Krymskaja Iudeja: očerki istorii evreev, chazar, karaimov i krymčakov v Krymu s antičnych vremen do našich dnej
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Russian |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Simferopolʹ
Izdat. "Dolja"
2011
|
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Beschreibung: | PST: Crimean Judea. - In kyrill. Schr., russ. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache |
| Beschreibung: | 335 S. zahlr. Ill., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 9789663663869 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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| adam_text | Содержание
Условные сокращения
.......................................................................... 8
Введение
..........................................................................................
Глава
1.
Евреи Крыма в эпоху античности
................................................. 19
-
Краткий обзор обобщающих публикаций
.......................................... 19
-
Появление евреев в Крыму: Боспорское царство
................................... 25
-
Еврейская община Херсонеса
........................................................ 33
-
Евреи в других регионах Таврики и проблема
интерпретации эпиграфических памятников
.................................... 37
-
Культ Бога Высочайшего: еврейский или нет?
.................................... 48
Глава
2.
Под властью византийцев и «неразумных» хазар
............................. 53
-
Введение в хазарскую проблематику
............................................... 53
-
Проблема иудаизации хазар
......................................................... 57
-
Еврейские источники об иудаизации хазар
....................................... 61
-
Обстоятельства принятия хазарами иудаизма
................................ 68
-
Характер иудаизма в Хазарском каганате
....................................... 71
-
Хазары в Крыму
...................................................................... 76
-
Евреи и Крым в постхазарское время
.............................................. 83
Глава
3.
Караимы
............................................................................... 91
-
История развития и распространения караимского
движения в раннесредневековый период
........................................... 91
-
Проблема появления караимов в Крыму
...........................................106
-
Расселение караимов в Крыму в Средние века и раннее новое время
............114
-
Структура, правовое положение общины,
отношения с другими этносами
.................................................... 143
-
Традиционная культура, быт и обычаи
...........................................151
Глава
4.
Крымчаки
..............................................................................173
-
Термин «крымчаки» и проблема преемственности между
крымскими евреями античности и позднего средневековья
.....................173
-
Расселение евреев-раввинистов в Крыму в доосманский период
(вторая половина
XIII
века-
1475
год)
.............................................177
-
Евреи-раввинисты в Каффе (Кефе) османского периода
........................194
-
Евреи-раввинисты в других населенных пунктах Крыма
.......................207
-
Этнографические особенности общины
...........................................214
-
Духовная жизнь и выдающиеся деятели
...........................................229
Глава
5.
Под сенью двух империй
(XIX-XX
века)
.........................................243
-
В период Гаскалы и еврейской эмансипации
(80-е годы
XVIII
-80-е годы
XIX
века)
..........................................243
~ Культура и образование периода Гаскалы; деятельность
A.C.
Фирковича
___266
-
Новые жители Крымской Иудеи: «русские караимы»
-
субботники
...........281
-
От погромов до террора
(1881-1917/1920).........................................284
-
Культурная жизнь в конце
XIX -
начале
XX
века
................................294
-
В советское время
....................................................................297
Послесловие
..................................................................................... 311
Резюме (на английском языке)
................................................................319
Некоторые факты о роли Крымской Иудеи в истории еврейской цивилизации
... 329
Вклад крымских иудеев в историю Крыма
................................................ 331
Словарь специальных терминов
.............................................................333
Table
of Contents
List of abbreviations
............................................................................. 8
Introduction
.,..................................................................................... 9
Chapter
1.
Crimean Jews in antiquity
......................................................... 19
-
General literature survey.
........................................,................... 19
-
Settlement of the Jews in the Crimea: Bosporan Kingdom
............................ 25
-Jewish community of Chersonesos
................................................... 33
-Jews in other regions of
Taurìda
and the problem
of the interpretation ofepigraphic monuments
...................................... 37
-
The cult of the Most High God:Jewish or not?
....................................... 48
Chapter
2.
Under the rule of the Byzantians and the foolish Khazars
................ 53
-
introduction to Khazarproblem
...................................................... 53
-
The problem of the Khazars conversion to Judaism
................................. 57
-Jewish sources regarding the Khazars conversion to Judaism
........................ 61
-
Circumstances of the Khazars conversion to Judaism
............................... 68
-
The character of Judaism in the Khazar Kaganate
................................... 71
-
The Khazars in the Crimea
........................................................... 76
-
The Jews and the Crimea in the post-Khazarperiod.
................................ 83
Chapter
3.
The Karaites
......................................................................... 91
-
The history of the development and dissemination
of the Karaite movement in early medieval period
................................... 91
-
The problem of the Karaites settlement in the Crimea
...............................106
-
The settlement of the Karaites in the Crimea in the
Middle Ages and early modern time
................................................... 114
-
Structure, legal status of the community
,
relations with other ethnic groups
.........143
-
Traditional culture, everyday life, and customs
......................................151
Chapter
4.
The Krymchaks
.....................................................................173
-
The term Krymchaks and the problem of continuity between
the Crimean Jews of antiquity and the late Middle Ages
............................173
-
Settlement of the Crimean
Rabbonite
Jews in the Crimea in
pre
-
Ottoman period (second halfofthe 13thcentury
- 1475)......................177
-
Rabbanitejews of
Coffa
in
pre-
Ottoman period
....................................194
-
Rabbanitejews in other Crimean settlements
.......................................207
-
Ethnographic features of the community
.............................................214
-
Spiritual life and important historical figures
........................................229
Chapter
5.
