Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering:
Gespeichert in:
| Weitere Verfasser: | |
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Chichester
Wiley
2011
|
| Ausgabe: | 2. ed. |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | XXXII, 1132 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. 25 cm |
| ISBN: | 9780470721698 |
Internformat
MARC
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering |c ed. by Antonio Luque ... |
| 250 | |a 2. ed. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Chichester |b Wiley |c 2011 | |
| 300 | |a XXXII, 1132 S. |b Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |c 25 cm | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
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| 700 | 1 | |a Luque, Antonio |4 edt | |
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| _version_ | 1804143760585523200 |
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| adam_text | IMAGE 1
CONTENTS
ABOUT THE EDITORS
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE TO THE 2ND EDITION
1 ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES OF SOLAR ELECTRICITY FROM PHOTOVOLTAICS
STEVEN HEGEDUS AND ANTONIO LUQUE 1.1 THE BIG PICTURE 1.2 WHAT IS
PHOTOVOLTAICS?
1.2.1 RATING OF PV MODULES AND GENERATORS 1.2.2 COLLECTING SUNLIGHT:
TILT, ORIENTATION, TRACKING AND SHADING 1.2.3 PV MODULE AND SYSTEM COSTS
AND FORECASTS 1.3 PHOTOVOLTAICS TODAY
1.3.1 BUT FIRST, SOME PV HISTORY
1.3.2 THE PV PICTURE TODAY
1.3.3 THE CRUCIAL ROLE OF NATIONAL POLICIES 1.3.4 GRID PARITY: THE
ULTIMATE GOAL FOR PV 1.4 THE GREAT CHALLENGE
1.5
1.6
1.4.1 HOW MUCH LAND IS NEEDED?
1.4.2 RAW MATERIALS AVAILABILITY 1.4.3 IS PHOTOVOLTAICS A CLEAN GREEN
TECHNOLOGY? 1.4.4 ENERGY PAYBACK
1.4.5 RELIABILITY
1.4.6 DISPATCHAHILITY: PROVIDING ENERGY ON DEMAND TRENDS IN TECHNOLOGY
1.5.1 CRYSTALLINE SILICON PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES
1.5.2 THIN FILM PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES 1.5.3 CONCENTRATOR PHOTOVOLTAICS
PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES 1.5.4 THIRD-GENERATION CONCEPTS CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
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XXXI
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CONTENTS
2 THE ROLE OF POLICY IN PV INDUSTRY GROWTH: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
JOHN BYRNE AND LADO KURDGELASHVILI 2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 CHANGING CLIMATE IN THE ENERGY INDUSTRY 2.1.2 PV MARKETS
2.2 POLICY REVIEW OF SELECTED COUNTRIES 2.2.1 REVIEW OF US POLICIES
2.2.2 EUROPE
2.2.3 ASIA
2.3 POLICY IMPACT ON PV MARKET DEVELOPMENT 2.4 FUTURE PV MARKET GROWTH
SCENARIOS
2.4.1 DIFFUSION CURVES
2.4.2 EXPERIENCE CURVES
2.4.3 PV DIFFUSION IN THE US UNDER DIFFERENT POLICY SCENARIOS 2.5 TOWARD
A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE REFERENCES
3 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL JEFFERY L. GRAY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTORS 3.2.1 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
3.2.2 ENERGY BAND STRUCTURE
3.2.3 CONDUCTION-BAND AND VALENCE-BAND DENSITIES OF STATE 3.2.4
EQUILIBRIUM CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS
3.2.5 LIGHT ABSORPTION
3.2.6 RECOMBINATION
3.2.7 CARRIER TRANSPORT
3.2.8 SEMICONDUCTOR EQUATIONS
3.2.9 MINORITY-CARRIER DIFFUSION EQUATION
3.2.10 PN-JUNCTION DIODE ELECTROSTATICS 3.2.11 SUMMARY
3.3 SOLAR CELL FUNDAMENTALS
3.3.1 SOLAR CELL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
3.3.2 GENERATION RATE
3.3.3 SOLUTION OF THE MINORITY-CARRIER DIFFUSION EQUATION 3.3.4
DERIVATION OF THE SOLAR CELL 1-V CHARACTERISTIC 3.3.5 INTERPRETING THE
SOLAR CELL 1-V CHARACTERISTIC 3.3.6 PROPERTIES OF EFFICIENT SOLAR CELLS
3.3.7 LIFETIME AND SURFACE RECOMBINATION EFFECTS 3.4 ADDITIONAL TOPICS
3.4.1 SPECTRAL RESPONSE
3.4.2 PARASITIC RESISTANCE EFFECTS
3.4.3 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
3.4.4 CONCENTRATOR SOLAR CELLS
3.4.5 HIGH-LEVEL INJECTION
3.4.6 P-I-N SOLAR CELLS AND VOLTAGE-DEPENDENT COLLECTION
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3.4.7 HETEROJUNCTION SOLAR CELLS 126
3.4.8 DETAILED NUMERICAL MODELING 127
3.5 SUMMARY 128
REFERENCES 128
4 THEORETICAL LIMITS OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CONVERSION AND NEW-GENERATION SOLAR
CELLS 130 ANTONIO LUQUE AND ANTONIO MARTI 4.1 INTRODUCTION 130
4.2 THERMODYNAMIC BACKGROUND 131
4.2.1 BASIC RELATIONSHIPS 131
4.2.2 THE TWO LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS 133
4.2.3 LOCAL ENTROPY PRODUCTION 133
4.2.4 AN INTEGRAL VIEW 133
4.2.5 THERMODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS OF RADIATION 134
4.2.6 THERMODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS OF ELECTRONS 135
4.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC CONVERTERS 136
4.3.1 THE BALANCE EQUATION OF A PV CONVERTER 136
4.3.2 THE MONOCHROMATIC CELL 140
4.3.3 THERMODYNAMIC CONSISTENCY OF THE SHOCKLEY-QUEISSER PHOTOVOLTAIC
CELL 142 4.3.4 ENTROPY PRODUCTION IN THE WHOLE SHOCKLEY-QUEISSER SOLAR
CELL 145
4.4 THE TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY LIMIT FOR SOLAR CONVERTERS 147
4.5 VERY-HIGH-EFFICIENCY CONCEPTS 148
4.5.1 MULTI JUNCTION SOLAR CELLS 148
4.5.2 THERMOPHOTOVOLTAIC AND THERMOPHOTONIC CONVERTERS 149
4.5.3 MULTI-EXCITON GENERATION SOLAR CELLS 151
4.5.4 INTERMEDIATE BAND SOLAR CELL 155
4.5.5 HOT ELECTRON SOLAR CELLS 161
4.6 CONCLUSIONS 164
REFERENCES 165
5 SOLAR GRADE SILICON FEEDSTOCK 169
