Elements of ecology:
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Boston [u.a.]
Pearson Benjamin Cummings
2012
|
| Ausgabe: | 8. ed., internat. ed. |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | Includes bibliographical references and index |
| Beschreibung: | XX, 612, [70] S. Ill., Kt. 28 cm |
| ISBN: | 0321796578 9780321796578 |
Internformat
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Elements of ecology |c Thomas M. Smith ; Robert Leo Smith |
| 250 | |a 8. ed., internat. ed. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Boston [u.a.] |b Pearson Benjamin Cummings |c 2012 | |
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| 500 | |a Includes bibliographical references and index | ||
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| 650 | 4 | |a Ecology | |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804148927600001024 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Titel: Elements of ecology
Autor: Smith, Thomas M.
Jahr: 2012
Contents
Preface xv
Chapter 1 The Nature of Ecology 1
1.1 Ecology Is the Study of the Relationship between Organisms
and Their Environment 2
1.2 Organisms Interact with the Environment in the Context
of the Ecosystem 2
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Ecology Has Complex Roots 3
1.3 Ecological Systems Form a Hierarchy 4
1.4 Ecologists Study Pattern and Process at Many Levels 5
1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature Using the Scientific Method 6
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 1.1: Classifying Ecological Data 8
1.6 Models Provide a Basis for Predictions 9
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 1.2: Displaying Ecological Data: Histograms
and Scatter Plots 10
1.7 Uncertainty Is an Inherent Feature of Science 12
1.8 Ecology Has Strong Ties to Other Disciplines 12
1.9 The Individual Is the Basic Unit of Ecology 13
Summary 13 • Study Questions 14 • Further Readings 14
PART 1 The Physical Environment 16
Chapter 2 Climate 18
2.1 Earth Intercepts Solar Radiation 19
2.2 Intercepted Solar Radiation Varies Seasonally 21
2.3 Air Temperature Decreases with Altitude 22
2.4 Air Masses Circulate Globally 25
2.5 Solar Energy, Wind, and Earth s Rotation Create Ocean Currents 26
2.6 Temperature Influences the Moisture Content of Air 27
2.7 Precipitation Has a Distinctive Global Pattern 27
2.8 Topography Influences Regional and Local Patterns of Precipitation 30
2.9 Irregular Variations in Climate Occur at the Regional Scale 30
2.10 Most Organisms Live in Microclimates 32
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Urban Microclimates 33
Summary 34 • Study Questions 35 • Further Readings 35
Chapter 3 The Aquatic Environment 36
3.1 Water Cycles between Earth and the Atmosphere 37
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Groundwater Resources 38
3.2 Water Has Important Physical Properties 39
3.3 Light Varies with Depth in Aquatic Environments 41
3.4 Temperature Varies with Water Depth 42
3.5 Water Functions as a Solvent 44
3.6 Oxygen Diffuses from the Atmosphere to the Surface Waters 45
3.7 Acidity Has a Widespread Influence on Aquatic Environments 46
3.8 Water Movements Shape Freshwater and Marine Environments 47
3.9 Tides Dominate the Marine Coastal Environment 48
3.10 The Transition Zone between Freshwater and Saltwater Environments
Presents Unique Constraints 49
Summary 50 • Study Questions 51 • Further Readings 51
Chapter 4 The Terrestrial Environment 52
4.1 Life on Land Imposes Unique Constraints 53
4.2 Plant Cover Influences the Vertical Distribution of Light 54
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 4.1: Beer s Law and the Attenuation of Light 56
4.3 Soil Is the Foundation upon Which All Terrestrial Life Depends 57
4.4 The Formation of Soil Begins with Weathering 58
4.5 Soil Formation Involves Five Interrelated Factors 58
4.6 Soils Have Certain Distinguishing Physical Characteristics 59
4.7 The Soil Body Has Horizontal Layers, or Horizons 60
