Bohemia docta: k historickým kořenům vědy v českých zemích
Gespeichert in:
| Format: | Buch |
|---|---|
| Sprache: | Czech |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Praha
Academia
2010
|
| Ausgabe: | Vyd. 1. |
| Schriftenreihe: | Historie
|
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Beschreibung: | Zsfassung in engl. Sprache |
| Beschreibung: | 529 S. zahlr. Ill. |
| ISBN: | 9788020018090 |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
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|---|---|
| adam_text | OBSAH
Jiří Drahoš: Slovo úvodem
... 7
Vádav Pačes: Úvodní slovo
... 10
Jan Janko: O učencích v Česku, jejich idejích a institucích
... 13
Antonín Kostlán: Prosazování myšlenky akademie věd v českých
zemích raného novověku
(16.-18.
století)
... 33
Magdaléna Pokorná: Královská česká společnost nauk
... 58
Ladislav Niklíček
-
Antonín Kostlán: Vývoj českých vědeckých
institucí a spolků do
80.
let
19.
století a návrh akademie věd
J. E. Purkyně
... 145
Jan Janko: Jan Evangelista Purkyně
... 176
Jiří Pokorný: Josef Hlávka
... 179
Jiří Pokorný: Nadání Josefa, Marie a Zdenky Hlávkových
... 185
Jiří Pokorný: Česká akademie věd a umění do roku
1918 ... 194
Alena Misková: Německé mimouniverzitní instituce v Čechách
... 234
Antonín Kostlán
-
Jan Janko
-
Ladislav Niklíček: Struktura vědecké
organizace v období první Československé republiky
... 258
Emilie Těšínská
-
Jindřich Schwippel: Masarykova
akademie práce
... 286
Daniela Brádlerová: Československá národní rada badatelská
1924-1953 ... 332
Vlasta Mádlová: ČAVU v nové republice
... 365
Alena Misková: Vývoj mimouniverzitní vědy v Československu
aČSAVporocel945
...418
Rudolf Zahradník: Doslov
... 494
Abstract
... 497
Jmenný rejstřík
...519
ABSTRACT
In his introductory study On Scholars in Czechia, their Ideas and Insti¬
tutions,
Jan Janko
considers the beginnings of scholarly study and its
philosophical dimension. He follows the creation of universities and
above all the planning of academies and learned societies of various
types, not only in the Czech lands, but also in the larger internation¬
al context, with analyses of the influence of Italian, French, English
and German models. He considers the change in paradigms during
the development of scholarly and scientific bodies, which is closely
connected with the acquisition of knowledge about natural laws and
the broadening of people s knowledge about the world and the way it
works. He also devotes attention to changes in the way that scholarly
associations communicate and the beginnings of specialist journals.
He takes note of how the patriotic fervour of scholars can also link in
positively with politics. Opinions on science, what it should actually
be like, whom it should serve and how it should ideally be organized
are topical to this day. As the author says at the end: like every other
kind, Czech scholarship has both awesome and awful sides to it and we
cannot expect it to be any different in future. But it is still worthwhile
considering its development and what it has achieved, and perhaps
sometimes to venture to predict what can be expected of it. Every in-
497
BOHEMIA
DOCTA
dividual and every institution has the right, as Kant said, to ascertain
what it can know, how it is to act and where it might place its hopes.
The beginnings of learned societies in the Czech lands are graphi¬
cally portrayed by
Antonín
Kostián,
who deals with their emergence
and development from a historian s standpoint. He defines the orig¬
inal academies in Europe and their principles, ultimately focusing on
home soil. The existence of scholarly societies in the Czech lands has
a long tradition. Here, too, the first associations of scholars and intel¬
lectuals working outside the traditional centres of education (i.e. in the
conditions of Christian Europe, outside monasteries and universities)
emerged as humanism arose during the Renaissance: Sodalitas
literaria
Hungarorum
(1497
in what is nowadays Bratislava) and Sodalitas lit-
teraria
Danubiana
(1497
in Vienna). Among their members, however,
there were also some higher Catholic officials, who represented a link
between the intellectual life of the German and Austrian lands and that
of the Moravian environment. One of them was canon and provost
Augustin
Olomoucký
- Käsenbrot (1467-1513),
around whom at the
turn of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries there gathered a group
of intellectuals in
Olomouc
known as Societas or Sodalitas litteraria
Maierhofiana, which can be considered the first harbinger of the later
Academy of Sciences on the territory of the Czech lands.
These first initiatives among higher Moravian Catholic circles then
expanded into the Bohemian environment with the intellectual aris¬
tocrat
Bohuslav Hasištejnský
of
Lobkovice
(circa
1461-1510),
who also
headed a prominent circle of Czech humanists; around the mid-16th
century a literary group around
Jan Hodějovský
of
Hodějov
(1496-
1566)
was also active. These two groupings were later claimed by the
Prague Private Learned Society to be its predecessors in the introduc¬
tion to its first volume of proceedings in
1775.
These Bohemian and
Moravian intellectual circles were, of course, of a very informal na¬
ture and more reminiscent of discussion clubs or correspondence so¬
cieties gathered around one prominent unifying figure rather than of
organized associations. Other scholarly associations that were active
on Czech territory during the early modern age before the Enlighten¬
ment were also of this nature.
However, during the Baroque period no learned society was created
on Czech territory to join the newly established tradition of European
Academies of Science, which was a direct consequence of the
Habsburg
monarchs resistance to this kind of institution.
498
ABSTRACT
One of the first learned societies was without a doubt „Societas eru-
ditorum incognitorum in
terris austriacis
(1747-1751),
established by
Freiherr
Josef
von Petrasch
on
15.12.1747
in
Olomouc.
He gained the
support of a number of intellectuals of his time, such as Franz
Gregor
Giannini,
Count Saint
Génois d Alencourt
and others, particularly Em¬
press Marie Theresa s doctor Gerhard van Swieten. This society was de¬
voted to enlightened debates and published
Monatliche Auszüge alt und
neuer gelehrten Sachen. After
several unsuccessful attempts to establish
a learned society we find details
oí
Privatgesellschaft zur Aufnahme der
Mathematik, vaterländischen GeschichteundderNaturgeschichte,
which
was
a direct predecessor of the great Czech scholarly societies.