Under the Protection of Two Empires (XIX-XX centuries)
................243
-
During the Haskalah and Jewish Emancipation (1780s
- 1980s)...................243
-
Culture and education during the Haskala period;
activity of Abraham Eirkovich
.......................................................266
-
New inhabitants of Crimean
Judea:
Russian Karaites -Subbotniki
................281
-From pogroms to the terror
(1881-1917/1920).......................................284
-
Cultural life at the end of the 19th-beginning of the 20th century
..................294
-
During Soviet times
..................................................................297
Afterword
..........................................................................................311
Summary (in the English language)
.............................................................319
Some facts about the role of Crimean
Judea
in the history of Jewish civilization
.....329
Contribution of the Crimean Jews to the history of the Crimea
.........................331
Glossary
...........................................................................................333
319-----—-----=------—— —-------=-----—
Mikhail Kizilov
Crimean
Judea
Notes on the History of the Jews,
К
bazars, Karaites and
Krymchaks in the Crimea since Ancient Times
(Summary of the book)
Introduction
This book invites you to undertake a trip (both in time and space) to the realm of Crimean
Judea
in order to get acquainted with its most enigmatic inhabitants
-
Crimean Jews, Rab-
banites, Karaites, Khazars, Ashkenazim, Krymchaks, and
Subbotniks
(Russian converts
to Judaism). The readers should not be astonished by the affinity between the culture and
history of the Crimean
Judea
and real, i.e. Palestinian
Judea.
After all, the Crimea and
Palestine for many centuries had been parts of the same state
-
Byzantine and (until
1783)
Ottoman empires. The bibliography of the publications related to the history of the Crimean
Jews is quite large and consists of several thousand items written in various European and
Oriental languages. Nevertheless, there is no comprehensive work dedicated to the general
history of Crimean Jewry. In this book I would like to attempt to combine the knowledge
which I received in the West with my first-hand acquaintance with local Crimean material.
This book is a result of my long-term research in many West and East European, Crimean,
Russian, and Israeli libraries and archives. The book is based primarily on archival sources
and on the author s field work in the Crimea.
Chapter
1.
Crimean Jews in ancient period
The Crimea, a peninsula lying in the Northern part of the Black Sea at the juncture of
trade routes from Europe to the East, since ancient times has been inhabited by various eth¬
nic groups and nations. The Romans, Greeks, Byzantines, Goths, Alans, Khazars, Ottoman
Turks, Crimean Tatars, and Russians succeeded one another in the struggle for dominance
over the Crimea. The first Jewish settlers appeared in the Crimea after the conquests of Alex¬
ander the Great, when
Judea
became a part of the Hellenistic Orient. In all probability, they
came to the Crimea from Asia Minor and the Caucasus not later than the first century
A.D.
(or maybe even in the second century B.C.) and settled mainly in two Greek towns, Bosporus
(Panticapaeum, at present Kertch) and Chersonesos (at present, Sevastopol). Thus, the Jew¬
ish community of the Crimea is one of the most ancient Jewish communities in Europe. It
seems that the Jews inhabited Bosporus until the sixth century
A.D.
and left the town after
the Huns invasion. The community of Chersonesos lived in this town much longer, from ca.
_—---------—_— 320 ——------—-----— ----—---__—
300
until at least
1096/7.
Furthermore, in ancient times the Jews also lived in other Crimean
towns located on the territories of today s
Partenit
and Vilino. There is no doubt that it was
Jews (and not the Khazars) that left numerous tombs and stelae with images of seven- and
nine-branched candelabrum. These epigraphic monuments can be dated as belonging to the
period between the second and the ninth centuries
A.D.
It is argued in the chapter that con¬
trary to traditional views (E.
Schürer et
alia) the so-called cult of the Most High God appar¬
ently did not have any Jewish connotation.
Chapter2. Under the rule oftheByzantians and the foolish Khazars
In the period from the sixth to the tenth centuries the Crimean Jewish diaspora was
greatly enlarged after the arrival of the Greek Jews escaping the persecution of Byzantine
emperors. In the eighth century the Jewish population of the Black Sea area was so large that
the Byzantine chronicler Theofanes listed the Jews first among the ethnic groups inhabiting
the peninsula. From the seventh-tenth centuries
A.D.
the vast steppe area starting from the
territory of the present day post-Soviet republics
oí
Middle Asia up to the Northern Caucasus,
Ukraine and upper Volga was occupied by the kingdom of the nomadic Khazars. Their state,
the Khazar Kaganate, might be compared with the colossus standing on feet of clay
-
the
feature of many empires of the medieval period. Among the peoples living in the Kaganate
were Turks, Finno-Ugrians, Slavs, Jews and alia
-
each of them speaking their own languages,
each of them professing their own religions and cults, from monotheistic Christianity, Islam,
and Judaism up to Turkic paganism and shamanism. At some point, we are not sure when
precisely
-
maybe in
740,
maybe later, in
860 -
the ruling aristocracy of the Kaganate decided
to accept Judaism and declare the Jewish faith to be the main religion of the country. It is
still rather unclear when, how and under which circumstances the Khazars accepted Judaism.
There is no doubt, nevertheless, that they accepted it in Rabbinic (or simplified Rabbinic)
form. Theories regarding the would be Karaite character of Khazars Judaization are not
based on any historical source.