4.8 Moisture-Holding Capacity Is an Essential Feature of Soils 61
4.9 Ion Exchange Capacity Is Important to Soil Fertility 62
4.10 Basic Soil Formation Processes Produce Different Soils 63
Summary 65 • Study Questions 66 • Further Readings 67
PART 2 The Organism and Its Environment 68
Chapter 5 Ecological Genetics: Adaptation and Natural Selection 70
5.1 Adaptations Are a Product of Natural Selection 71
5.2 Genes Are the Units of Inheritance 72
5.3 The Phenotype Is the Physical Expression of the Genotype 72
5.4 Genetic Variation Occurs at the Level of the Population 73
5.5 Adaptation Is a Product of Evolution by Natural Selection 73
5.6 Several Processes Can Function to Alter Patterns of Genetic
Variation 77
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 5.1: Hardy-Weinberg Principle 78
5.7 Natural Selection Can Result in Genetic Differentiation 80
5.8 Adaptations Reflect Trade-offs and Constraints 81
¦ FIELD STUDIES: Beren Robinson 82
5.9 Organisms Respond to Environmental Variation at the Individual
and Population Levels 86
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: The Ecology of Antibiotic Resistance 88
Summary 89 • Study Questions 90 • Further Readings 90
Chapter 6 Plant Adaptations to the Environment 92
6.1 Photosynthesis Is the Conversion of Carbon Dioxide into Simple
Sugars 93
6.2 The Light a Plant Receives Affects Its Photosynthetic Activity 94
6.3 Photosynthesis Involves Exchanges between the Plant
and Atmosphere 95
6.4 Water Moves from the Soil, through the Plant, to the Atmosphere 95
6.5 The Process of Carbon Uptake Differs for Aquatic and Terrestrial
Plants 98
6.6 Plant Temperatures Reflect Their Energy Balance with the Surrounding
Environment 98
6.7 Carbon Gained in Photosynthesis Is Allocated to the Production of Plant
Tissues 99
6.8 Constraints Imposed by the Physical Environment Have Resulted
in a Wide Array of Plant Adaptations 101
6.9 Species of Plants Are Adapted to Different Light Environments 101
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 6.1: Relative Growth Rate 104
6.10 The Link between Water Demand and Temperature Influences Plant
Adaptations 106
¦ FIELD STUDIES: Kaoru Kitajima 108
6.11 Plants Vary in Their Response to Environmental Temperatures 112
6.12 Plants Exhibit Adaptations to Variations in Nutrient Availability 113
6.13 Wetland Environments Present Unique Constraints on Plant
Adaptations 115
Summary 116 • Study Questions 118 • Further Readings 118
Chapter 7 Animal Adaptations to the Environment 119
7.1 Size Imposes a Fundamental Constraint on the Evolution of
Organisms 120
7.2 Animals Have Various Ways of Acquiring Energy and Nutrients 122
7.3 Animals Have Various Nutritional Needs 125
7.4 Mineral Availability Affects Animal Growth and Reproduction 126
7.5 Animals Require Oxygen to Release Energy Contained in Food 127
¦ FIELD STUDIES: Martin Wikelski 128
7.6 Regulation of Internal Conditions Involves Homeostasis
and Feedback 130
7.7 Animals Exchange Energy with Their Surrounding Environment 130
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 7.1: Heat Exchange and Temperature
Regulation 132
7.8 Animals Fall into Three Groups Relative to Temperature Regulation 133
7.9 Poikilotherms Depend on Environmental Temperatures 134
7.10 Homeotherms Escape the Thermal Restraints of the Environment 135
7.11 Endothermy and Ectothermy Involve Trade-offs 136
7.12 Heterotherms Take on Characteristics of Ectotherms
and Endotherms 138
7.13 Torpor Helps Some Animals Conserve Energy 138
7.14 Some Animals Use Unique Physiological Means for Thermal Balance 139
7.15 Maintenance of Water Balance for Terrestrial Animals Is Constrained
by Uptake and Conservation 140
7.16 Animals of Aquatic Environments Face Unique Problems in Maintaining
Water Balance 141
7.17 Buoyancy Helps Aquatic Organisms to Stay Afloat 142
7.18 Daily and Seasonal Light and Dark Circles Influence Animal
Activity 142
7.19 Critical Day Lengths Trigger Seasonal Responses 143