The history of our oldest learned society, in existence for almost two
hundred years, has been mapped out by
Magdalena
Pokorná. Soukromá
učená společnost nauk
(Private
Learned
Society
of
Sciences,
later
Královská česká
[böhmisch]
společnost nauk
-
the
Royal
Bohemian
Learned
Society for Sciences)
was formed
1763-84.
The precise date of
its establishment is not certain, but there can be no doubt about the
founding role of Baron
Ignác
Born, who was inspired to some extent
by masonic ideals and the environment of the Prague aristocratic li¬
braries and university libraries. His model was probably the learned
society in
Göttingen.
The first definite important date in its history is
1771,
which saw the
first edition
oí
Prager gelehrte Nachrichten;
another six volumes of
Ab¬
handlungen einer Privatgesellschaft in Böhmen zur Aufnahme der Mathe¬
matik, vaterländischen Geschichte und der Naturgeschichte
came out from
1775
to
1784.
Behind the establishment of this learned society were the
members of this first private association, who became its first mem¬
bers upon its official authorization. They included the mathematician
Jan Tesánek,
astronomer
Antonín Strnad,
Count Franz Ernst
Schaff -
gotsch, historian
František
Martin
Pekl,
philologist Gelasius Dobner,
Slavonic scholar Josef
Dobrovský
and doctor
Johann
Mayer. In
1784,
when Emperor Josef took cognizance of their statutes after a private
audience in which he explicitly stated that the time had not yet ar¬
rived for the establishment of a (real) Academy of Sciences in Austria,
the first learned society was formed in the
Habsburg
Empire. It only
took on the epithet Royal in
1790
after the wording of the address of
a court decree of
20.5.1790.
From a practical standpoint the original
imperial decision was not all that well-disposed towards the Society,
as it did not take financial security needs into account, but despite
499
BOHEMIA
DOCTA
this substantial complication the members decided to go ahead and
form the Society. At the first meeting they elected a President
-
Duke
Karl Egon Fürstenberg,
while the Honorary President was Count
Eu¬
gen
of Vrbno and
Bruntál.
However, the Society was actually run by
Directors and General Secretaries who were elected from among the
scientists and scholars.
Under its first statutes, the Royal Bohemian Learned Society (RBLS)
was split into three divisions: physics, mathematics and history, al¬
though during its long existence
(1784-1952),
its organizational chart
altered several times, stabilizing in
1868
until the end of its existence
with two divisions: philosophy-history-philology and mathematics-
natural sciences.
With regard to its personnel, the RBLS was interconnected with
a third prominent scholarly establishment
-
the Patriotic (later Na¬
tional) Museum, established in
1818.
Members of the RBLS became prominent figures not only within the
Austrian Empire but further abroad as well. Likewise, Josef
Freiherr
von Hammer-Purgstall,
First President of the Academy of Sciences in
Vienna
(est.
1847),
which was intended for scholars from throughout
the Empire, became a member of the Royal Society as early as
1843.
Af¬
ter
1847,
members of the RBLS also became members of the Viennese
and other foreign Academies. For example, the historians F.
Palacký
and P. J.
Šafařík,
geologist
F. Zippe,
botanist J. S.
Presi
and physiol¬
ogist J. E.
Purkyně
were honoured in this way.
An important milestone in the life of the RBLS was
1830,
when the
historian (and first Czech politician)
František Palacký
was elected
as a member. He soon became its Secretary and it was particularly in
this position that he moved the focus of scholarly work towards Czech
philology, history and the study of old Czech literature. The RBLS re¬
mained linguistically bifurcated. German predominated in practice,
but Czech was gradually establishing itself and from the mid-i9th cen¬
tury the absolute linguistic hegemony of the German element came
to an irrevocable and unequivocal end. As Czech cultural and political
emancipation got under way, a period of German-Czech rivalry en¬
sued, frequently boiling over into very bitter disputes.
For many up-and-coming scholars Prague became an important
first stage in their careers, often involving membership of the RBLS.
A good example is that of
Salzburger
Christian
Doppler
(1803-53),
who published his historic discovery here
( Über das farbige Licht der
500
ABSTRACT
Doppelsterne in 1842).
During the First Republic, the RBLS recov¬
ered from its financial difficulties and continued to develop both its
publishing activities and those of its committees, which were active
in some cases until
1952.
During the Nazi occupation in the Second World War, RBLS ac¬
tivities were suppressed and a number of prominent scholars were
victims of persecution. After
1945
the RBLS attempted to revive its
activities in line with prewar traditions. The membership base un¬
derwent changes and was supplemented by elections as early as July
1945.
From
1947
the elections were abandoned as radical changes
were planned for the statutes, which were to substantially increase
the powers of extraordinary members. But February
1948
frustrated
these plans and meant the end of a large number of memberships due
to the activities of action committees, as the foreign relations which
had been forged, and which played a key role in RBLS activities, were
again frozen after February
1948
and we again see a slump in RBLS
activities. Moreover, the further existence of the RBLS came under
direct threat, as did that of other scientific and scholarly institutions
and associations at that time, as further stages of discussions got un¬
der way over how to build a scientific institution of a new type. The
winning model was that supported by the ruling Communist Party
and so the RBLS came to
a de
facto end.
A paper by the late historian of the history of science
Ladislav Niklíček
on the development of Czech scholarly and scientific institutes and
associations up to the 1880s and the proposal for an Academy of Sci¬
ences set out by J. E.
Purkyně
has been completed by
Antonín
Kostián.
It mentions a number of institutions which had a significant effect
during the 19th century on the life of the scholarly community in the
Czech lands, particularly the plans made by
Jan Evangelista Purkyně
to
create a modern new network of Czech scholarly institutes. From the
second decade of the nineteenth century, the originally small circle of
Czech intellectuals around the linguist, translator and poet Josef Jung-
mann endeavoured to create scholarship that was linguistically Czech.
They understood this task to be necessary in the creation of a modern-
era Czech nation (known as the National Revival) as a condition for its
emancipation as part of developing European civilization.