In
965-968
the Khazars were defeated by the army of the
Rus
prince Sviatoslav. Since
then the Khazars, their state, and even their name practically disappeared from the political
map of medieval Europe. There are only a few scattered and not too reliable references to the
Khazars in the eleventh
-
thirteenth centuries. As M.I. Artamonov, one of the most authori¬
tative scholars in the field of Khazar Studies pointed out, the search for the descendants of
the Khazars seems to be fruitless, mostly because of the fact that the Khazars dissolved in
the
Cuman
sea. Nevertheless, the riveting story of the disappearance of the whole mighty
kingdom, destruction of its towns and settlements and apparent dissolving of its inhabit¬
ants among several other neighbouring states and nations became a topic of heated debates
and discussions, starting, perhaps, from the twelfth century Jewish poet and writer Yehuda
(Judah) Halevi, through the Orientalists and theologians of early modern times up to politi¬
cal historians and ideologists of our days. Paradoxically enough, this purely wissenschaflich
problem related to the history of the early medieval Khazar state became a serious issue in the
political games of European nationalists of the nineteenth-twentieth centuries.
The question of where one can find the descendants of the Khazars who disappeared in the
eleventh-thirteenth century and who they might be seems to be a especially misused topic.
321
It evoked many non-academic theories, often disguised under the mask of academic studies.
Lev Gumilev, whose writing about Khazars are considered nowadays to be a mere
historio-
graphical nonsense, discovered descendants of the Khazars among the Slavic
Brodniki
or
Astrakhan and Don Cossacks; Arthur Koestler considered them to be the Thirteenth Tribe
of Israel, the ancestral root of the whole of Ashkenazic Jewry; some trace Khazars in the
mountainous Jews of the Caucasus, Slavic Judaisants-Subbotniks, Crimean Karaites and
Krimchaks. Quite unconvincing also seems to be the argumentation of Norman Golb and
Omeljan Pritsak, who tried to prove the Khazar origins of Kiev and the early Kievan state.
In the
1980s
the interest in the Khazarian topic became even stronger
-
being caused, first
of all, by the publication of the Khazar dictionary by the famous Serbian writer Milorad
Pavič.
This article is an attempt to trace most important examples of the use and misuse of the
Khazarian history in the European national ideologies and politically motivated scholarships;
especially significant in this context would be ideological debates and theories concerning the
supposed Khazar origins of the East European Karaites. Purely academic publications, whose
approach to Khazar history was not distorted by any ideological agenda, will be used here
only to show the groundlessness of pseudo-scholarly abuse of this subject.
From the end of the seventh through the end of the ninth centuries the Crimea had also
been partly occupied by the Khazars. Many Crimean towns situated in the eastern, central,
and southern parts of the peninsula are listed among other settlements belonging to the
Khazar
Kagan
in the famous correspondence between the
Kagan
Joseph and Hasdai Ibn
Shaprut (ante
965).
Despite the fact that the Kaganate lost its power in the Crimea after it
was defeated by the Russian prince Sviatoslav
(965-968),
the traces of the Khazars influence
were so visible and distinctive that the Crimea was called «Gazaria» or «Khazaria» by the
Genoese settlers and European travellers as late as the end of the sixteenth century. In Khazar
times the Byzantine town of Chersonesos was visited by the famous missionary, Cyril
(Con¬
stantine)
who apparently studied there the Hebrew grammar (c.
860).
According to another
hagiographie
source, in
1096/7
the local Jews were expelled from Chersonesos
-
presumably,
because of their cruel attitude towards Christian slaves. This seems to be the last reference
to the presence of the Jews in the Crimea prior to the arrival of the Karaites and European
Rabbinic Jews (ancestors of today s Krymchaks), in the thirteenth century.
Chapter
3.
The Karaites
The Karaites are members of an independent religious movement within Judaism that spread
from the countries of the Middle East to Byzantium, North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, and
Europe. The Karaites derive their name from the Hebrew word for Scripture (qara im, bne
miqra, ba alei miqra). The first of these terms, qara im, should be translated as Scripturalists
or champions of the Scripture ; the terms bne1 miqra, and ba alei miqra may be translated as
Sons of the Scripture or Masters of the Scripture. The name itself reflects the main char¬
acteristic of the sect, viz. the recognition of the TaNaKh (a.k.a Old Testament) as the sole and
direct source of religious law, with the rejection of the Oral Law (a.k.a. the Talmud, a later
Rabbinic commentary and legal code based on the TaNaKh). To oversimplify the issue, the
Karaite objection to the Oral Law lay in its introduction into Judaism of many non-TaNaKh
based regulations composed by the Rabbis. Due to the prominence of the Rabbanites in Jewish
life, much Karaite literature was directed specifically against the doctrine the Rabbanites.
_—_-------------= 322 —----------------------------------——
The first indisputable evidence regarding the presence of the Karaites in the Crimea is
the report of a conflict between the Rabbinic Jews and Karaite Jews in the town of Solkhat
in
1279.
Some scholars suggest that the first reference to a possible Karaite presence in the
vicinities of the Crimea might be found in the travel account of Moses Petahyah of
Regens¬
burg
(Ratisbon) (between
1177-1187).
According to his account, Petahyah embarked from
Prague and, after visiting Poland and Russia, reached the Land of Qedar. Most scholars
identify the latter with the Southern Ukraine. For the Crimea, Petahyah used another term,
Khazaria. In this Qedar he met certain Jewish minim
(Heb.