7.20 Activity Rhythms of Intertidal Organisms Follow Tidal Cycles 144
Summary 145 • Study Questions 147 • Further Readings 147
PART 3 Populations 148
Chapter 8 Properties of Populations 150
8.1 Organisms May Be Unitary or Modular 151
8.2 The Distribution of a Population Defines Its Spatial Location 151
8.3 Abundance Reflects Population Density and Distribution 153
8.4 Determining Density Requires Sampling 156
8.5 Populations Have Age Structures 156
8.6 Sex Ratios in Populations May Shift with Age 158
8.7 Individuals Move Within the Population 158
8.8 Population Distribution and Density Change in Both Time and Space 160
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Human-Assisted Dispersal 162
Summary 163 • Study Questions 163 • Further Readings 164
Chapter 9 Population Growth 165
9.1 Population Growth Reflects the Difference between Rates of Birth
and Death 166
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 9.1: Derivatives and Differential Equations 167
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 9.2: Exponential Model of Population Growth 168
9.2 Life Tables Provide a Schedule of Age-Specific Mortality
and Survival 169
9.3 Different Types of Life Tables Reflect Different Approaches to Defining
Cohorts and Age Structure 170
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 9.3: Life Expectancy 171
9.4 Life Tables Provide Data for Mortality and Survivorship Curves 172
9.5 Birthrate Is Age-Specific 173
9.6 Birthrate and Survivorship Determine Net Reproductive Rate 174
9.7 Age-Specific Mortality and Birthrates Can Be Used to Project Population
Growth 174
9.8 Stochastic Processes Can Influence Population Dynamics 176
9.9 A Variety of Factors Can Lead to Population Extinction 177
9.10 Small Populations Are Susceptible to Extinction 177
Summary 178 • Study Questions 179 • Further Readings 179
Chapter 10 Life History 181
10.1 The Evolution of Life Histories Involves Trade-offs 182
10.2 Reproduction Involves Both Benefits and Costs to Individual
Fitness 182
10.3 Age at Maturity Is Influenced by Patterns of Age-Specific
Mortality 183
10.4 Reproductive Effort Is Governed by Trade-offs between Fecundity
and Survival 185
10.5 There Is a Trade-off between the Number and Size of Offspring 188
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 10.1: Interpreting Trade-offs 190
10.6 Species Differ in the Timing of Reproduction 190
10.7 An Individual s Life History Represents the Interaction between
Genotype and the Environment 192
10.8 Mating Systems Describe the Pairing of Males and Females 193
10.9 Acquisition of a Mate Involves Sexual Selection 194
10.10 Females May Choose Mates Based on Resources 195
¦ FIELD STUDIES: Alexandra L Basolo 196
10.11 Patterns of Life History Characteristics Reflect External Selective
Forces 198
Summary 200 • Study Questions 201 • Further Readings 201
Chapter 11 Intraspecific Population Regulation 202
11.1 The Environment Functions to Limit Population Growth 203
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: The Human Carrying Capacity 204
11.2 Population Regulation Involves Density Dependence 206
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 11.1: The Logistic Model of Population
Growth 207
11.3 Competition Results When Resources Are Limited 207
11.4 Intraspecific Competition Affects Growth and Development 208
11.5 Intraspecific Competition Can Influence Mortality Rates 210
11.6 Intraspecific Competition Can Reduce Reproduction 212
¦ FIELD STUDIES: T. Scott Sillett 214
11.7 High Density Is Stressful to Individuals 216
11.8 Dispersal Can Be Density Dependent 216
11.9 Social Behavior May Function to Limit Populations 217
11.10 Territoriality Can Function to Regulate Population Growth 217
11.11 Plants Preempt Space and Resources 219
11.12 Density-Independent Factors Can Influence Population Growth 219
Summary 220 • Study Questions 221 • Further Readings 222
Chapter 12 Metapopulations 223
12.1 Four Conditions Define a Metapopulation 224
12.2 Metapopulation Dynamics Is a Balance between Colonization