BRUNO CECCAROLI AND OTTO LOHNE 5.1 INTRODUCTION 169
5.2 SILICON 170
5.2.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SILICON RELEVANT TO PHOTOVOLTAICS 170
5.2.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES RELEVANT TO PHOTOVOLTAICS 172
5.2.3 HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 172
5.2.4 HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS OF SILICON 173
5.3 PRODUCTION OF SILICON METAL/METALLURGICAL GRADE SILICON 177
5.3.1 THE CARBOTHERMIC REDUCTION OF SILICA 177
5.3.2 LADLE REFINING 179
5.3.3 CASTING AND CRUSHING 181
5.3.4 PURITY OF COMMERCIAL SILICON METAL 181
5.3.5 ECONOMICS 182
5.4 PRODUCTION OF POLYSILICON/SILICON OF ELECTRONIC AND PHOTOVOLTAIC
GRADE 183
5.4.1 THE SIEMENS PROCESS: CHLOROSILANES AND HOT FILAMENT 184
5.4.2 THE UNION CARBIDE AND KOMATSU PROCESS: MONOSILANE AND HOT FILAMENT
187
IMAGE 4
CONTENTS
5.4.3 THE ETHYL CORPORATION PROCESS: SILANE AND FLUIDISED BED REACTOR
189 5.4.4 ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS 190
5.5 CURRENT SILICON FEEDSTOCK TO SOLAR CELLS 191
5.6 REQUIREMENTS OF SILICON FOR CRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELLS 194
5.6.1 DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION 194
5.6.2 EFFECT OF CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS 197
5.6.3 EFFECT OF VARIOUS IMPURITIES 198
5.7 ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 205
5.7.1 FURTHER POLYSILICON PROCESS DEVELOPMENT AND NEW PROCESSES
INVOLVING VOLATILE SILICON COMPOUNDS 206
5.7.2 UPGRADING PURITY OF THE METALLURGICAL SILICON ROUTE 209
5.7.3 OTHER METHODS 213
5.7.4 CRYSTALLISATION 213
5.8 CONCLUSIONS 214
REFERENCES 215
6 BULK CRYSTAL GROWTH AND WAFERING FOR PV 218
HUGO RODRIGUEZ, ISMAEL GUERRERO, WOLFGANG KOCH, ARTHUR L. ENDROS, DIETER
FRANKE, CHRISTIAN HAF3LER, JURIS P. KALEJS AND H. J. MOLLER 6.1
INTRODUCTION 218
6.2 BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 219
6.2.1 CZ GROWTH OF SINGLE-CRYSTAL SILICON 220
6.3 BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 224
6.3.1 INGOT FABRICATION 224
6.3.2 DOPING 226
6.3.3 CRYSTAL DEFECTS 227
6.3.4 IMPURITIES 229
6.4 WAFERING 233
6.4.1 MULTI-WIRE WAFERING TECHNIQUE 233
6.4.2 MICROSCOPIC PROCESS OF WAFERING 235
6.4.3 WAFER QUALITY AND SAW DAMAGE 237
6.4.4 COST AND SIZE CONSIDERATIONS 239
6.4.5 NEW SAWING TECHNOLOGIES 239
6.5 SILICON RIBBON AND FOIL PRODUCTION 240
6.5.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION 242
6.5.2 PRODUCTIVITY COMPARISONS 249
6.5.3 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY 250
6.5.4 RIBBON MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND SOLAR CELLS 251
6.5.5 RIBBON/FOIL TECHNOLOGY: FUTURE DIRECTIONS 253
6.6 NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF CRYSTAL GROWTH TECHNIQUES 255
6.6.1 SIMULATION TOOLS 255
6.6.2 THERMAL MODELLING OF SILICON CRYSTALLISATION TECHNIQUES 255
6.6.3 SIMULATION OF BULK SILICON CRYSTALLISATION 257
6.6.4 SIMULATION OF SILICON RIBBON GROWTH 259
6.7 CONCLUSIONS 260
REFERENCES 261
IMAGE 5
CONTENTS
7 CRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELLS AND MODULES IGNACIO TOBIAS, CARLOS DEL
CANIZO AND JESUS ALONSO 7.1 INTRODUCTION 7.2 CRYSTALLINE SILICON AS A
PHOTOVOLTAIC MATERIAL
7.2.1 BULK PROPERTIES
7.2.2 SURFACES
7.3 CRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELLS
7.3.1 CELL STRUCTURE
7.3.2 SUBSTRATE
7.3.3 THE FRONT SURFACE
7.3.4 THE BACK SURFACE
7.3.5 SIZE EFFECTS 7.3.6 CELL OPTICS
7.3.7 PERFORMANCE COMPARISON
7.4 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
7.4.1 PROCESS FLOW 7.4.2 SCREEN-PRINTING TECHNOLOGY
7.4.3 THROUGHPUT AND YIELD 7.5 VARIATIONS TO THE BASIC PROCESS 7.5.1
THIN WAFERS
7.5.2 BACK SURFACE PASSIVATION
7.5.3 IMPROVEMENTS TO THE FRONT EMITTER 7.5.4 RAPID THERMAL PROCESSES
7.6 OTHER INDUSTRIAL APPROACHES
7.6.1 SILICON RIBBONS
7.6.2 HETEROJUNCTION WITH INTRINSIC THIN LAYER
7.6.3 ALL-REAR-CONTACT TECHNOLOGIES
7.6.4 THE SLIVER CELL
7.7 CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES
7.7.1 CELL MATRIX
7.7.2 THE LAYERS OF THE MODULE 7.7.3 LAMINATION
7.7.4 POST-LAMINATION STEPS
7.7.5 AUTOMATION AND INTEGRATION 7.7.6 SPECIAL MODULES
7.8 ELECTRICAL AND OPTICAL PERFORMANCE OF MODULES 7.8.1 ELECTRICAL AND
THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS 7.8.2 FABRICATION SPREAD AND MISMATCH LOSSES
7.8.3 LOCAL SHADING AND HOT SPOT FORMATION
7.8.4 OPTICAL PROPERTIES
7.9 FIELD PERFORMANCE OF MODULES 7.9.1 LIFETIME
7.9.2 QUALIFICATION
7.10 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
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CONTENTS
S HIGH-EFFICIENCY HL-V MULTIJUNCTION SOLAR CELLS
D. J. FRIEDMAN, J. M. OLSON AND SARAH KURTZ 8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 APPLICATIONS
8.3
8.2.1
8.2.2
PHYSICS
8.3.1
8.3.2
SPACE SOLAR CELLS
TERRESTRIAL ELECTRICITY GENERATION
OF ILL-V MULTIJUNCTION AND SINGLE-JUNCTION SOLAR CELLS WAVELENGTH
DEPENDENCE OF PHOTON CONVERSION EFFICIENCY THEORETICAL LIMITS TO
MULTIJUNCTION EFFICIENCIES
8.4
8.3.3 SPECTRUM SPLITTING
CELL CONFIGURATION
8.4.1 FOUR-TERMINAL
8.4.2 THREE-TERMINAL
8.4.3 TWO-TERMINAL SERIES-CONNECTED (CURRENT-MATCHED) 8.5 COMPUTATION OF
SERIES-CONNECTED DEVICE PERFORMANCE 8.5.1 OVERVIEW
8.5.2 TOP AND BOTTOM SUBCELL QE AND JSC 8.5.3 MULTIJUNCTION J-V CURVES
8.5.4 CURRENT MATCHING AND TOP-CELL THINNING 8.5.5 CURRENT-MATCHING
EFFECT ON FILL FACTOR AND VOC
8.5.6 EFFICIENCY VS BANDGAP 8.5.7 SPECTRAL EFFECTS
8.5.8 AR COATING EFFECTS 8.5.9 CONCENTRATION
8.5.10 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE 8.6 MATERIALS ISSUES RELATED TO