«heretics») whose main distinc¬
tive feature was a strict observance of the Sabbath. Some believe this part of Petahyah s narra¬
tive should be interpreted as the first direct testimony to the presence of a Karaite population.
Others suggest that Petahyah was referring to the remnants of the Khazarian population
rather than the Karaites. The author of this book is inclined to think that Petahyah s remark
is too brief and too uncertain to come to some decisive conclusions concerning the ethnic
identification of these Judaic minim. Thus, until new testimonies and sources related to this
problem are found, it is only possible to state that, in all probability, the Karaites migrated
to the Crimean peninsula no earlier than the first half of the thirteenth century. While the
exact circumstances and precise date of their arrival is difficult to establish, it is very tempt¬
ing to suppose that the migration of the Karaites to the Crimea went by two main routes: one
that brought the earliest, most likely Turkic (Qypchak) speaking, Karaites together with the
Tatar conquerors of the Crimea in the mid-thirteenth century, and the other, which was real¬
ized through the migration from the Karaite communities of Byzantium.
From the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries, the main Karaite seats in the Crimea were
Eski-Kyrym, Caffa, Kyrk-Yer (later: Chufut-Kale) and
Mangup
in the Crimea. In addition,
there also were Karaite quarters in other Crimean towns, such as Karasubazar (Belogorsk),
and
Gözleve (Eupatoria).
At the end of the eighteenth/beginning of the nineteenth centuries,
Karaite communities appeared in Bakhchesaray, Or (Ferakh-Kerman, Perekop), Armianskiy
Bazar (Armiansk), Sevastopol , Simferopol , and Kerch. In Tatar period there apparently was
Karaite population in the Crimean settlements of Yashlov, Tash-Yargan, and Tepe-Kermen.
As all Jews who lived in the territory of the countries of the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean
Karaites received the protected minority status of dhimmis. According to the pact of Umar,
which was introduced as a legal and administrative article in the seventh-eighth centuries,
dhimmis, on the one hand, received many privileges (e.g. the right to settle down in, Muslim
lands and to be protected by Muslim authorities), on the other, they had to pay jizya (a poll-tax)
and were subjected to numerous economic and ideological restrictions.
As has been mentioned, the main difference between the religious doctrine of the Karaite
and Rabbanite Jews is found in the Karaite s negation of the binding authority of the Talmud
and their recognition of the TaNaKh as the only true source of religious law. In addition, the
Karaites did not recognize the use of Rabbinic paraphernalia such as the mezuzah, tefilin,
and the structures of a miqweh. There were also a number of other differences, first of all,
in the sphere of the calendar, dietary and marriage laws, rights of inheritance, ceremony of
circumcision, etc. Many of the religious practices of the Crimean Karaites bore a seemingly
Oriental character, examples include: ablution before entering the synagogue (called by the
present-day East European Karaites kenasa/kenese (sing; pl/ kenasalarAeneseler )), the
directing of the Torah closet to the South, and entering the synagogue sanctuary bare-footed
323
(there are no benches inside a Karaite sanctuary, and it is covered by carpeted floors). Some
scholars explain these observances by tracing them to Islamic influence, others say they are
drawn or interpreted from a literal understanding of Biblical laws. The Karaites contend that
these practices stem from the observance of Biblical purity laws, which were extended from
the temple, at a ceremonial level, to the synagogue.
It is very difficult to characterize in one word the complex nature of the relations between
the Karaite and Rabbanite Jews, which had been formed by the representatives of these two
different trends of Judaism in the course of more than thousand years, from the emergence of
the Karaite movement in the mid-eighth century until today. These relations, which balanced
between such polar feelings as brotherly friendship and bitter animosity, were determined by
an understanding of mutual belonging to one religious entity on the one hand, and by a hos¬
tile attitude towards their brethren s heretical interpretation of religious law, on the other.
Over many centuries of the history of the contacts between the Karaites and Rabbanites,
it is possible to come across such manifestations of these ambivalent feelings as: brotherly
love, help and advice, and, simultaneously, scorn, abhorrence, and even betrayal. In the Tatar
and Ottoman Crimea relations between the Crimean Karaites and Rabbanites (Krymchaks)
were quite peaceful, and certain long-term animosity did not come out of the frames of inter¬
nal confessional differences and controversies. Moreover, many documents testify to mutual
understandings and frequent assistance between these two groups. This comparatively serene
atmosphere started to worsen in the first half of the nineteenth century, after the
propagan¬
distic
activity of Abraham Fiikovich and the grant of a special status by the Russian govern¬
ment to the Karaites, which completely separated them from the burdens and sufferings of
other Jewish subjects in the Empire.
The relations between the Karaites and their Muslim neighbours, Tatars and Ottoman
Turks, were also not uniform. On the one hand, being attracted by their knowledge of Turkic
languages and a similitude in their way of life, the Crimean Tatars eagerly participated in the
trade with the Karaites, and found in them friendly companions whilst visiting coffee-houses,
smoking pipes and drinking coffee. Khans often distinguished the loyalty and acumen of the
Karaites when placing them in important administrative posts of the Khanate, and granting
them numerous privileges. However, written sources of the eighteenth
-
nineteenth centu¬
ries are full of references to oppressive measures of the khans administration towards the
Karaites, and a rather pejorative attitude of the Tatars to the Karaites on an every-day level.