In the first stage of this process, which we can define by the start
of publication of the first Czech scholarly journal
Krok
(Step) in
1821
and by coincidence by the death of its most prominent and self-sac-
501
BOHEMIA
DOCTA
rificing representative
Jan Svatopluk
Presi in
1849,
it was primarily
a case of transmitting basic findings from global scientific learning
to the broader Czech national community in its own language.
Presi
and his collaborators frequently sacrificed their undisputed talent for
original scientific research in favour of the popularization of science
and technology and the creation of Czech natural science, medical and
technical terminology. Clearly, without their activities the process of
the Czech national revival would have been far from complete.
After
27
years of activity at Wrodav University, 63-year-old Jan
Evan¬
gelista
Purkyně
returned to Prague in spring
1850
as a scientist with in¬
ternational authority, one of the founders of experimental physiology,
who substantially affected the worldwide development of many other
natural sciences and medical fields. Apart from his internationally im¬
portant scientific activity he was also involved in the aforementioned
efforts made by Jungmann s and Presl s generation, whose activities
during the first half of the 19th century he considered to be justified
and correct, ultimately contributing substantially to them himself.
However, not even in the first half of the 19th century do we find any
conflict in Purkyne s conception of the social function of science be¬
tween intellectual and national enlightenment aspects, i.e. between
national and world science and the sacrifice of the standard of his sci¬
entific work
-
otherwise certainly necessary
-
to popularization. In this
Purkyně
differed from some Czech intellectual figures from the Roman¬
tic period, and from the group of scientists in whose formation he had
been involved, always declaring his support for them, but at the same
time being able to overcome whatever prevented the actual develop¬
ment of science. It was thanks to this above all that in the next stage
of development of linguistically Czech science
Purkyně
was to become
a central figure presenting the main contours and programme.
During the 1850s, the 1860s and the decades following Purkyne s
death (in
1869),
there was a need to build up the institutional bases of
Czech science, to broaden its contacts with the processes involved in
global scientific learning and to train the generation of scientists as¬
sociated both with this learning and with the interests of the national
community itself, while creating the preconditions for Czech science
to become an active part of world culture and for its institutions to
play a role as one of the key values in the emerging, crystallizing civil
society in the Czech lands during the latter half of the 19th century
and the beginning of the 20th century.
502
ABSTRACT
From
1861
to
1863
Purkyně
published a work entitled
Academia
as
a serialization in
Živa
and also as a separate publication, including and
rounding off his ideas on the organization of scientific work, the train¬
ing of scientists and above all the place of science in the modern world.
The entire work is imbued with ideas of an Academy as an autonomous
free institution and the idea of free scientific research. In this respect
Purkyně
arrived at the idea of an academic state , one of the compo¬
nents of a legal, ecclesiastical and academic state, comprising three
mainstays of the state s existence.
Purkyně
dealt not only with the
idea of an Academy in the broader sense, which in collaboration with
similar institutions abroad would deal with relations between states
and nations on the basis of science and humanity, but also with the
specific plan for a national Academy. The priority here was his idea of
an Academy that would not only be an institution bringing together
the leading intellectuals, but also a working institution with its own
scientific establishments.
This Czech Academy was to organize aU scientific work, recruit and
train talented scientists, see to the practical application of science and
in a general sense see to the education of the nation. Science was to
become national in its inception and orientation. Here
Purkyně
also
stressed the independence of the Academy from the state and the gov¬
ernment, including its financial independence.
To fulfil its tasks the Academy was to have well-equipped scientific
and scholarly institutes
-
linguistic, literary, historical, mineralogical-
geological, botanical, zoological, mathematical, physical, astronomi¬
cal-meteorological, chemical, physical-geographical, physiological and
anthropological. These institutes were to be sufficiently well-secured
financially, because a nation which skimps here condemns itself to
a lower standard .
Purkyne s
Academia
came to be an inspiring programme for the
Czech scientific and scholarly community over the long term and on
many occasions.
Purkyně
remained an indisputable authority promot¬
ing numerous critiques, programmes and plans for an institutional
framework for Czech science and often justifiably defending its Eu¬
ropean tradition and continuity.
Where would science be without its patrons? The story of the previ¬
ously most eminent patron of Czech science
-
Josef
Hlávka
is dealt with
in a study by Jin
Pokorný.
Had it not been for
Hlávka s
foundation (the
Endowment Fund of Josef
Hlávka,
Marie and
Zdenka Hlávková),
the
503
BOHEMIA
DOCTA
Czech Academy of Sciences and Arts would certainly never have come
into being.
Jiří Pokorný
focuses on these three important chapters (the
activities of Josef
Hlávka,
the Foundation and the Czech Academy of
Sciences and Arts) in the existence of Czech national science.
Hlávka
was aware of the shortcomings characteristic of Czech in¬
tellectuals and so he explicitly ordered that each student (inter alia)
should learn at least one world language during his stay at college.
The development of the Endowment Fund was affected more by the
new postwar political conditions, the disintegration of the Empire and
the establishment of Czechoslovakia. First there was a danger that the
Lužany
Estate would be subject to land reform, but under Article
10
of
the Confiscation Act, estates whose revenue served humane, scientific
or artistic purposes were protected from division. An assessment of
the activities over thirty years of the Endowment Fund of Josef
Hlávka,
Marie and
Zdenka Hlávková,
performed in the Annual Report for
1938,
appeared impressive in any case. The Endowment Fund distributed
more than ten million crowns between three designated institutions.
CASA
received almost six million and the college and National Eco¬
nomic Institute approximately two million each. For the creation of
this amount, Prague House contributed the greatest share
(42 %),
fol¬
lowed by the
Lužany
Estate with
39%.
Interest from securities brought
in
17 %
and the Endowment Fund acquired least from the operation
of its Viennese houses
- 2 %.
The Endowment Fund achieved these results when the Czech nation
was undergoing great economic and cultural development under the
Habsburg
Empire and the First Republic. The aforementioned Annual
Report, however, was written at a time when the First Republic no longer
existed. After the liberation, the Endowment Fund renewed its activities
and even managed to have its property returned. The relatively smooth
asset restitution process was surely assisted by the fact that the Foun¬
dation administration was headed by
CASA
President
Zdeněk Nejedlý,
who could also base himself on his position as Minister of Education
(1945-46
and
1948-53)
and Minister of Labour and Social Affairs
(1946-
48).