and Extinction 226
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 12.1: Equilibrium Proportion of Occupied
Patches 227
12.3 Patch Area and Isolation Influence Metapopulation Dynamics 227
12.4 Habitat Heterogeneity Influences Local Population Persistence 230
12.5 Some Habitat Patches May Function as the Major Source
of Emigrants 230
12.6 Certain Factors Can Function to Synchronize the Dynamics
of Local Populations 231
12.7 Species Differ in Their Potential Rates of Colonization
and Extinction 232
12.8 The Concept of Population Is Best Approached by Using
a Hierarchical Framework 233
Summary 234 • Study Questions 235 • Further Readings 235
PART 4 Species Interactions 236
Chapter 13 Species Interactions, Population Dynamics, and Natural
Selection 238
13.1 Species Interactions Can Be Classified Based on Their Reciprocal
Effects 239
13.2 Species Interactions Influence Population Dynamics 240
13.3 Species Interactions Can Function as Agents of Natural Selection 241
13.4 The Nature of Species Interactions Can Vary Across Geographic
Landscapes 245
13.5 Species Interactions Can Be Diffuse 245
13.6 Species Interactions Influence the Species Niche 246
13.7 Species Interactions Can Drive Adaptive Radiation 248
Summary 249 • Study Questions 249 • Further Readings 250
Chapter 14 Interspecific Competition 251
14.1 Interspecific Competition Involves Two or More Species 252
14.2 There Are Four Possible Outcomes of Interspecific Competition 252
14.3 Laboratory Experiments Support the Lotka-Volterra Equations 253
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 14.1: Interpreting Population Isoclines 255
14.4 Studies Support the Competitive Exclusion Principle 256
14.5 Competition Is Influenced by Nonresource Factors 256
14.6 Temporal Variation in the Environment Influences Competitive
Interactions 257
¦ FIELD STUDIES: Katherine N. Suding 258
14.7 Competition Occurs for Multiple Resources 260
14.8 Relative Competitive Abilities Change along Environmental
Gradients 261
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 14.2: Competition under Changing Environmental
Conditions: Application of the Lotka-Volterra Model 263
14.9 Interspecific Competition Influences the Niche of a Species 266
14.10 Coexistence of Species Often Involves Partitioning Available
Resources 267
14.11 Competition Is a Complex Interaction Involving Biotic and Abiotic
Factors 270
Summary 270 • Study Questions 271 • Further Readings 272
Chapter 15 Predation 273
15.1 Predation Takes a Variety of Forms 274
15.2 Mathematical Model Describes the Basics of Predation 274
15.3 Model Suggests Mutual Population Regulation 276
15.4 Functional Responses Relate Prey Consumed to Prey Density 277
15.5 Predators Respond Numerically to Changing Prey Density 280
15.6 Foraging Involves Decisions about the Allocation of Time
and Energy 281
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 15.1: A Simple Model of Optimal Foraging 283
15.7 Foragers Seek Productive Food Patches 284
15.8 Risk of Predation Can Influence Foraging Behavior 285
15.9 Coevolution Can Occur between Predator and Prey 285
15.10 Animal Prey Have Evolved Defenses against Predators 285
15.11 Predators Have Evolved Efficient Hunting Tactics 289
15.12 Herbivores Prey on Autotrophs 289
¦ FIELD STUDIES: Rick A. Relyea 290
15.13 Plants Have Evolved Characteristics That Deter Herbivores 292
15.14 Plants, Herbivores, and Carnivores Interact 294
15.15 Predators Influence Prey Dynamics through Lethal and Nonlethal
Effects 294
Summary 296 • Study Questions 297 • Further Readings 297
Chapter 16 Parasitism and Mutualism 298
16.1 Parasites Draw Resources from Host Organisms 299
16.2 Hosts Provide Diverse Habitats for Parasites 300
16.3 Direct Transmission Can Occur between Host Organisms 300
16.4 Transmission between Hosts Can Involve an Intermediate
Vector 301
16.5 Transmission Can Involve Multiple Hosts and Stages 301
16.6 Hosts Respond to Parasitic Invasions 301