According to the estimations of M.S.Kupovetski, in
1783
the Karaite population of the
Russian Empire consisted of
3.800
Karaites with
2.600
Karaites living in the Crimea.
Chapter
4.
The Krymchaks
Modern ethnography defines the Krymchaks as an ethnic entity formed as amalgam of
several Jewish groups which settled in the Crimea in the late Middle Ages and early modern
time. The Krymchaks is a very late and in many respects artificial term which appeared in
the first half of the nineteenth century, soon after the annexation of the Crimea by Russian
Empire
(1783).
This term was invented to designate the local Turkic-speaking Rabbanite Jews
who were distinctively different from the rest of Jewish population which began settling in the
Crimea after
1783.
One of the Krymchaki leaders, Isaac Kaya
(1887-1956),
explained the
___=^*____
324 —---------------__= --------------—------..
meaning of this term as follows: The Krymchaks represent a special group of Jews who had
been living in the Crimean peninsula since ancient times and in many respects had adopted
the Tatar culture .
The Krymchak community was formed in the Crimea from the late Middle Ages through
the nineteenth century from emigrants of various Jewish communities of Europe, Asia Minor,
the Caucasus and the Near East. Among these emigrants were not only the Yiddish-speaking
Ashkenazic Jews, but also Graeco-,
Ladino-,
Tat-, and Arab-speaking Jews from Byzan¬
tium (Ottoman Empire), Spain, Italy, the Caucasus, Russia, and some Oriental countries.
Surnames of modern Krymchaks are eloquent witnesses to the varied geographic origin of
Krymchak settlers. Thus, for example, the surnames Berman, Gutman and Ashkenazi (and
its Krymchaki form Achkinazi ) belonged to Yiddish-speaking emigrants from Europe and
Russia; Abraben,
Piastra,
Lombrozo and Trevgoda
-
to Sephardic Jews from Italy and Spain;
Bakshi, Stamboli, Izmirli, Tokatly and Mizrahi
-
to Jews coming from the Ottoman Empire
and the Muslim East. The surnames Lekhno and Varshavskii belonged to emigrants from
Poland,
Gota
and
Weinberg -
from Germany, Gurdzhi
-
from the Caucasus etc. Many
surnames attested the Crimean origin or professions of their owners: Mangupli means from
Mangup
(a medieval stronghold in the Crimea), Demerdzhi
-
smith, while Taukchi
-
poultry farmer. About
40
percent of the Krymchaki surnames are derivatives from Hebrew
(e.g. Peisah, Purim, Rabenu,
Levi,
Bentovim, Rafailov etc.).
In the Tatar and Ottoman Crimea the Krymchaks lived mostly in Caffa. At the beginning
of the sixteenth century part of the community emigrated to the adjacent town of
Karasů-
bazar (Belogorsk). The Krymchak community became a unified community formed out of
members of diiferent Jewish edot perhaps only in the seventeenth through the eighteenth cen¬
turies. Furthermore, ethnic processes of acculturation
/
amalgamation within the community
continued also in the nineteenth century. Starting from medieval times the Crimean Rab-
banites, as well as their neighbours, non-Talmudic Crimean Karaites, were under the strong
Tatar influence which, however, was limited only to the sphere of culture, language, and every
day life and customs. Especially important was a linguistic aspect: the Crimean Rabbanites
(Krymchaks) adopted the Krymchak dialect (or, rather, ethnolect) of the Crimean Tatar lan¬
guage as the language of their every day use (a.k.a. Judeo-Tatar). Starting from the nineteenth
century some Krymchak authors (apparently following leaders of the Karaite community)
sometimes called the Krymchak ethnolect Cagatay
/
Dzhagatay language. This tendency
became stronger after the war since in the period of Stalin s deportations it was dangerous
to acknowledge the fact that the Krymchaks spoke the Crimean Tatar language. This is why
after the war and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union many Krymchak leaders claimed
that the Krymchaks spoke Krymchak or Cagatay language.
These claims, however, merely demonstrate changes in the ethnic identity of the Krym¬
chaks and have nothing to do with linguistics. Similar ideological (and not scholarly) reasons
forced many Crimean Karaites and Turkologists to claim that the Crimean Karaites spoke
some sort of a separate
Karaim
language, whereas in fact they certainly spoke an ethnolect
of Crimean Tatar. In fact, Dzhagatay (Cagatay), the official language of the Golden Horde, is
considerably different from the Krymchak and
Karaim ethnolects
of Crimean Tatar. Major¬
ity of modern linguists came to the conclusion that in spite of a number of phonological and
lexical differences, the Krymchak ethnolect of the Crimean Tatar language cannot be con-
325
siderea a separate
Turkic language. This fact was certainly realized by Krymchak authors as
well: Nisim
Levi Chakhchir,
for example, called this language the Tatar language which we
use among ourselves . The Krymchaks who took part in the census of
1913
also called their
native language Tatar or Crimean-Tatar . Isaac Kaya, the author of numerous primers and
manuals of the Crimean Tatar language and Krymchak ethnolect, also called the Krymchak s
spoken language Tatar .