After the confiscation of the majority of its assets, the Endowment
Fund (which now had to borrow from
CASA)
to some extent lost its jus¬
tification and could only scrape along. It must be considered fortunate
that it was not dosed down like all the other foundations.
The Academy was divided into four classes. The first was for the so¬
cial sciences (philosophy, state, legal and social disciplines, history and
504
ABSTRACT
antiquities in general with special regard for investigation of the na¬
tional heritage). The second was for the natural sciences (mathemat¬
ics, natural including medical science and geography, with special re¬
gard for the physical, natural-science and geographical investigation
of the homeland). The third was for philology (linguistic investiga¬
tion of living and dead languages in general, with the main focus on
Czech language, literature, heritage and history). The fourth was for
art (belles
lettres,
graphic art and music, as well as for the examina¬
tion of ancient heritage).
„Hlávka s
CASA
was authorized to arrange lectures, publish works,
provide support, maintain relations with other bodies and to pro¬
mote science, literature and art. The statutes designated Czech as the
working language, but they left it to the classes to decide on whether
or not the works that were published could have a resume attached in
another language. The Academy saw its main
raison
d etre in its pub¬
lication activities. The Academy itself published
Věstník
(Bulletin)
and
Almanach,
containing valuable information on its operation and
particularly reviews of works and obituaries. Thanks to Josef
Hlávka,
the Academy also decided to publish an Album to celebrate the fiftieth
jubilee year of His Imperial Majesty Emperor and King Franz Josef I,
which provided an impressive, albeit in some parts unbalanced, view
of the scientific and artistic achievements of the Czech nation in the
latter half of the 19th century. All the scientific classes published in¬
ter alia
Rozpravy
(Discussions), in which scientists could publish their
shorter and medium-length studies. New opportunities for activities
were provided by the Committees at the Czech Academy. These were
basically class, interclass or institutional, and depending on the type
of activity, they were advisory or implementary.
At the outset the Czech Academy was frequently considered to be
an exceptionally well-endowed institution, but this perception could
only apply in the very restricted circumstances of this country. It could
hardly compare with the truly generous establishments such as the
GermanKaiser-Wilhelm-GeseUschaftzurForderungderWissenschaften,
admired by
Bráf
.
Besides, the number of tasks it had to perform was
enormous. Of course, this meant that the Czech Academy could not
create research institutes engaging directly in research and other sci¬
entific and scholarly work. Instead it worked more as „grant agency ,
providing support and grants and arranging for works to be published.
Hence it actually came to be an auxiliary supportive institution, but it
505
BOHEMIA
DOCTA
could not conceivably get involved in any way in the actual process of
the administration of science. This is also because
Hlávka,
who was al¬
ways so careful to consider asset administration procedures, evidently
did not concern himself with this aspect, and the „scientific policy of
the Academy was not administered by any body.
It should not be forgotten that German scientists and scholars in the
Czech lands had their own research institutes. German science outside
the universities is described in her paper by
Alena Miškova.
The division of the scientific community into Czech and German
was all part of the process whereby the modern Czech nation was
formed. Czech emancipation, accompanied by a feeling on the part
of their German fellow-citizens of being threatened, led to the crea¬
tion of Czech and German parallels in all areas of life. During the lat¬
ter half of the 19th century, Czech and German schools at all levels,
associations and professional societies with the same focus were pro¬
gressively created and operated independently of each other. Of the
most important and also the oldest German scientific and scholarly
associations, mention should at least be made of the German natural
science and medical association Lotos
(Deutscher naturwissenschaftlich-
medizinische Verein für Böhmen -
Lotos), which was established as early
as
1848,
and on the social sciences side the Association for the History
of the Germans in Bohemia, established in
1862.
The German schol¬
arly community in Bohemia and Moravia was relatively small and
closed. This evidently came to the fore after the establishment of an
independent Czechoslovakia, when a state boundary was placed be¬
tween the Czech and Austrian Germans, who had been living side by
side for centuries within the framework of the Empire. Hence we find
the same people in most of the prominent associations, universities
and institutes of higher education, as well as the German Society for
Science, Art and Literature. Just as a dual network of associations de¬
veloped in the latter half of the 19th century, and just as the univer¬
sity and technical college split into Czech and German halves, so the
representatives of German cultural life felt a need to establish their
own independent Academy of Sciences and Arts in Bohemia. The Soci¬
ety for the Support of German Science, Art and Literature in Bohemia
(Die
Gesellschaft zur Förderung deutscher Wissenschaft, Kunst und Liter¬
atur in Böhmen 1891-1945) was
established in
1891
as an
„alternative
to the Czechified
Royal
Czech Learned Society and as an institution
providing a balance in relation to the Czech Academy of Sciences and
506
ABSTRACT
Arts of Emperor Franz Josef. Its task was to bring together the most
prominent representatives of German science and art in the country
as ordinary members and other German scientists as corresponding
members. Although they did not succeed in establishing a counterpart
to the Czech Academy in the legal sense and the German society was
only created on the basis of the law on associations, its status and ac¬
tivities were
de
facto comparable.
Just like the Czech Academy, it had enshrined in its statutes gen¬
eral support for works by German scientists and artists in Bohemia,
whether by covering the costs of their creation and publication, or
through grants. It also offered prizes and handled promotion, while
its yearbooks informed the public of the achievements of representa¬
tives of German cultural life. The creation of this Society was the initia¬
tive of several Prague Germans, particularly professors at the German
Charles-Ferdinand University, including the famous mathematician
and philosopher Ernst
Mach.
The Society also included representa¬
tives of all the important associations involved in the social, natural
and technical sciences. At the outset the internal structure of the Ger¬
man Society differed substantially from that of the Czech institutions,
placing emphasis particularly on artistic production, for which it had
two departments
-
one for art and one for literature, while scientists
only had one department.