GAINP/GAAS/GE SOLAR CELLS 8.6.1 OVERVIEW
8.6.2 MOCVD
8.6.3 GAINP SOLAR CELLS
8.6.4 GAAS CELLS 8.6.5 GE CELLS
8.6.6 TUNNEL-JUNCTION INTERCONNECTS 8.6.7 CHEMICAL ETCHANTS 8.6.8
MATERIALS AVAILABILITY 8.7 EPILAYER CHARACTERIZATION AND OTHER
DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES
8.7.1 CHARACTERIZATION OF EPILAYERS 8.7.2 TRANSMISSION-LINE MEASUREMENTS
8.7.3 I-V MEASUREMENTS OF MULTIJUNCTION CELLS 8.7.4 EVALUATION OF
MORPHOLOGICAL DEFECTS 8.7.5 DEVICE DIAGNOSIS
8.8 RELIABILITY AND DEGRADATION 8.9 FUTURE-GENERATION SOLAR CELLS
8.9.1 LATTICE-MISMATCHED GAINP/GAINAS/GE CELL
8.9.2 INVERTED LATTICE-MISMATCHED GAINP/GAINAS/GAINAS (1.83,1.34,0.89EV)
CELL
8.9.3 OTHER LATTICE-MATCHED APPROACHES
8.9.4 MECHANICAL STACKS
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CONTENTS 0
8.9.5 GROWTH ON OTHER SUBSTRATES 8.9.6 SPECTRUM SPLITTING
8.10 SUMMARY
REFERENCES
9 SPACE SOLAR CELLS AND ARRAYS SHEILA BAILEY AND RYNE RAFFAELLE 9.1 THE
HISTORY OF SPACE SOLAR CELLS 9.1.1 VANGUARD I TO DEEP SPACE 1 9.2 THE
CHALLENGE FOR SPACE SOLAR CELLS
9.2.1 THE SPACE ENVIRONMENT
9.2.2 THERMAL ENVIRONMENT
9.2.3 SOLAR CELL CALIBRATION AND MEASUREMENT 9.3 SILICON SOLAR CELLS
9.4 ILL-V SOLAR CELLS
9.4.1 THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS
9.5 SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS
9.5.1 BODY-MOUNTED ARRAYS
9.5.2 RIGID PANEL PLANAR ARRAYS
9.5.3 FLEXIBLE FOLD-OUT ARRAYS
9.5.4 THIN FILM OR FLEXIBLE ROLL-OUT ARRAYS 9.5.5 CONCENTRATING ARRAYS
9.5.6 HIGH-TEMPERATURE/INTENSITY ARRAYS
9.5.7 ELECTROSTATICALLY CLEAN ARRAYS
9.5.8 MARS SOLAR ARRAYS
9.5.9 POWER MANAGEMENT AND DISTRIBUTION (PMAD) 9.6 FUTURE CELL AND ARRAY
POSSIBILITIES 9.6.1 LOW-INTENSITY LOW-TEMPERATURE (LILT) CELLS
9.6.2 QUANTUM DOT SOLAR CELLS
9.6.3 INTEGRATED POWER SYSTEMS
9.6.4 HIGH SPECIFIC POWER ARRAYS
9.6.5 HIGH-RADIATION ENVIRONMENT SOLAR ARRAYS
9.7 POWER SYSTEM FIGURES OF MERIT 9.8 SUMMARY
REFERENCES
10 PHOTOVOLTAIC CONCENTRATORS
GABRIEL SALA AND IGNACIO ANTON 10.1 WHAT IS THE AIM OF PHOTOVOLTAIC
CONCENTRATION AND WHAT DOES IT DO? 10.2 OBJECTIVES, LIMITATIONS AND
OPPORTUNITIES
10.2.1 OBJECTIVES AND STRENGTHS 10.2.2 THE ANALYSIS OF COSTS OF
PHOTOVOLTAIC CONCENTRATORS 10.3 TYPICAL CONCENTRATORS: AN ATTEMPT AT
CLASSIFICATION 10.3.1 TYPES, COMPONENTS AND OPERATION OF A PV
CONCENTRATOR
10.3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CONCENTRATORS 10.3.3 CONCENTRATION SYSTEMS WITH
SPECTRAL CHANGE
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CONTENTS
10.4 CONCENTRATION OPTICS: THERMODYNAMIC LIMITS
10.4.1 WHAT IS REQUIRED IN CONCENTRATOR OPTICS?
10.4.2 A TYPICAL REFLEXIVE CONCENTRATOR
10.4.3 IDEAL CONCENTRATION
10.4.4 CONSTRUCTING AN IDEAL CONCENTRATOR 10.4.5 OPTICS OF PRACTICAL
CONCENTRATORS 10.4.6 TWO-STAGE OPTICAL SYSTEMS: SECONDARY OPTICS
10.5 FACTORS OF MERIT FOR CONCENTRATORS IN RELATION TO THE OPTICS 10.5.1
OPTICAL EFFICIENCY
10.5.2 DISTRIBUTION OR PROFILE OF THE LIGHT ON THE RECEPTOR 10.5.3
ANGULAR ACCEPTANCE AND TRANSFER FUNCTION 10.6 PHOTOVOLTAIC CONCENTRATION
MODULES AND ASSEMBLIES 10.6.1 DEFINITIONS
10.6.2 FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCENTRATION MODULES 10.6.3
ELECTRICAL CONNECTION OF CELLS IN THE MODULE 10.6.4 THERMAL-MECHANICAL
EFFECTS RELATED TO CELL FIXING
10.6.5 DESCRIPTION AND MANUFACTURING ISSUES OF CONCENTRATION MODULES
10.6.6 ADOPTION OF SECONDARY OPTICS 10.6.7 MODULES WITH REFLEXIVE
ELEMENTS (MIRRORS) 10.6.8 DESCRIPTION AND MANUFACTURING ISSUES OF
CONCENTRATORS BASED
ON ASSEMBLIES
10.7 TRACKING FOR CONCENTRATOR SYSTEMS
10.7.1
10.7.2
10.7.3
10.7.4
10.7.5
TRACKING STRATEGIES FOR CPVS
PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION OF TRACKING SYSTEMS TRACKING CONTROL SYSTEM
POINTING STRATEGIES