This is why in my book I call the Krymchak s Turkic language the Krymchak ethnolect
of the Crimean Tatar language (or, in abridged form, the Krymchak ethnolect ). From the
eighteenth through the twentieth century this ethnolect was used to compose secular and
religious works, fairy-tales, songs, and verses; furthermore, the Krymchaks also translated
a number of sacred texts from Hebrew into the Krymchak ethnolect. In spite of the active
use of the Krymchak ethnolect for literary purposes, Hebrew remained the main language of
liturgy, prayers, correspondence, tombstone inscriptions, and scholarly treatises perhaps until
the beginning of the twentieth century. Some Krymchaks continued to use the Krymchak
ethnolect and Hebrew characters even after the war.
In the course of the nineteenth century the Krymchak community grew as a result of the
active absorption of the Jewish emigrants coming to the Crimea from the western provinces of
Russian empire. This is why the community became many times larger: from around
600-800
souls in
1783
to almost
7.000
souls in
1913.
Chapter
5.
Under the Protection of Two Empires (19th and 20th centuries)
After the annexation of the Crimea
(1783)
and the incorporation of some parts of the
former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth into Russia (in
1772, 1793,
and
1795),
almost all
European Karaites became subjects of Russian Empire.
Azaria
ben Eliah mentioned that
Besides Karaites and Jews living in Karasubazar, there were not any other ra aya [=non-
Muslim subjects] left in the Crimea. Nevertheless, in
1791
the Crimea was officially included
into the territory of the Pale of Settlement. This is why from the end of the eighteenth century
on Polish Rabbanite Jews from the western provinces of Russian Empire started emigrat¬
ing to the Crimea and settling down there. Until the time of the Crimean war
(1853-1856)
Polish Jewish community was rather insignificant. Nevertheless, in the second half of the
nineteenth century, and especially after
1881
Ashkenazic emigrants already constituted a
significant part of the Crimean population.
After the forced removal of the local Crimean Christian population
(1777)
and mass migra¬
tion of the Tatars, the Crimean Karaites found themselves in a very advantageous situation.
As a result of the migrations, they turned out to be the most influential commercial power of
the depopulated, but still highly important, new southern region of Russia. In the nineteenth
century, the Karaites started to settle throughout the Russian Empire and Europe. By the
end of the century, scattered Karaite communities were present in many large cities of Rus¬
sia and Europe: St. Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, Kharkov, Poltava, Nikolaev, Elisavetgrad,
Ecaterinoslav, Berdiansk, Kishinev, Kharbin, Vienna, Warsaw,
et alia.
Moreover, at the end
of the eighteenth century, the Karaites started to receive preferential legal treatment: in
1795
they were relieved of the double tax imposed upon the Jews, and in
1827
they were exempted
(unlike the Rabbanites) from the obligatory military service in the Russian army. Until these
326
measures were taken, despite all the polemics and quarrels, the history of the Karaite and
Rabbanite Jews was similar; thus, clearly, this moment is a turning point in the history of the
East European Karaites. As time passed, the distance between the privileged Karaites and
their Rabbanite brethren grew, reaching its climax in
1863,
when the Karaites were accorded
full rights of citizenship in the Russian Empire, and were integrated into society, serving in
the tsar s army, and in the government.
It seems that, largely due to the aforementioned securing of its financial and economic
prosperity and stable position in the society, the Karaite population of the Empire obtained an
incredible demographic growth. From
3.800
Karaites in
1783,
the Karaite population grew to
12.894 (6,372 -
males;
6,522 -
females) in
1897.
This means that it became more than three
times larger! According to the census of
1897
there were
6.166
Karaites in Tavricheskaya
guberniya,
1.383
in Poland-Lithuania,
5.345
in other parts of Russia (including Siberia and
Middle Asia). The largest were the communities of the following towns: Eupatoria
- 1.505,
Theodosia
- 1.233,
Odessa
- 1.049,
Sevastopol
- 813,
Simferopol
- 709,
Nikolaev
- 554,
Troki
- 377,
Wilno -
155.
According to the data of Tavricheskoe gubernskoe
zemstvo (a
kind
of local government) in
1907
there were already
8.683
Karaites in Tavricheskaya guberniya.
The nineteenth century also marked the appearance of a number of theories related to the
origins and history of the Karaites, popularized both by the Karaite leaders and non-Karaite
scholars. According to some, the Karaites had come to the Crimea before the time of Christ.
Consequently, they were the only true, ancient Biblical Jews. It followed from this statement
that the Karaites could not be blamed for the crucifixion and participating in the composi¬
tion of the Talmud: the defensive mechanism that had often been employed by small Jewish
communities at the time of Christian persecutions. Later, at the end of the nineteenth
-
first
half of the twentieth century, East European Karaite authors created a completely different
version of their ethnic history, which denied all links to the Jewish people, and stressed their
origins from Turkic Khazar proselites, converted to Karaism in the eighth century.
Abraham Firkovich (or Firkowicz) is, undoubtedly, one of the most prominent and con¬
troversial figures in the history of Karaism in the nineteenth century. Born in Lutsk, Poland
(present-day Ukraine) in
1787,
Firkovich moved to Eupatoria
(Gözleve) in
the 1820s, and
later to Chufut-Kale, where he died in
1874.
The manuscripts gathered by him represent one
of the most valuable collections of
Judaica
in the Russian national library in St.Petersburg.