The much-yearned-for recreation of the Society as the „German
Academy of Sciences and Arts did not happen until wartime. After
Czechoslovakia came into being, it had two scientific departments each
with
22
members, three artistic departments with a total of
16
mem¬
bers. The artistic fields gradually shifted into the background during
the
1930s.
The secession of the
Sudetenland
under the Munich diktat
also affected the form of the Society, changing its area of operation
and so also its title. At the same time the process of „aryanization and
political purges got under way in its ranks, resulting in the exclusion
of all members of Jewish origin and the politically unacceptable, some
of whom found refuge by emigrating, while others were deported to
concentration camps and the ghettos. After the country was occupied
in March
1939,
the status of the German Society again changed and
the political situation allowed for the fulfilment of the long-sought
demand for the creation of a German Academy, albeit in a distorted
form. The new statutes of the „German Academy of Sciences in Prague
were then approved by the
Reichsprotektor
on
31.10.1941.
507
BOHEMIA
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However, the real value of this achievement was dubious to say the
least. The structure of the new „aryanized Academy had to adapt to
other Academies in the Reich, which meant not only the closure of
its Arts Department, but also the sequestration of all its finances. Its
assigned area of activity was defined vaguely as
„mittlere Ostraum
(„Central-Eastern space ). Scholarly work continued to focus on the
German population in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Slovakia and Sub-
carpathian
Ruthenia.
In addition to the restrictions on freedoms and self-governing
mechanisms, the status of the German Academy was also threatened
from the side of the Reich and Protectorate by the
Reinhard
Heydrich
Foundation for Scientific Research. This institution was established
„for research into national, cultural, political and economic condi¬
tions in Bohemia and Moravia, as well as other nations in Eastern and
South-Eastern Europe . During the occupation some of the represen¬
tatives of the German scientific community became leading exponents
of Nazi policy, e.g. professor of the history of Eastern Europe Josef
Pfitzner and the director of the Institute for Racial Purity at the Ger¬
man University Karl Thums. The defeat of Nazi Germany put a halt to
the activities of all the German institutes and schools in the restored
Czechoslovakia and the subsequent expulsion of the German popu¬
lation from the country then put a definitive halt to the existence of
German science in Bohemia.
In the next chapter
Ladislav Niklíček, Antonín
Kostián and
Jan Janko
focused on the structure of scientific organization under the First
Czechoslovak Republic. An important component in the process of
building and subsequently developing the Czechoslovak state after
1918
was science and scholarship, as personified by the first Czecho¬
slovak President, university professor T. G.
Masaryk.
The quantitative extension of the institutional base of university sci¬
ence and scholarship became a precondition for its higher quality, and
a competitive higher-education environment was created. University
teachers continued to play a decisive role in learned societies and scien¬
tific associations. A part was played in the development of science in
Czechoslovakia after
1918
both by traditional scientific and scholarly
societies such as the RBLS, the
CASA
and the Society for the Support
of German Science, Art and Literature in Bohemia (from
1924
the Ger¬
man Society of Sciences and Arts of the Czechoslovak Republic) and by
508
ABSTRACT
new societies, the most important of which was the
Masaryk
Academy
of Labour and the Czechoslovak National Research Council.
In
1924
the Republican Party of Farmers and Smallholders (Agrar¬
ian Party) promoted the establishment of a Czechoslovak Agricultur¬
al Academy. This Academy became an ideological and representative
association at the interface of biology, chemistry and practical agri¬
cultural disciplines,
lhe
Academy had six departments: agriculture;
forestry; garden, fruit and viniculture; agriculture and industry; eco¬
nomics; and literature and education. It created a Central Slavonic Ag¬
ricultural Library and Reading Room and published specialist works
and periodicals. It also collaborated closely with the State Agricultural
Institute of Accounting and Management Studies, which was prima¬
rily engaged in compiling statistics and background material for state
agricultural policy. Another two learned societies were established in
Czechoslovakia during the
1920s:
in
1923
the Moravian Natural Sci¬
ences Society, which carried on the rich tradition of Moravian natural
sciences from the previous period, published scientific works and ar¬
ranged for the international exchange of natural sciences publications.
In
1926
the
Šafařík
Learned Society was established on the initiative
of Czech teachers at Comenius University in Bratislava. Its activities
involved organizing scientific and scholarly life in Slovakia and Sub-
carpathian
Ruthenia,
forging international scientific relations and
promoting Slovakia and its culture abroad.
1919
and
1920
saw the establishment of the State Statistics Institute,
the State Meteorological Institute, the State Institute for Geophysics,
the State Geological Institute, the State Historical Institute, the Social
Institute of the Czechoslovak Republic, the Military Geographical In¬
stitute, the Military Aeronautics Institute and the State Radiological
Institute. Heritage and natural conservation were under three state
conservation authorities (for Bohemia in Prague, for Moravia and Si¬
lesia in Brno and for Slovakia and Subcarpathian
Ruthenia
in Bratis¬
lava). Other noteworthy Czechoslovak state institutes include the Sla¬
vonic Studies Institute, the Oriental Studies Institute (both founded
in
1922)
and the Czechoslovak Foreign Institute (founded
1929).
Technical testing and research was represented by
105
institutes pri¬
marily at technical colleges (Czech and German in Prague and Brno),
as well as independent state technical institutes and research insti¬
tutes and the laboratories of large industrial enterprises, including
those in the pharmaceutical industry.
AU
industry was served by the
509
BOHEMIA
DOCTA
Czechoslovak Standards Association, established in
1922
and among
the twenty standards associations to be headed by the International
Standards Association in London. In
1937
there were
146
state and pri¬
vate (industrial) research and testing centres in Czechoslovakia. This
was an extensive network and at the same time an opaquely dense one,
in which duplication of research could not be ruled out.
A tragic intrusion into the development of the Czech scientific com¬
munity was the Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia from
1938
to
1945.
On 17th November
1939
all Czech institutes of higher education were
closed down. Many leading Czech scientists and doctors were executed
by the Nazis or perished in concentration camps. International scien¬
tific contacts were entirely severed, but the scientific and sometimes
pedagogical activities of some higher education teachers continued
at „alternative establishments involved in industrial and pharma¬
ceutical research.
