighbouring markets and consumers, to even meet demand
for commercial export.
The different priorities in the agrarian activity of town dwellers and villagers
predetermined the differences in the agrarian landscape of the two types of territo¬
ries. While the arable village land was reclaimed mostly for grain fields, the town's
land-use area was dominated by vineyards, gardens and meadows. As for the bread
and fodder the townsmen relied on the grain which were produced in the rural hin¬
terland and sold at the urban market.
482 |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Părveva, Stefka 1960- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)1023409380 |
| author_facet | Părveva, Stefka 1960- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Părveva, Stefka 1960- |
| author_variant | s p sp |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV040254484 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)802346711 (DE-599)BVBBV040254484 |
| edition | 1. izd. |
| era | Geschichte 1600-1730 gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 1600-1730 |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Osmanisches Reich (DE-588)4075720-1 gnd Südosteuropa (DE-588)4058449-5 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Osmanisches Reich Südosteuropa |
| id | DE-604.BV040254484 |
| illustrated | Not Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-10-03T18:00:48Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9789543224227 |
| language | Bulgarian |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-025110387 |
| oclc_num | 802346711 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 482 S. |
| publishDate | 2011 |
| publishDateSearch | 2011 |
| publishDateSort | 2011 |
| publisher | Akad. Izdat. "Prof. Marin Drinov" |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Părveva, Stefka 1960- Verfasser (DE-588)1023409380 aut Zemjata i chorata prez XVII - părvite desetiletija na XVIII vek ovladjavane i organizacija na agrarnoto i socialnoto prostranstvo v Centralite i Južnite Balkani pod osmanska vlast Stefka Părveva 1. izd. Sofija Akad. Izdat. "Prof. Marin Drinov" 2011 482 S. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier PST: Land and people during 17th - first decades of 18th century. - In kyrill. Schr., bulg. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache Geschichte 1600-1730 gnd rswk-swf Grundeigentum (DE-588)4072130-9 gnd rswk-swf Sozialstruktur (DE-588)4055898-8 gnd rswk-swf Soziokultur (DE-588)4299677-6 gnd rswk-swf Osmanisches Reich (DE-588)4075720-1 gnd rswk-swf Südosteuropa (DE-588)4058449-5 gnd rswk-swf Osmanisches Reich (DE-588)4075720-1 g Südosteuropa (DE-588)4058449-5 g Grundeigentum (DE-588)4072130-9 s Soziokultur (DE-588)4299677-6 s Sozialstruktur (DE-588)4055898-8 s Geschichte 1600-1730 z DE-604 https://www.recensio.net/r/7aeee603289d4b2b9b9ff8a65d510325 rezensiert in: Hungarian Historical Review, 2014, 3, S. 712-719 Rezension Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025110387&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025110387&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Părveva, Stefka 1960- Zemjata i chorata prez XVII - părvite desetiletija na XVIII vek ovladjavane i organizacija na agrarnoto i socialnoto prostranstvo v Centralite i Južnite Balkani pod osmanska vlast Grundeigentum (DE-588)4072130-9 gnd Sozialstruktur (DE-588)4055898-8 gnd Soziokultur (DE-588)4299677-6 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4072130-9 (DE-588)4055898-8 (DE-588)4299677-6 (DE-588)4075720-1 (DE-588)4058449-5 |
| title | Zemjata i chorata prez XVII - părvite desetiletija na XVIII vek ovladjavane i organizacija na agrarnoto i socialnoto prostranstvo v Centralite i Južnite Balkani pod osmanska vlast |
| title_auth | Zemjata i chorata prez XVII - părvite desetiletija na XVIII vek ovladjavane i organizacija na agrarnoto i socialnoto prostranstvo v Centralite i Južnite Balkani pod osmanska vlast |
| title_exact_search | Zemjata i chorata prez XVII - părvite desetiletija na XVIII vek ovladjavane i organizacija na agrarnoto i socialnoto prostranstvo v Centralite i Južnite Balkani pod osmanska vlast |
| title_full | Zemjata i chorata prez XVII - părvite desetiletija na XVIII vek ovladjavane i organizacija na agrarnoto i socialnoto prostranstvo v Centralite i Južnite Balkani pod osmanska vlast Stefka Părveva |
| title_fullStr | Zemjata i chorata prez XVII - părvite desetiletija na XVIII vek ovladjavane i organizacija na agrarnoto i socialnoto prostranstvo v Centralite i Južnite Balkani pod osmanska vlast Stefka Părveva |
| title_full_unstemmed | Zemjata i chorata prez XVII - părvite desetiletija na XVIII vek ovladjavane i organizacija na agrarnoto i socialnoto prostranstvo v Centralite i Južnite Balkani pod osmanska vlast Stefka Părveva |
| title_short | Zemjata i chorata prez XVII - părvite desetiletija na XVIII vek |
| title_sort | zemjata i chorata prez xvii parvite desetiletija na xviii vek ovladjavane i organizacija na agrarnoto i socialnoto prostranstvo v centralite i juznite balkani pod osmanska vlast |
| title_sub | ovladjavane i organizacija na agrarnoto i socialnoto prostranstvo v Centralite i Južnite Balkani pod osmanska vlast |
| topic | Grundeigentum (DE-588)4072130-9 gnd Sozialstruktur (DE-588)4055898-8 gnd Soziokultur (DE-588)4299677-6 gnd |
| topic_facet | Grundeigentum Sozialstruktur Soziokultur Osmanisches Reich Südosteuropa |
| url | https://www.recensio.net/r/7aeee603289d4b2b9b9ff8a65d510325 http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025110387&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=025110387&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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