16.7 Parasites Can Affect Host Survival and Reproduction 303
16.8 Parasites May Regulate Host Populations 303
16.9 Parasitism Can Evolve into a Mutually Beneficial Relationship 305
16.10 Mutualisms Involve Diverse Species Interactions 305
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Plagues Upon Us 306
16.11 Mutualisms Are Involved in the Transfer of Nutrients 307
¦ FIELD STUDIES: John J. Stachowicz 308
16.12 Some Mutualisms Are Defensive 311
16.13 Mutualisms Are Often Necessary for Pollination 311
16.14 Mutualisms Are Involved in Seed Dispersal 312
16.15 Mutualisms Can Influence Population Dynamics 313
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 16.1: A Model of Mutualistic Interactions 314
Summary 315 • Study Questions 316 • Further Readings 316
PART 5 Community Ecology 318
Chapter 17 Community Structure 320
17.1 The Number of Species and Their Relative Abundance Define
Diversity 321
17.2 Numerical Supremacy Defines Dominance 323
17.3 Keystone Species Influence Community Structure Disproportionately
to Their Numbers 323
17.4 Food Webs Describe Species Interactions 324
17.5 Species within a Community Can Be Classified into Functional
Groups 324
17.6 Communities Have a Characteristic Physical Structure 326
17.7 Zonation Is Spatial Change in Community Structure 328
17.8 Defining Boundaries between Communities Is Often Difficult 329
17.9 Two Contrasting Views of the Community 331
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 17.1: Community Similarity 332
Summary 333 • Study Questions 334 • Further Readings 334
Chapter 18 Factors Influencing the Structure of Communities 335
18.1 The Fundamental Niche Constrains Community Structure 336
18.2 Species Interactions Are Diffuse 337
¦ FIELD STUDIES: Sally D. Hacker 338
18.3 Food Webs Illustrate Indirect Interactions 340
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 18.1: Quantifying the Structure of Food Webs:
Connectance 341
18.4 Food Webs Suggest Controls of Community Structure 344
18.5 Species Interactions along Environmental Gradients Involve Both Stress
Tolerance and Competition 345
18.6 Environmental Heterogeneity Influences Community Diversity 348
18.7 Resource Availability Can Influence Plant Diversity within
a Community 349
Summary 351 • Study Questions 352 • Further Readings 352
Chapter 19 Community Dynamics 353
19.1 Community Structure Changes Through Time 354
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: American Forests 356
19.2 Primary Succession Occurs on Newly Exposed Substrates 358
19.3 Secondary Succession Occurs after Disturbances 358
19.4 The Study of Succession Has a Rich History 360
19.5 Succession Is Associated with Autogenic Changes in Environmental
Conditions 361
19.6 Species Diversity Changes during Succession 363
19.7 Succession Involves Heterotrophic Species 364
19.8 Systematic Changes in Community Structure Are a Result of Allogenic
Environmental Change at a Variety of Timescales 365
19.9 Community Structure Changes over Geologic Time 367
19.10 The Concept of Community Revisited 369
Summary 371 • Study Questions 372 • Further Readings 373
Chapter 20 Landscape Dynamics 374
20.1 Environmental Processes Create a Variety of Patches
in the Landscape 375
20.2 Transition Zones Offer Diverse Conditions and Habitats 377
20.3 Patch Size and Shape Are Crucial to Species Diversity 378
20.4 The Theory of Island Biogeography Applies to Landscape Patches 382
20.5 Landscape Connectivity Permits Movement between Patches 384
20.6 The Metapopulation and Metacommunity Are Central Concepts
in the Study of Landscape Dynamics 385
20.7 Frequency, Intensity, and Scale Determine the Impact
of Disturbances 385
¦ FIELD STUDIES: Nick M. Haddad 386
20.8 Various Natural Processes Function as Disturbances 388
20.9 Human Disturbance Creates Some of the Most Long-Lasting
Effects 390
20.10 The Landscape Represents a Shifting Mosaic of Changing
Communities 391
Summary 391 • Study Questions 392 • Further Readings 393
PART 6 Ecosystem Ecology 394
Chapter 21 Ecosystem Energetics 396