Firkovich s main book, Avne Zikkaron
(Vilna,
1872),
contains his vision of the history of the
Karaite movement, including an absolutely new history of Karaite settlement in the Crimea,
epitaphs from the tombstones of the cemeteries of Chufut-Kale,
Mangup, Eupatoria,
and
Troki,
and a discussion of many other controversial problems in Karaite history. After his
death in Chufut-Kale in
1874,
the Even Reshef, as Firkovich was also called, was buried in
the cemetery in the Jehosaphath valley, whose history he investigated in the last
35
years
of his life. Debates concerning the veracity and exactness of Firkovich s discoveries, which
arose already during his lifetime, are still going on. In
1839,
a historic expedition, headed
by Abraham Firkovich
(1787-1874),
was organized. The expedition, with the help of local
officials, sometimes with the application of force, managed to discover valuable epigraphic
and manuscript data that later resulted in an absolutely new understanding of Karaite his¬
tory, fully reflected in the Firkovich s famous Avne Zikkaron
(Vilna
1872).
According to this
concept the Karaites, the only true Biblical Jews, and the descendants of the ancient Judeans,
327
arrived in the Crimea as early as the sixth century B.C., i.e. much earlier than the crucifix¬
ion of Jesus and composition of the vicious Talmud. Moreover, it was Karaite missionaries
that converted the nomadic Khazars to Judaism. Unlike the newcomers
(Talmudic
Jews),
the Karaites were always honest, and loyal to the governments of the countries where they
lived. All this provided grounds for understanding the Karaites as the most ancient part of the
Crimean population, loyal to Christianity and faithful to Russian empire.
In
1986
Seraya
Szapszaï
(or: Shapshal;
1873-1961),
a young Karaite student of the Orien¬
tal department (sic!) of St.Petersburg university, published a revolutionary brochure on the
Karaite history, where he decisively stated that the Crimean Karaites had been a product
of complete assimilation between the Semitic Karaites and Turkic Khazars
-
a bold state¬
ment, which had not been said by any other Karaite author before him. However, even he
himself clearly understood that before his lifetime and his discoveries, his Karaite ancestors
considered themselves to be Jews. In
1915-1917
his thesis about the Khazar origins of the
Karaites was accepted as an official Karaite doctrine, though, it seems, not all members of the
community, and especially the elder generation and religious officials, were eager to accept it.
In the 1860s the
Subbotniks,
Russian converts to Judaism, began settling down in the
Crimea. Furthermore, they began associating themselves with Karaite, i.e. non-Talmudic,
Judaism. The Crimean Jews did not suifer from the pogroms in
1881/2 -
there simply
were no pogroms in the Crimea during this time. This fact promoted a mass emigration of
the Ashkenazic Jews to the peninsula. Nevertheless, in
1905
the second wave of pogroms
reached also the Crimea.
In
1913
the Krymchak community carried out a community census. According to the
census there were around five (or seven) thousand Krymchaks in the Russian Empire. Before
the beginning of the Second World War there were around eight thousand Krymchaks.
Majority of them lived in Simferopol , Karasubazar, Kerch, Theodosia, and Sevastopol . The
Rabbanite Ashkenazic population of the Crimea in
1914
consisted of about
40-45.000
souls.
After the trials and tribulations of revolutionary times, many Jews left the Crimea. Never¬
theless, there was still a sizable Jewish community there between the two world wars. In the
Soviet period the Krymchaks began more actively using Russian, but still remembered their
Turkic ethnolect. In interwar years the Krymchaks largely switched from the Hebrew font
to Latin characters (a similar reform took place among the Crimean Tatars). At the same
time the Soviet atheist regime closed the Krymchak synagogue (called by the Krymchaks
also qahal or qa al). In the interwar period most Krymchaks lived in Simferopol . At the end
of the
1920s /
early
1930s
emigrants from Karasubazar founded two Krymchak kolkhozes
-
Krymchak and
Yeni
Krymchak . In
1924
started Jewish colonization of the northern
Crimea
-
the so-called
Agrojoint
project. In fact, northern part of the Crimea became a sort
of Jewish agricultural paradise with numerous villages bearing Hebrew, Yiddish, Russian
and even Esperanto names.
The development of Jewish life in the Crimea was disrupted by the German occupation.
Almost everyone who stayed in the Crimea and was not evacuated
-
was brutally killed.
Around
70-80
percent of the Krymchaks were massacred by the Nazis in the course of the
solution of the Jewish question in the occupied Crimea. It seems that none other ethnic
group which lived in the Soviet Union suffered as much as the Krymchaks.
328
Friends, we committed a mistake,
We remained in the Crimea.
In the fields of the Crimea
We were sacrificed...
Oh my people, is there any remedy
Against our misfortune?
It means that this is their destiny!
Do not forget our misfortunate people
Murdered by the hands of the soldiers...
This is how these events are described in a folk song composed in the Krymchak ethnolect
by an anonymous Krymchak author who apparently managed to survive the Holocaust in
contrast to his brethren massacred by the Nazis. The Karaites, who managed to present them¬
selves to the Nazis as descendants of Turkic (i.e. not Semitic!) Khazars, were not systemati¬
cally killed by the Nazis and survived the Holocaust virtually unscathed.
In April-May
1944
the Crimea was completely liberated from the German occupation.
In June
1944
there were only...
499
Ashkenazic Jews and Krymchaks in the Crimea. It seems
that there also were around
2-3.000
Karaites. The Krymchak community never managed
to recover from the tragedy. After the war there were
700-750
Krymchaks living in the
Crimea;
2.000
lived in the whole of the Soviet Union in
1959,
and only
1448
in
1989.