Emilie
Těšínská
and
Jindñch Schwippel
have focused on the frequently
neglected
Masaryk
Academy of Labour
(MAL),
which is the youngest
of the scientific and scholarly academies to be replaced in
1952
by the
newly established CSAS. Although it lasted a mere three decades,
MAL
was clearly one of the most ambitious and enterprising of the scien¬
tific and scholarly institutions of the time. In January
1918
S.
Špaček
published an article in
Národohospodářský obzor
(National Economic
Horizon) journal entitled „Research Institute for Science, Industry
and Technical Management , in which he presented the broader pro¬
fessional public with the idea of a new type of working research in¬
stitute that acted as a kind of consultation centre to which anybody
from individuals to entire industrial branches could refer for advice
on matters of technical management.
The
Masaryk
Academy of Labour was established under an act of law
of 29th January
1920
as an independent and self-governing scientific
institution with the task of „organizing technical work for the effi¬
cient utilization of the skills of all the people and the natural wealth
of the Czechoslovak state for the highest public good .
MAL
working
tasks were specified as follows: „a) to see to the systematic study and
scientific organization of technical work, ensuring its practicality and
efficiency; b) to support scientific research in all fields of technical
work; c) to see to the training of scientific researchers and teachers of
labour, labour ethics and labour law, as well as the training of scien-
510
ABSTRACT
tifie
organizers of working human society; d) to protect and support
the
entrepreneurship
of the Czechoslovak people, particularly by ex¬
amining new production methods, business areas and relations and
by training workers with the skills; to protect and support inventors;
e) to participate in basic solutions to technical public administration
tasks by submitting proposals and assessments; f) to teach people
about the objectives of work, its value and importance, as well as the
efficient performance and utilization of work. The first sixty
MAL
ex¬
perts (the first third of the first
MAL
members) were appointed by the
government on
2nd
March
1920
and in ongoing elections at meetings
on 10th April and 8th May
1920
the remaining two thirds of the first
MAL
experts were elected (i.e. another
120
people). The
MAL
member¬
ship base, whose initial figure of
180
specialists gradually increased,
was made up primarily of professors at technical colleges and univer¬
sities, senior state administration officials and representatives of in¬
dustry and banks. In
1920
a Psychotechnical Institute was established
„to monitor research into human productivity, physical and mental
(this was placed under state administration in
1932
and became the
independent Czechoslovak Institute of Labour from
1947).
In
1922
the
Institute for Urban Construction and the Institute for Technical Man¬
agement in Industry were established, followed in
1923
by the Insti¬
tute for Economic Relations Relating to Emigration and Colonization.
With
MAL
participation the Institute for the Economical Utilization
of Fuels was established in Prague in
1922
and work started on the
construction of an experimental Water Management Institute (com¬
pleted in
1928).
Only the Psychotechnical Institute, the Institute for
Urban Construction and the Institute for the Conservation of Nature
and the Landscape (which was established after
1945)
can be described
as real
MAL
research institutes. The primary foreign partner for
MAL
was the USA, while in Europe the most intensive relations were forged
with Yugoslavia. For example,
MAL
organized the dispatch of visit¬
ing Czechoslovak professors to both these countries. The establish¬
ment of
MAL
represents an attempt to create a new type of scientific
institution, which was meant to differ substantially from traditional
learned societies not only with regard to its organizational structure,
but also its operation and its programme of work. It was not meant to
be an academy that just concentrated on theoretical research. It was
meant to become (and indeed became) a mediator between research
and technical and national economic practice. Despite its proclaimed,
BOHEMIA
DOCTA
but rather vaguely defined, focus on „technical work ,
MAL was
also
geared towards other fields, as is borne out by the considerable number
of natural scientists, doctors and psychologists in the ranks of its „ex¬
perts . The Nazi occupation of Bohemia and Moravia and the destruc¬
tion of the Czechoslovak state substantially reduced
MAL
activities
and brought about substantial losses in the lives of its members. The
liberation and restoration of Czechoslovakia in May
1945
brought with
it long-anticipated relief and a revival of
MAL
activities, but only for
a few years. In
1952 MAL was
closed down together with other scien¬
tific academies in connection with the establishment of CSAS.
Daniela
Brádlerová
has portrayed the activities of the Czechoslovak
National Research Council
(1924-1953)
in a wide-ranging study. The
establishment of the Czechoslovak National Research Council (CNRC)
was a response to efforts being made simultaneously both by emerging
Czechoslovak science to join the international scientific community
and by the international scientific community itself to renew scientific
collaboration following the First World War. Czechoslovakia became
a member of
Conseil
International
de Recherches
(CIR)
and later the
International Council of Scientific Unions
-
formally as of
ist
January
1923.
The absolute majority of founding CNRC members were profes¬
sors in higher education and only two represented research institutes
outside higher education. CNRC emerged as a scientific institution with
nationwide coverage, coming under the authority of the Ministry of
Education, whose aim was to organize scientific relations with other
countries and to promote Czechoslovakia in scientific fields represent¬
ed at
Conseil
International
de Recherches.
Its other tasks included the
organization of theoretical and practical work in the natural sciences,
the promotion of Czech scientific culture abroad and the publication
of terminologically correct and affordable translations of Czech sci¬
entific works into foreign languages. CNRC was also obliged to submit
an expert report on the natural sciences to any Czechoslovak minis¬
try that requested it; it could also submit expert reports and propos¬
als to ministries and other public institutions upon its own initiative.
On the basis of a resolution made by the first CNRC General Meeting
of 7th February
1925,
eight divisions were created, but their number
had soon grown to ten: astronomy, botany-zoology (biology), phys¬
ics, geology-mineralogy, geography, geodetics-geophysics, chemistry,
mathematics, medicine and technology. By
1935
CNRC activities had
expanded into the social sciences, which led to the establishment of
512
ABSTRACT
another ten social science divisions, for which
47
new members were
put forward. These divisions were legal and governmental studies;
economics; philosophy, sociology and pedagogy; history; archeology;
history of art and musicology; history and philology, antiquity and
oriental studies; philology of foreign languages (modern philology
and Slavonic philology); Czech, Slovak and Slavonic linguistics; and
Czech, Slovak and Slavonic literary studies. At the suggestion of the
CNRC divisions, national committees were established for Czechoslo¬
vak representation in individual unions.