21.1 The Laws of Thermodynamics Govern Energy Flow 397
21.2 Energy Fixed in the Process of Photosynthesis Is Primary
Production 397
21.3 Temperature, Water, and Nutrients Control Primary Production
in Terrestrial Ecosystems 398
21.4 Temperature, Light, and Nutrients Control Primary Production
in Aquatic Ecosystems 401
21.5 External Inputs of Organic Carbon Can Be Important in Aquatic
Ecosystems 403
21.6 Energy Allocation and Plant Life-Form Influence Primary
Production 404
21.7 Primary Productivity Varies with Time 405
21.8 Primary Productivity Limits Secondary Production 406
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Human Appropriation of Net Primary
Productivity 408
21.9 Consumers Vary in Efficiency of Production 408
21.10 Ecosystems Have Two Major Food Chains 410
21.11 Energy Flows through Trophic Levels Can Be Quantified 411
¦ FIELD STUDIES: Brian Silliman 412
21.12 Consumption Efficiency Determines the Pathway of Energy Flow
through the Ecosystem 414
21.13 Energy Decreases in Each Successive Trophic Level 415
Summary 416 • Study Questions 417 • Further Readings 417
Chapter 22 Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling 419
22.1 Most Essential Nutrients Are Recycled within the Ecosystem 420
22.2 Decomposition Is a Complex Process Involving a Variety
of Organisms 421
22.3 Studying Decomposition Involves Following the Fate of Dead
Organic Matter 423
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 22.1: Estimating the Rate of Decomposition 424
22.4 Several Factors Influence the Rate of Decomposition 425
¦ FIELD STUDIES: Edward A. G. (Ted) Schuur 428
22.5 Nutrients in Organic Matter Are Mineralized During Decomposition 430
22.6 Decomposition Proceeds as Plant Litter Is Converted into Soil Organic
Matter 432
22.7 Plant Processes Enhance the Decomposition of Soil Organic Matter
in the Rhizosphere 434
22.8 Decomposition Occurs in Aquatic Environments 434
22.9 Key Ecosystem Processes Influence the Rate of Nutrient Cycling 436
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Nitrogen Fertilizers 437
22.10 Nutrient Cycling Differs between Terrestrial and Open-Water Aquatic
Ecosystems 438
22.11 Water Flow Influences Nutrient Cycling in Streams and Rivers 440
22.12 Land and Marine Environments Influence Nutrient Cycling
in Coastal Ecosystems 441
22.13 Surface Ocean Currents Bring about Vertical Transport of Nutrients 443
Summary 443 • Study Questions 444 • Further Readings 445
Chapter 23 Biogeochemical Cycles 446
23.1 There Are Two Major Types of Biogeochemical Cycles 447
23.2 Nutrients Enter the Ecosystem via Inputs 447
23.3 Outputs Represent a Loss of Nutrients from the Ecosystem 448
23.4 Biogeochemical Cycles Can Be Viewed from a Global Perspective 448
23.5 The Carbon Cycle Is Closely Tied to Energy Flow 448
23.6 Carbon Cycling Varies Daily and Seasonally 450
23.7 The Global Carbon Cycle Involves Exchanges among the Atmosphere,
Oceans, and Land 451
23.8 The Nitrogen Cycle Begins with Fixing Atmospheric Nitrogen 452
23.9 The Phosphorus Cycle Has No Atmospheric Pool 454
23.10 The Sulfur Cycle Is Both Sedimentary and Gaseous 455
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Nitrogen Saturation 457
23.11 The Global Sulfur Cycle Is Poorly Understood 458
23.12 The Oxygen Cycle Is Largely under Biological Control 459
23.13 The Various Biogeochemical Cycles Are Linked 460
Summary 461 • Study Questions 462 • Further Readings 463
PART 7 Ecological Biogeography 464
Chapter 24 Terrestrial Ecosystems 466
24.1 Terrestrial Ecosystems Reflect Adaptations of the Dominant Plant
Life-Forms 468
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 24.1: Climate Diagrams 470
24.2 Tropical Forests Characterize the Equatorial Zone 471
24.3 Tropical Savannas Are Characteristic of Semiarid Regions with
Seasonal Rainfall 474
24.4 Grassland Ecosystems of the Temperate Zone Vary with Climate
and Geography 476
24.5 Deserts Represent a Diverse Group of Ecosystems 479