Thus,
by the end of the twentieth century the community turned out to be on the brink of extinc¬
tion. The number of the Karaite community also rapidly dwindled and in
1989
there were
only about
1.500
Karaites living in the Crimea. The Ashkenazic Jews started gradually
settling down in the Crimea after the end of the war. In
1989
there were around
15.000
Ashkenazic living in the peninsula.
Afterword
After the disintegration of the Soviet Union in
1991
many Ashkenazim, Karaites, and
Krymchaks left the Crimea and emigrated to Israel. Some, nevertheless, remained. According
to the recent census
(2001)
there were as many as
4.500
Jews,
672
Karaites and
204
Krym¬
chaks living in the Crimea. As you can see, there is no point to worry about the future of the
Ashkenazic Jewish community. Nevertheless, the fate of the Karaite and, especially, of the
Krymchak community seems to be less clear, first of all, from the demographic point of view.
I do not want to be pessimistic. In my opinion, the continuation of the existence of these two
communities depends first of all on the Krymchaks and the Karaites themselves. If they will
be able to make youths of the Crimea, Russia, and Israel interested in their history and culture
-
who knows, maybe we shall see the renaissance of these most interesting ethnic groups.
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Kizilov, Michail Borisovič 1974- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)137757131 |
| author_facet | Kizilov, Michail Borisovič 1974- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Kizilov, Michail Borisovič 1974- |
| author_variant | m b k mb mbk |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV037488750 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)734088775 (DE-599)BVBBV037488750 |
| era | Geschichte gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Krim (DE-588)4033166-0 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Krim |
| id | DE-604.BV037488750 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T23:25:15Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9789663663869 |
| language | Russian |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-022640144 |
| oclc_num | 734088775 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 335 S. zahlr. Ill., Kt. |
| publishDate | 2011 |
| publishDateSearch | 2011 |
| publishDateSort | 2011 |
| publisher | Izdat. "Dolja" |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Kizilov, Michail Borisovič 1974- Verfasser (DE-588)137757131 aut Krymskaja Iudeja očerki istorii evreev, chazar, karaimov i krymčakov v Krymu s antičnych vremen do našich dnej Michail Kizilov Crimean Judea Simferopolʹ Izdat. "Dolja" 2011 335 S. zahlr. Ill., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier PST: Crimean Judea. - In kyrill. Schr., russ. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache Geschichte gnd rswk-swf Juden (DE-588)4028808-0 gnd rswk-swf Krimtschaken (DE-588)4338766-4 gnd rswk-swf Karäer (DE-588)4163300-3 gnd rswk-swf Chasaren (DE-588)4009796-1 gnd rswk-swf Krim (DE-588)4033166-0 gnd rswk-swf Krim (DE-588)4033166-0 g Juden (DE-588)4028808-0 s Chasaren (DE-588)4009796-1 s Karäer (DE-588)4163300-3 s Krimtschaken (DE-588)4338766-4 s Geschichte z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=022640144&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=022640144&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Kizilov, Michail Borisovič 1974- Krymskaja Iudeja očerki istorii evreev, chazar, karaimov i krymčakov v Krymu s antičnych vremen do našich dnej Juden (DE-588)4028808-0 gnd Krimtschaken (DE-588)4338766-4 gnd Karäer (DE-588)4163300-3 gnd Chasaren (DE-588)4009796-1 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4028808-0 (DE-588)4338766-4 (DE-588)4163300-3 (DE-588)4009796-1 (DE-588)4033166-0 |
| title | Krymskaja Iudeja očerki istorii evreev, chazar, karaimov i krymčakov v Krymu s antičnych vremen do našich dnej |
| title_alt | Crimean Judea |
| title_auth | Krymskaja Iudeja očerki istorii evreev, chazar, karaimov i krymčakov v Krymu s antičnych vremen do našich dnej |
| title_exact_search | Krymskaja Iudeja očerki istorii evreev, chazar, karaimov i krymčakov v Krymu s antičnych vremen do našich dnej |
| title_full | Krymskaja Iudeja očerki istorii evreev, chazar, karaimov i krymčakov v Krymu s antičnych vremen do našich dnej Michail Kizilov |
| title_fullStr | Krymskaja Iudeja očerki istorii evreev, chazar, karaimov i krymčakov v Krymu s antičnych vremen do našich dnej Michail Kizilov |
| title_full_unstemmed | Krymskaja Iudeja očerki istorii evreev, chazar, karaimov i krymčakov v Krymu s antičnych vremen do našich dnej Michail Kizilov |
| title_short | Krymskaja Iudeja |
| title_sort | krymskaja iudeja ocerki istorii evreev chazar karaimov i krymcakov v krymu s anticnych vremen do nasich dnej |
| title_sub | očerki istorii evreev, chazar, karaimov i krymčakov v Krymu s antičnych vremen do našich dnej |
| topic | Juden (DE-588)4028808-0 gnd Krimtschaken (DE-588)4338766-4 gnd Karäer (DE-588)4163300-3 gnd Chasaren (DE-588)4009796-1 gnd |
| topic_facet | Juden Krimtschaken Karäer Chasaren Krim |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=022640144&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=022640144&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT kizilovmichailborisovic krymskajaiudejaocerkiistoriievreevchazarkaraimovikrymcakovvkrymusanticnychvremendonasichdnej AT kizilovmichailborisovic crimeanjudea |