A change for the better in financing resulted in the establishment
of
a Masaryk
Fund for the support of scientific research to mark the
85th birthday of the first President. The objective of the new fund
was primarily „to support scientific work in the Czechoslovak Repub¬
lic in all directions, particularly by providing funds for scientific aids,
the publication of completed works and research fellowships involv¬
ing scientific and scholarly work . It was to be utilized by the younger
scientific generation. The basic capital of the
Masaryk
Fund came to
three million crowns, provided from interest on reparations obtained
by the Ministry of Education and administered by a Board of Trus¬
tees comprising the CNRC Chairman, Deputy Chairman and General
Secretary, representatives of ministries and supporters of scientific
work. From
1950
the administration of the fund was entrusted di¬
rectly to the Council.
CNRC stagnated completely during the war years from
1939
to
1944.
With regard to the repression of Czech higher education, scientific and
scholarly activity and the Czech intelligentsia in general, CNRC activity
was radically curtailed and a number of its members emigrated to es¬
cape persecution by the Nazi regime. Its promising post-war activities
were also cut short by the February
1948
putsch, as a result of which
CNRC had to undergo another purge. Some members were condemned
at show trials, while others went into exile to escape Communist perse¬
cution. CNRC activities were brought to an end in
1953
upon the crea¬
tion of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences.
CASA
activities in the new Republic from
1918
to
1953
are analysed
by
Vlasta Mádlová.
The creation of the Czech Academy under the new
Republic did not go smoothly despite all the enthusiasm, as the Acad¬
emy (and particularly some of its activities) was associated in the pub¬
lic mind with the former Empire (e.g. the call for a public competition
513
BOHEMIA
DOCTA
for a military song that was to be a display of loyalty to the idea of the
Austrian state). For scientific circles the creation of an independent
Republic meant a promise that their previous demands would be met.
They expected the state to provide broader support for scientific work
and space for the creation and realization of new institutions, as well
as extensive support for existing institutions and bodies.
Voices calling for a change in the organization of the Academy in
line with the spirit of the new situation started to be heard as early as
October
1918
in its individual classes. However, the first and for a long
time the only step was the approval of a change in the name of the in¬
stitution from the original Czech Academy of Emperor Franz Josef for
Sciences, Literature and Arts to the Czech Academy of Sciences and
Arts. The amended statutes were finally approved by the Czechoslo¬
vak government on 23rd May
1923.
These changes to the statutes did
not go deeper into the internal structure of the Academy or its activi¬
ties, although they did strengthen the autonomy of the classes.
CASA
retained its original division into four classes, while its classification
of scientific and scholarly disciplines into classes remained the same.
After the abolition of the category of corresponding members, the
number of ordinary and extraordinary members was adjusted for each
individual class. Only with the further passage of time did the second
class alter its internal organization in
1928,
dividing into five sections
while determining the number of members in individual sections
.
These
sections were:
1)
mathematics and physics;
2)
chemistry, mineralogy
and geology;
3)
biology;
4)
medicine and
5)
technology.
Under the new statutes of
1923,
women could
-
and did
-
become
members of the Academy.
The Academy established a number of expert committees, the most
important being the institution-wide Archeological Committee and the
Third Class Lexicographical and Dialectological Committees (divided
into two separate units in
1919).
These committees were basically em¬
bryonic institutes and continued to work on that principle.
Another key area of operation for individual classes at the Academy
was their own publishing activity. During the First Republic it continued
to publish
Věstník,
which came out nine times a year with reports on life
at the Academy, class meetings, General Meetings and the meetings of
the Administrative Committee. It published research articles, reports
on foreign scholarly literature, reviews of works that had been recom¬
mended and accepted by the Academy for publication and extracts of
514
ABSTRACT
works that had been given awards. The
Almanach
yearbook also con¬
tinued to be published at the beginning of each year, with reports on
the Academy over the previous year and a summary of its officials and
members. All the scientific and scholarly classes also published their
own
Rozpravy,
a separate larger publication outside the framework of
Rozpravy
and special-subject series and collections.
The occupation following March
1939
brought about changes to the
organization and structure, which were approved in their final ver¬
sion in
1940.
The composition and status of the Academy were now
based on statutes approved in
1931
with just a change of name from
Czechoslovak to Czech and Republic to Protectorate. The structure of
the Academy and its officials remained the same.
A much greater blow for
CASA
was the purge of its membership base.
It retained its previous division of members, but due to the isolation
of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, no new foreign members
were elected. In
1940
five previous Slovak members were transferred
to the category of foreign members (upon the creation of an inde¬
pendent Slovak state). The application of the laws and regulations on
the Jewish population and the „aryanization of scientific institutes
led to the exclusion of members of Jewish origin, some of whom then
perished in concentration camps. Other Academy members also lost
their lives during and immediately after the occupation.
As soon as the war ended, the first voices calling for a reorganization
of the institution made themselves heard (particularly
Zdeněk Nejedlý).
The original proposals centred around specific European Academies,
whose organization was to serve as a model for
CASA.
Ideas for the creation of
CASA
scientific and scholarly institutes
gradually started to be implemented, resulting in the establishment
of
a CASA
Czech Language Institute, which had been prepared for dur¬
ing the First Republic, as well as other institutes. The Czech Academy
was also behind the creation of another institute, the Czechoslovak
Centre for International Intellectual Collaboration. This organization
had been created at
CASA
in
1923
(with RBLS and
MAL
collaboration)
as a branch of the International Committee for Intellectual Collabo¬
ration at the League of Nations in Geneva, tasked with seeing to the
provision of material conditions for scientists and scholars, creating an
international savings bank project, protecting copyright, supporting
the exchange of publications, organizing international scientific and
scholarly gatherings and creating an international bibliography.
515
BOHEMIA
DOCTA
After the war the Academy continued publishing
Věstník, Almanach
and
Rozpravy
for individual classes, as well as monographs and the out¬
put of individual implementation committees at the Academy.