24.6 Mediterranean Climates Support Temperate Shrublands 482
24.7 Forest Ecosystems Dominate the Wetter Regions
of the Temperate Zone 484
24.8 Conifer Forests Dominate the Cool Temperate and Boreal Zones 486
24.9 Low Precipitation and Cold Temperatures Define the Arctic Tundra 488
Summary 490 • Study Questions 492 • Further Readings 492
Chapter 25 Aquatic Ecosystems 493
25.1 Lakes Have Many Origins 494
25.2 Lakes Have Weil-Defined Physical Characteristics 494
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Dams: Regulating the Flow of River Ecosystems 496
25.3 The Nature of Life Varies in the Different Zones 497
25.4 The Character of a Lake Reflects Its Surrounding Landscape 498
25.5 Flowing-Water Ecosystems Vary in Structure and Types of Habitats 499
25.6 Life Is Highly Adapted to Flowing Water 501
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 25.1: Streamflow 502
25.7 The Flowing-Water Ecosystem Is a Continuum of Changing
Environments 504
25.8 Rivers Flow into the Sea, Forming Estuaries 504
25.9 Oceans Exhibit Zonation and Stratification 506
25.10 Pelagic Communities Vary Among the Vertical Zones 507
25.11 Benthos Is a World of Its Own 508
25.12 Coral Reefs Are Complex Ecosystems Built by Colonies of Coral
Animals 509
25.13 Productivity of the Oceans Is Governed by Light and Nutrients 510
Summary 511 • Study Questions 513 • Further Readings 513
Chapter 26 Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems 514
26.1 The Intertidal Zone Is the Transition between Terrestrial and Marine
Environments 515
26.2 Rocky Shorelines Have a Distinct Pattern of Zonation 515
26.3 Sandy and Muddy Shores Are Harsh Environments 517
26.4 Tides and Salinity Dictate the Structure of Salt Marshes 518
26.5 Mangroves Replace Salt Marshes in Tropical Regions 519
26.6 Freshwater Wetlands Are a Diverse Group of Ecosystems 520
26.7 Hydrology Defines the Structure of Freshwater Wetlands 523
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: The Continuing Decline of the Wetlands 524
26.8 Freshwater Wetlands Support a Rich Diversity of Life 526
Summary 526 • Study Questions 527 • Further Readings 527
Chapter 27 Large-Scale Patterns of Biological Diversity 528
27.1 Earth s Biological Diversity Has Changed through Geologic Time 529
27.2 Past Extinctions Have Been Clustered in Time 530
27.3 Regional and Global Patterns of Species Diversity Vary
Geographically 530
27.4 Species Richness in Terrestrial Ecosystems Correlates with Climate
and Productivity 532
27.5 In Marine Environments, There Is an Inverse Relationship between
Productivity and Diversity 533
27.6 Species Diversity Is a Function of Processes Operating at Many
Scales 534
¦ QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 27.1: Quantifying Biodiversity: Comparing Species
Richness Using Rarefaction Curves 535
Summary 536 • Study Questions 537 • Further Readings 537 ]
PART 8 Human Ecology 538
Chapter 28 Population Growth, Resource Use, and Sustainability 540
28.1 Sustainable Resource Use Is a Balance between Supply and
Demand 542
28.2 Sustainability Can Be Indirectly Limited by Adverse Consequences
of Resource Use 544
28.3 Sustainability Is a Concept Learned from Natural Ecosystems 544
28.4 Agricultural Practices Vary in the Level of Energy Input 544
28.5 Swidden Agriculture Represents a Dominant Form of Agriculture
in the Wet Tropics 545
28.6 Industrialized Agriculture Dominates the Temperate Zone 546
28.7 Different Agricultural Methods Represent a Trade-off between
Sustainability and Productivity 548
28.8 Sustainable Agriculture Depends on a Variety of Methods 549
28.9 Sustainable Forestry Aims to Achieve a Balance between
Net Growth and Harvest 551
¦ FIELD STUDIES: Deborah Lawrence 552
28.10 Exploitation of Fisheries Has Lead to the Need for Management 556
28.11 Fisheries Management Requires an Ecosystem Approach 558
28.12 Economics Are a Key Factor Governing Resource Management 560
Summary 562 • Study Questions 564 • Further Readings 564
Chapter 29 Habitat Loss, Biodiversity, and Conservation 565