THE COST OF STRUCTURE AND TRACKING CONTROL
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10.8 MEASUREMENTS OF CELLS, MODULES AND PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS IN
CONCENTRATION 440 440
442
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444
SOLAR CELLS 445
10.8.6 MULTI JUNCTION CELLS INSIDE MODULE OPTICS 446
10.8.7 THE PRODUCTION OF PV CONCENTRATORS VERSUS THE EFFECTIVE AVAILABLE
RADI- ATION ACCOUNTING FOR DAYLIGHT SPECTRUM VARIATIONS 447
10.9 SUMMARY 449
REFERENCES 449
10.8.1 MEASUREMENT OF CONCENTRATION CELLS 10.8.2 MEASUREMENT OF
CONCENTRATOR ELEMENTS AND MODULES 10.8.3 ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE
MEASUREMENTS WITH SIMULATORS 10.8.4 OPTICAL MISMATCH IN CPV MODULES AND
SYSTEMS
10.8.5 TESTING CPV MODULES AND SYSTEMS EQUIPPED WITH MULTIJUNCTION
11 CRYSTALLINE SILICON THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS VIA HIGH-TEMPERATURE AND
INTERMEDIATE-TEMPERATURE APPROACHES 452
ARMIN G. ABERLE AND PER I. WIDENBORG 11.1 INTRODUCTION 452
1 1.1.1 MOTIVATION FOR THIN C-SI SOLAR CELLS 452
11.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF C-SI THIN-FILM PV TECHNOLOGIES AND MATERIALS
453
1 1.1.3 SILICON DEPOSITION METHODS 455
IMAGE 9
CONTENTS 0
11.1.4 SEEDED VERSUS NON-SEEDED SILICON FILM GROWTH 456
11.2 MODELLING 456
11.2.1 IMPACT OF DIFFUSION LENGTH IN ABSORBER REGION ON CELL EFFICIENCY
456 11.2.2 IMPACT OF SURFACE RECOMBINATION 458
1 1.2.3 IMPACT OF LIGHT TRAPPING 461
11.3 CRYSTALLINE SILICON THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS ON NATIVE AND HIGH-T
FOREIGN SUPPORT- ING MATERIALS 462
11.3.1 NATIVE SUPPORTING MATERIALS 462
11.3.2 HIGH-T FOREIGN SUPPORTING MATERIALS 465
11.4 CRYSTALLINE SILICON THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS ON INTERMEDIATE-T FOREIGN
SUPPORTING MATERIALS 467
1 1.4.1 SOLAR CELLS ON METAL 468
11.4.2 SOLAR CELLS ON GLASS 469
11.5 CONCLUSIONS 480
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 481
REFERENCES 481
12 AMORPHOUS SILICON-BASED SOLAR CELLS 487
ERIC A. SCHIFF, STEVEN HEGEDUS AND XUNINING DENG 12.1 OVERVIEW 487
12.1.1 AMORPHOUS SILICON: THE FIRST DOPABLE AMORPHOUS SEMICONDUCTOR 487
12.1.2 DESIGNS FOR AMORPHOUS SILICON SOLAR CELLS: A GUIDED TOUR 490
12.1.3 STAEBLER-WRONSKI EFFECT 491
12.1.4 SYNOPSIS 493
12.2 ATOMIC AND ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF HYDROGENATED AMORPHOUS SILICON
493
12.2.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 493
12.2.2 DEFECTS AND METASTABILITY 494
12.2.3 ELECTRONIC DENSITY-OF-STATES 495
12.2.4 BAND TAILS, BAND EDGES, AND BANDGAPS 496
12.2.5 DEFECTS AND GAP STATES 497
12.2.6 DOPING 497
12.2.7 ALLOYING AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES 498
12.2.8 BRIEFING: NANOCRYSTALLINE SILICON 499
12.3 DEPOSITING AMORPHOUS SILICON 500
12.3.1 SURVEY OF DEPOSITION TECHNIQUES 500
12.3.2 RF PLASMA-ENHANCED CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION (RF-PECVD)
AT 13.56MHZ 500
12.3.3 PECVD AT DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES 503
12.3.4 HOT-WIRE CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION 506
12.3.5 OTHER DEPOSITION METHODS 506
12.3.6 HYDROGEN DILUTION 506
12.3.7 HIGH-RATE DEPOSITION OF NANOCRYSTALLINE SI (NC-SI) 508
12.3.8 ALLOYS AND DOPING 509
12.4 UNDERSTANDING A-SI PIN CELLS 510
12.4.1 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF A PIN DEVICE 510
12.4.2 VOLTAGE DEPENDS WEAKLY ON ABSORBER-LAYER THICKNESS 511
12.4.3 WHAT IS THE USEFUL THICKNESS FOR POWER GENERATION? 513
IMAGE 10
CONTENTS
12.4.4 DOPED LAYERS AND INTERFACES 515
12.4.5 LIGHT-SOAKING EFFECTS 516
12.4.6 ALLOY AND NANOCRYSTALLINE CELLS 516
12.4.7 OPTICAL DESIGN OF A-SI: H AND NC-SI: H SOLAR CELLS 517