Eventually, based on the ideas of Academy President
Zdeněk Nejedlý,
the Soviet Academy of Sciences became its organizational model.
In her paper on the development of science and scholarship outside
the universities in Czechoslovakia and CSAS after
1945,
Alena Misková
has endeavoured to set out the individual stages of CSAS history, its
emergence and its status up to
1993.
The titles of its individual chap¬
ters are meant to characterize the individual periods: Time of Seek¬
ing
1945-1948,
when a new order for Czechoslovak science was under
consideration and a number of different opinions arose regarding its
modernization; Communist Reform
1948-1952,
which meant victory
for the pro-Soviet orientation, when the guiding and organizational
reins of science were held firmly in the hands of the Communist Par¬
ty. A Scientific Establishment Both Modern and Deformed:
1953-1956
bring on the one hand political persecution and the creation of an
entirely ideologized social-sciences establishment, and on the other
hand modernized institutes of natural and technical sciences. A very
heavy blow was dealt to scientific and scholarly life by the revision of
scientific relations with the rest of the world and the slogan: „The So¬
viet Union is our model . The disruption of all contacts with the West
and with international scientific and scholarly organizations held back
and isolated Czechoslovak science.
Signs of Awakening
1957-1961 -
after the deaths of Stalin and
Gott¬
wald
and as the personality cult was overcome, the situation in sci¬
ence also relaxed to some extent. It was found that such distorted
science did not bring about the anticipated positive results and iso¬
lation within the framework of the Soviet bloc led to scientific steril¬
ity. The first sign of spring was the Prague International Congress of
Macromolecular Chemistry, organized by
Otto Wichterle.
The Road
to the „Prague Spring
1962-1967
was, of course, still a long one, but
Czechoslovak science had now taken the path to success, even at an
international level, particularly in some of the natural and technical
sciences. Even in the social sciences, new subjects had opened up and
criticism was levelled at previous developments. The Brief Respite
of
1968-1969
showed that (not only) the Czechoslovak government
was able to fully regenerate during the period of planned reforms for
516
ABSTRACT
all areas of social life, in which the CSAS institutes took a significant
share. An opportunity opened up for a very short period of time to go
on trips abroad to western countries and the USA, but the invasion of
Czechoslovakia by Soviet bloc armies and the subsequent occupation
not only meant this promising development was frozen, but science
also found itself in a situation entirely comparable to that of the Sta¬
linist period. From Persecution to „Normalization
1969-1973 -
this
was the second worst stage in the history of the Academy, in which dil¬
ettantes came to power and a number of outstanding scientists were
persecuted and had to relinquish their positions, losing the conditions
required for the performance of their specialist work. Some of them
found the courage to emigrate, while others were allowed to remain
in subordinate positions and a large proportion of them had to per¬
form manual work and still had problems. The doors to the outside
world again slammed shut, and only trusted Communists were per¬
mitted to travel to the West. The Self-Purging Mechanism of Science?
1974-1989 -
the significant fall in standards of Czechoslovak science
during „normalization needed to be at least mitigated, so the „nor¬
malization institute directors were discreetly replaced by people who
were politically reliable, but at least specialists. The same applied to
Academy administration. During the
1980s
a party membership card
was still a prerequisite for a career, but the younger generation of sci¬
entists now held the floor and were demanding similar opportunities
to those of western institutions and specialists, fully realizing that the
line held by the Communists could not be of benefit to science. Dis¬
sident activities developed among scientists, who had to leave their
establishments, and finally at the end of the 1980s, illegal groups of
scientists formed, not only to discuss specialist issues, but also to ex¬
press themselves on the unhappy situation in the country. All these
activities culminated in November
1989,
when the regime fell.
From CSAS to ASCR
1991-1993,
the road was not straightforward.
The Academy had to be quickly reformed, the new principles on which
it was to stand had to be formulated and institutes which did not meet
the new requirements had to be cut down or cut out.
In this very short period, associated with the name of Otto Wichter-
le, changes took place which are basically in effect to this day
-
grant
competitions were introduced, the broadest possible international
collaboration opened up and experience was received from abroad.
After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the Academy, which had been
517
BOHEMIA
DOCTA
reformed in this way, was ready to start a dignified existence within
the framework of the Czech state.
Most of the chapters include profiles of prominent figures in sci¬
ence and scholarship and the various institutions involved in each
chapter.
Alena Misková
Translated by Melvyn Clarke
518
|
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| spelling | Bohemia docta k historickým kořenům vědy v českých zemích Alena Míšková ... (eds.) Vyd. 1. Praha Academia 2010 529 S. zahlr. Ill. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Historie Zsfassung in engl. Sprache Geschichte gnd rswk-swf Wissenschaftliche Einrichtung (DE-588)4190094-7 gnd rswk-swf Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft (DE-588)4066581-1 gnd rswk-swf Wissenschaft (DE-588)4066562-8 gnd rswk-swf Böhmische Länder (DE-588)4069573-6 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4143413-4 Aufsatzsammlung gnd-content Böhmische Länder (DE-588)4069573-6 g Wissenschaft (DE-588)4066562-8 s Geschichte z DE-604 Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft (DE-588)4066581-1 s Wissenschaftliche Einrichtung (DE-588)4190094-7 s Míšková, Alena 1957-2015 Sonstige (DE-588)113999763 oth Digitalisierung UB Regensburg application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=021187450&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=021187450&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
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| title | Bohemia docta k historickým kořenům vědy v českých zemích |
| title_auth | Bohemia docta k historickým kořenům vědy v českých zemích |
| title_exact_search | Bohemia docta k historickým kořenům vědy v českých zemích |
| title_full | Bohemia docta k historickým kořenům vědy v českých zemích Alena Míšková ... (eds.) |
| title_fullStr | Bohemia docta k historickým kořenům vědy v českých zemích Alena Míšková ... (eds.) |
| title_full_unstemmed | Bohemia docta k historickým kořenům vědy v českých zemích Alena Míšková ... (eds.) |
| title_short | Bohemia docta |
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| title_sub | k historickým kořenům vědy v českých zemích |
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