29.1 Habitat Destruction Is the Leading Cause of Current Species
Extinctions 566
29.2 Human-Introduced Invasive Species May Threaten Many Native
Species 568
29.3 Species Differ in Their Susceptibility to Extinction 571
29.4 Identifying Threatened Species Is Critical to Conservation Efforts 572
29.5 Regions of High Species Diversity Are Crucial to Conservation
Efforts 572
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Wolf Reintroduction, Restoration,
and Management 575
29.6 Protecting Populations Is the Key To Conservation Efforts 576
29.7 Reintroduction Is Necessary to Reestablish Populations of Some
Species 577
29.8 Habitat Conservation Functions to Protect Whole Communities 579
29.9 Habitat Conservation Involves Establishing Protected Areas 579
29.10 Habitat Restoration Is Often Necessary in Conservation Efforts 582
29.11 Environmental Ethics Is at the Core of Conservation 583
Summary 584 • Study Questions 585 « Further Readings 586
Chapter 30 Global Climate Change 588
30.1 Greenhouse Gases Influence Earth s Energy Balance and Climate 589
30.2 Atmospheric Concentration of Carbon Dioxide Is Rising 589
30.3 Tracking the Fate of C02 Emissions 591
30.4 Atmospheric C02 Concentrations Affect C02 Uptake by Oceans 591
¦ FIELD STUDIES: Erika Zavaieta 592
30.5 Plants Respond to Increased Atmospheric C02 594
30.6 Greenhouse Gases Are Changing the Global Climate 596
30.7 Changes in Climate Will Affect Ecosystems at Many Levels 598
¦ ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Who Turned Up the Heat? 602
30.8 Changing Climate Will Shift the Global Distribution
of Ecosystems 604
30.9 Global Warming Would Raise Sea Level and Affect Coastal
Environments 605
30.10 Climate Change Will Affect Agricultural Production 606
30.11 Climate Change Will Directly and Indirectly Affect Human
Health 607
30.12 Understanding Global Change Requires the Study of Ecology
at a Global Scale 609
Summary 610 • Study Questions 611 • Further Readings 612
References R-1
Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Index 1-1
|
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| discipline | Biologie |
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| indexdate | 2024-07-10T00:14:55Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0321796578 9780321796578 |
| language | English |
| lccn | 2011015962 |
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| publisher | Pearson Benjamin Cummings |
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| spelling | Smith, Thomas M. 1955- Verfasser (DE-588)131795872 aut Elements of ecology Thomas M. Smith ; Robert Leo Smith 8. ed., internat. ed. Boston [u.a.] Pearson Benjamin Cummings 2012 XX, 612, [70] S. Ill., Kt. 28 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Includes bibliographical references and index Ökologie Ecology Ökologie (DE-588)4043207-5 gnd rswk-swf 1\p (DE-588)4123623-3 Lehrbuch gnd-content Ökologie (DE-588)4043207-5 s DE-604 Smith, Robert Leo 1925- Sonstige (DE-588)138175853 oth HBZ Datenaustausch application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=024812891&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis 1\p cgwrk 20201028 DE-101 https://d-nb.info/provenance/plan#cgwrk |
| spellingShingle | Smith, Thomas M. 1955- Elements of ecology Ökologie Ecology Ökologie (DE-588)4043207-5 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4043207-5 (DE-588)4123623-3 |
| title | Elements of ecology |
| title_auth | Elements of ecology |
| title_exact_search | Elements of ecology |
| title_full | Elements of ecology Thomas M. Smith ; Robert Leo Smith |
| title_fullStr | Elements of ecology Thomas M. Smith ; Robert Leo Smith |
| title_full_unstemmed | Elements of ecology Thomas M. Smith ; Robert Leo Smith |
| title_short | Elements of ecology |
| title_sort | elements of ecology |
| topic | Ökologie Ecology Ökologie (DE-588)4043207-5 gnd |
| topic_facet | Ökologie Ecology Lehrbuch |
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