12.5 MULTIJUNCTION SOLAR CELLS 519
12.5.1 ADVANTAGES OF MULTIJUNCTION SOLAR CELLS 519
12.5.2 USING ALLOYS TO VARY THE BAND GAP 522
12.5.3 A-SI/A-SIGE TANDEM AND A-SI/A-SIGE/A-SIGE TRIPLE-JUNCTION SOLAR
CELLS 523 12.5.4 NANOCRYSTALLINE SILICON (NC-SI) SOLAR CELLS 527
12.5.5 MICROMORPH AND OTHER NC-SI-BASED MULTIJUNCTION CELLS 529
12.6 MODULE MANUFACTURING 530
12.6.1 CONTINUOUS ROLL-TO-ROLL MANUFACTURING ON STAINLESS STEEL
SUBSTRATES 531 12.6.2 A-SI MODULE PRODUCTION ON GLASS SUPERSTRATES 532
12.6.3 MANUFACTURING COST, SAFETY, AND OTHER ISSUES 532
12.6.4 MODULE PERFORMANCE AND RELIABILITY 533
12.7 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROJECTIONS 534
12.7.1 ADVANTAGES OF A-SI-BASED PHOTOVOLTAICS 534
12.7.2 STATUS AND COMPETITIVENESS OF A-SI PHOTOVOLTAICS 534
12.7.3 CRITICAL ISSUES FOR FURTHER ENHANCEMENT AND FUTURE POTENTIAL 535
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 536
REFERENCES 536
13 CU(INGA)SE2 SOLAR CELLS WILLIAM N. SHAFARMAN, SUSANNE SIEBENTRITT AND
LARS STOLT 13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
13.2.1 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION 13.2.2 OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND
ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE 13.2.3 ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES
13.2.4 THE SURFACE AND GRAIN BOUNDARIES 13.2.5 SUBSTRATE EFFECTS
13.3 DEPOSITION METHODS
13.3.1 SUBSTRATES AND SODIUM ADDITION 13.3.2 BACK CONTACT
13.3.3 COEVAPORATION OF CU(INGA)SE2 13.3.4 PRECURSOR REACTION PROCESSES
13.3.5 OTHER DEPOSITION APPROACHES
13.4 JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 13.4.1 CHEMICAL BATH DEPOSITION
13.4.2 INTERFACE EFFECTS
13.4.3 OTHER DEPOSITION METHODS
13.4.4 ALTERNATIVE BUFFER LAYERS
13.4.5 TRANSPARENT CONTACTS
13.4.6 HIGH-RESISTANCE WINDOW LAYERS
13.4.7 DEVICE COMPLETION
13.5 DEVICE OPERATION
13.5.1 LIGHT-GENERATED CURRENT
546
546
549
549
552
554
555
557
557
558
559
559
562
564
564
565
566
567
567
569
570
571
571
572
IMAGE 11
CONTENTS 0
13.5.2 RECOMBINATION
13.5.3 THE CU(INGA)SE2/CDS INTERFACE
13.5.4 WIDE AND GRADED BANDGAP DEVICES 13.6 MANUFACTURING ISSUES
13.6.1 PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT 13.6.2 MODULE FABRICATION
13.6.3 MODULE PERFORMANCE AND STABILITY 13.6.4 PRODUCTION COSTS
13.6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
13.7 THE CU(INGA)SEZ OUTLOOK
REFERENCES
14 CADMIUM TELLURIDE SOLAR CELLS BRIAN E. MCCANDLESS AND JAMES R. SITES
14.1 INTRODUCTION
14.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
14.3 CDTE PROPERTIES
14.4 CDTE FILM DEPOSITION
14.4.1 CONDENSATION/REACTION OF CD AND TEE VAPORS ON A SURFACE 14.4.2
GALVANIC REDUCTION OF CD AND TE IONS AT A SURFACE 14.4.3 PRECURSOR
REACTION AT A SURFACE 14.5 CDTE THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS
14.5.1 WINDOW LAYERS
14.5.2 CDTE ABSORBER LAYER AND CDCLZ TREATMENT 14.5.3 CDS/CDTE
INTERMIXING 14.5.4 BACK CONTACT
14.5.5 CELL CHARACTERIZATION AND ANALYSIS 14.6 CDTE MODULES
14.7 FUTURE OF CDTE-BASED SOLAR CELLS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
15 DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS
KOHJIRO HARA AND SHOGO MORI 15.1 INTRODUCTION
15.2 OPERATING MECHANISM OF DSSC 15.3 MATERIALS
15.3.1 TCO ELECTRODE
15.3.2 NANOCRYSTALLINE TI02 PHOTOELECTRODE
15.3.3 RU-COMPLEX PHOTOSENSITIZER
15.3.4 REDOX ELECTROLYTE
15.3.5 COUNTER-ELECTRODE
15.3.6 SEALING MATERIALS
15.4 PERFORMANCE OF HIGHLY EFFICIENT DSSCS 15.5 ELECTRON-TRANSFER
PROCESSES
15.5.1 ELECTRON INJECTION FROM DYE TO METAL OXIDE 15.5.2 ELECTRON
TRANSPORT IN NANOPOROUS ELECTRODE
575
579
580
583
583
585
587
588
589
591
592
600
600
601
604
609
611
612
613
614
615
615
619
622
624
630
632
635
635
642
642
643
646
646
646
647
649
649
650
650
651
651
653
IMAGE 12
0
CONTENTS
15.5.3 KINETIC COMPETITION OF THE REDUCTION OF DYE CATION 15.5.4 CHARGE
RECOMBINATION BETWEEN ELECTRON AND 13 ION 15.6 NEW MATERIALS
15.6.1 PHOTOSENSITIZERS
15.6.2 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
15.6.3 ELECTROLYTES
15.7 STABILITY
15.7.1 STABILITY OF MATERIALS 15.7.2 LONG-TERM STABILITY OF SOLAR CELL
PERFORMANCE 15.8 APPROACH TO COMMERCIALIZATION 15.8.1 FABRICATION OF
LARGE-AREA DSSC MODULES
15.8.2 FLEXIBLE DSSC
15.8.3 OTHER SUBJECTS FOR COMMERCIALIZATION
15.9 SUMMARY AND PROSPECTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
654
654
655
655
661
662
664
664
665
665
665
666
668
668
669
670
16 SUNLIGHT ENERGY CONVERSION VIA ORGANICS 675
SAM-SHAJING SUN AND HUGH O NEILL 16.1 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC AND
POLYMERIC PHOTOVOLTAICS 675
16.1.1 INTRODUCTION 675
16.1.2 ORGANIC VERSUS INORGANIC OPTOELECTRONICS PROCESSES 676
16.1.3 ORGANIC/POLYMERIC PHOTOVOLTAIC PROCESSES 679
16.2 EVOLUTION AND TYPES OF ORGANIC AND POLYMERIC SOLAR CELLS 682
16.2.1 SINGLE-LAYER ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS (SCHOTTKY CELLS) 682
16.2.2 DOUBLE-LAYER DONOR/ACCEPTOR HETEROJUNCTION ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS
(TANG CELLS) 684
16.2.3 BULK HETEROJUNCTION ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS 687
16.2.4 N-TYPE NANOPARTICLES/NANORODS WITH P-TYPE POLYMER BLEND HYBRID
SOLAR CELLS 688
16.2.5 BICONTINUOUS ORDERED NANOSTRUCTURE (BONS) ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS 688
16.2.6 TANDEM STRUCTURED ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS 689
16.2.7 IDEAL HIGH-EFFICIENCY ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS 692
16.3 ORGANIC AND POLYMERIC SOLAR CELL FABRICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION
692
16.3.1 ORGANIC AND POLYMERIC SOLAR CELL FABRICATION AND STABILITY 692
16.3.2 STATUS AND CHALLENGES OF OPV MANUFACTURING 694
16.4 NATURAL PHOTOSYNTHETIC SUNLIGHT ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS 695
16.4.1 PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS 696
16.4.2 ANTENNA COMPLEXES 696
16.4.3 PHOTOSYNTHETIC REACTION CENTERS 698
16.5 ARTIFICIAL PHOTOSYNTHETIC SYSTEMS 699
16.5.1 ANTENNA SYSTEMS 700
16.5.2 CYCLIC PORPHYRIN ARRAYS 700
16.5.3 DENDRIMERS 701
16.5.4 SELF-ASSEMBLED SYSTEMS 703
16.6 ARTIFICIAL REACTION CENTERS 704
16.6.1 BACTERIAL REACTION CENTER 704
IMAGE 13
CONTENTS 0
16.6.2 ARTIFICIAL REACTION CENTERS
16.7 TOWARDS DEVICE ARCHITECTURES
16.8 SUMMARY AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
17 TRANSPARENT CONDUCTING OXIDES FOR PHOTOVOLTAICS
ALAN E. DELAHOY AND SHEYU GUO
706
707
709
711
711
716
17.1 INTRODUCTION 716
17.1.1 TRANSPARENT CONDUCTORS 716
17.1.2 TRANSPARENT CONDUCTING OXIDES FOR PHOTOVOLTAICS 717
17.1.3 PROPERTIES, SELECTION AND TRADE-OFFS 718
17.2 SURVEY OF MATERIALS 719
17.2.1 CLASSIFICATION AND IMPORTANT TYPES 719
17.2.2 DOPING 720
17.2.3 PROPERTIES OF TCOS USED IN PV APPLICATIONS 721
17.3 DEPOSITION METHODS 723
17.3.1 SPUTTERING 723
17.3.2 CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION 728
17.3.3 PULSED LASER DEPOSITION 731
17.3.4 OTHER DEPOSITION TECHNIQUES 731
17.4 TCO THEORY AND MODELING: ELECTRICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND
THEIR IMPACT ON MODULE PERFORMANCE 732
17.4.1 TCO ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES 732
17.4.2 TCO OPTICAL PROPERTIES 736
17.4.3 INFLUENCE OF TCO ELECTRICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES ON MODULE
PERFORMANCE 742
17.5 PRINCIPAL MATERIALS AND ISSUES FOR THIN FILM AND WAFER-BASED PV 745
17.5.1 TCOS FOR SUPERSTRATE-TYPE DEVICES 746
17.5.2 TCOS FOR SUBSTRATE-TYPE DEVICES 749
17.5.3 TCO/HIGH-RESISTIVITY LAYER AND OTHER BILAYER CONCEPTS 751
17.5.4 TCO AS INTERMEDIATE REFLECTOR 754
17.5.5 TCO COMPONENT OF BACK REFLECTORS 755
17.5.6 ADJUSTMENT OF TCO FOR BAND ALIGNMENT 755
17.5.7 MODIFICATION OF TCO PROPERTIES 756
17.6 TEXTURED FILMS 757
17.6.1 MORPHOLOGICAL EFFECTS IN A-SI: H DEVICES 758
17.6.2 TARGETED DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTURED SN02: F 758
17.6.3 PREPARATION AND PROPERTIES OF TEXTURED ZNO 759
17.6.4 OTHER METHODS TO PREPARE TEXTURED TCO FILM 761
17.6.5 TEXTURED TCO FILMS: DESCRIPTION AND LIGHT SCATTERING 763
17.6.6 TEXTURED TCO OPTIMIZATION 765
17.6.7 APPLICATION OF TEXTURED TCO TO SOLAR CELLS 767
17.7 MEASUREMENTS AND CHARACTERIZATION METHODS 769
17.7.1 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERIZATION 770
17.7.2 OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION 772
IMAGE 14
0
CONTENTS
17.7.3 PHYSICAL AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION 17.7.4 CHEMICAL AND
SURFACE CHARACTERIZATION 17.8 TCO STABILITY
17.9 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND PROSPECTS 17.9.1 EVOLUTION OF COMMERCIAL
TCO-COATED GLASS 17.9.2 QUEST FOR HIGH CARRIER MOBILITY 17.9.3
ENHANCEMENT OF SCATTERING AND USEFUL ABSORPTION 17.9.4 DOPED TI02 AND
OTHER WIDE-GAP OXIDES
17.9.5 OTHER TYPES OF TRANSPARENT CONDUCTOR 17.9.6 AMORPHOUS TCOS
REFERENCES
774
775
777
780
780
782
784
784
785
786
788
18 MEASUREMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF SOLAR CELLS AND MODULES 797
KEITH EMERY 18.1 INTRODUCTION 797
18.2 RATING PV PERFORMANCE 797
18.2.1 STANDARD REPORTING CONDITIONS 798
18.2.2 ALTERNATIVE PEAK POWER RATINGS 802
18.2.3 ENERGY-BASED PERFORMANCE RATING METHODS 803
18.2.4 TRANSLATION EQUATIONS TO REFERENCE CONDITIONS 805
18.3 CURRENT-VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS 807
18.3.1 MEASUREMENT OF IRRADIANCE 807
18.3.2 SIMULATOR-BASED I-V MEASUREMENTS: THEORY 808
18.3.3 PRIMARY REFERENCE CELL CALIBRATION METHODS 809
18.3.4 UNCERTAINTY ESTIMATES IN REFERENCE CELL CALIBRATION PROCEDURES
812 18.3.5 INTERCOMPARISON OF REFERENCE CELL CALIBRATION PROCEDURES 814
18.3.6 MULTIJUNCTION CELL MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES 815
18.3.7 CELL AND MODULE I-V SYSTEMS 817
18.3.8 CONCENTRATOR MEASUREMENT ISSUES 822
18.3.9 SOLAR SIMULATORS 823
18.4 SPECTRAL RESPONSIVITY MEASUREMENTS 824
18.4.1 FILTER-BASED SYSTEMS 825
18.4.2 GRATING-BASED SYSTEMS 827
18.4.3 SPECTRAL RESPONSIVITY MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY 828
18.5 MODULE QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION 831
18.6 SUMMARY 833
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 834
REFERENCES 834
19 PV SYSTEMS 841
CHARLES M. WHITAKER, TIMOTHY U. TOWNSEND, ANAT RAZON, RAYMOND M. HUDSON
AND XAVIER VALLVE 19.1 INTRODUCTION: THERE IS GOLD AT THE END OF THE
RAINBOW 841
19.1.1 HISTORICAL CONTEXT 841
19.1.2 CONTEMPORARY SITUATION 842
IMAGE 15
CONTENTS 0
19.2 SYSTEM TYPES
19.2.1 SMALL OFF-GRID DC SYSTEM
19.2.2 OFF-GRID AC SYSTEM
19.2.3 ON-GRID SYSTEMS
19.2.4 HYBRID PV SYSTEMS
19.2.5 MICRO-GRIDS
19.2.6 SMART GRID
19.3 EXEMPLARY PV SYSTEMS
19.4 RATINGS
19.5 KEY SYSTEM COMPONENTS
19.5.1
19.5.2
19.5.3
19.5.4
19.5.5
19.5.6
19.5.7
19.5.8
19.5.9
19.6
MODULES
INVERTERS
ON-GRID INVERTERS
OFF-GRID INVERTERS
ELECTRICAL BALANCE OF SYSTEM (BOS) AND SWITCHGEAR STORAGE
CHARGE CONTROLLERS
STRUCTURES
STANDARDS
SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
19.6.1
19.6.2
19.6.3
19.6.4
19.6.5
19.6.6
19.6.7
19.6.8
19.6.9
SITE ANALYSIS
LOCATION
ORIENTATION AND TILT SHADING
DUST AND SOILING ROOF AND GROUND CONSIDERATIONS INTERCONNECTION
EQUIPMENT
LOAD DATA
MAINTENANCE ACCESS
19.7 SYSTEM DESIGN
19.7.1 COMPONENT SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
19.7.2 ECONOMICS AND DESIGN 19.7.3 SYSTEM INTEGRATION
19.7.4 INTERMITTENCY
19.7.5 MATERIAL FAILURE
19.7.6 MODELING
19.8 INSTALLATION
19.9 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE/MONITORING 19.10 REMOVAL, RECYCLING AND
REMEDIATION 19.11 EXAMPLES
19.1 1.1 EXAMPLE OFF-GRID HOUSE/CABIN AC/DC/DIESEL/BATTERIES
19.11.2 ON-GRID EXAMPLE SYSTEMS
19.11.3 ON-GRID HOUSE
19.11.4 COMMERCIAL ROOF
19.11.5 UTILITY-SCALE GROUND-MOUNTED TRACKING
REFERENCES
843
844
844
844
846
849
850
850
851
854
854
855
855
857
858
858
859
860
861
861
862
862
862
863
865
865
866
867
867
868
869
874
876
878
879
879
882
882
884
884
884
887
887
889
891
892
IMAGE 16
CONTENTS
20 ELECTROCHEMICAL STORAGE FOR PHOTOVOLTAICS 896
DIRK UWE SAUER
20.1 INTRODUCTION 896
20.2 GENERAL CONCEPT OF ELECTROCHEMICAL BATTERIES 898
20.2.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS 898
20.2.2 BATTERIES WITH INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL STORAGE 903
20.2.3 COMMONLY USED TECHNICAL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 905
20.2.4 DEFINITIONS OF CAPACITY AND STATE OF CHARGE 907
20.3 TYPICAL OPERATION CONDITIONS OF BATTERIES IN PV APPLICATIONS 908
20.3.1 AN EXAMPLE OF AN ENERGY FLOW ANALYSIS 908
20.3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BATTERY OPERATING CONDITIONS IN PV SYSTEMS 909
20.4 SECONDARY ELECTROCHEMICAL ACCUMULATORS WITH INTERNAL STORAGE 913
20.4.1 OVERVIEW 913
20.4.2 NICD BATTERIES 914
20.4.3 NICKEL-METAL HYDRIDE (NIMH) BATTERIES 916
20.4.4 RECHARGEABLE ALKALI MANGAN (RAM) BATTERIES 917
20.4.5 LITHIUM-ION AND LITHIUM-POLYMER BATTERIES 917
20.4.6 DOUBLE-LAYER CAPACITORS 919
20.4.7 THE LEAD-ACID BATTERY 921
20.5 SECONDARY ELECTROCHEMICAL BATTERY SYSTEMS WITH EXTERNAL STORAGE 941
20.5.1 REDOX-FLOW BATTERIES 942
20.5.2 HYDROGEN/OXYGEN STORAGE SYSTEMS 944
20.6 INVESTMENT AND LIFETIME COST CONSIDERATIONS 948
20.7 CONCLUSION 950
REFERENCES 951
21 POWER CONDITIONING FOR PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER SYSTEMS 954
HERIHERT SCHMIDT, BRUNO BURGER AND JURGEN SCHMID 21.1 CHARGE CONTROLLERS
AND MONITORING SYSTEMS FOR BATTERIES IN PV POWER SYSTEMS 955 21.1.1
CHARGE CONTROLLERS 955
21.1.2 CHARGE EQUALISER FOR LONG BATTERY STRINGS 967
21.2 INVERTERS 969
21.2.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INVERTERS 969
21.2.2 INVERTERS FOR GRID-CONNECTED SYSTEMS 970
21.2.3 INVERTERS FOR STAND-ALONE SYSTEMS 973
21.2.4 BASIC DESIGN APPROACHES FOR PV INVERTERS 975
21.2.5 MODELLING OF INVERTERS, EUROPEAN AND CEC EFFICIENCY 978
21.2.6 INTERACTION OF INVERTERS AND PV MODULES 980
REFERENCES 983
22 ENERGY COLLECTED AND DELIVERED BY PV MODULES EDUARDO LORENZO
22.1 INTRODUCTION
22.2 MOVEMENT BETWEEN SUN AND EARTH 22.3 SOLAR RADIATION COMPONENTS
22.4 SOLAR RADIATION DATA AND UNCERTAINTY 22.4.1 CLEARNESS INDEX
984
984
985
991
993
997
IMAGE 17
22.5 RADIATION ON INCLINED SURFACES 22.5.1 ESTIMATION OF THE DIRECT AND
DIFFUSE COMPONENTS OF HORIZONTAL RADIATION,
997
GIVEN THE GLOBAL RADIATION 997
22.5.2 ESTIMATION OF THE INSTANTANEOUS IRRADIANCE FROM THE DAILY
IRRADIATION 999 22.5.3 ESTIMATION OF THE RADIATION ON SURFACES ON
ARBITRARY ORIENTATION, GIVEN THE COMPONENTS FALLING ON A HORIZONTAL
SURFACE 22.6 DIURNAL VARIATIONS OF THE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE 22.7 EFFECTS
OF THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE AND OF DIRT 22.8 SOME CALCULATION TOOLS
22.8.1 GENERATION OF DAILY RADIATION SEQUENCES 22.8.2 THE REFERENCE YEAR
22.8.3 SHADOWS AND TRAJECTORY MAPS 22.9 IRRADIATION ON MOST WIDELY
STUDIED SURFACES 22.9.1 FIXED SURFACES
22.9.2 SUN-TRACKING SURFACES
22.9.3 CONCENTRATORS
1002
1007
1008
1010
1010
1010
1011
1012
1016
1017
1019
22.10 PV GENERATOR BEHAVIOUR UNDER REAL OPERATION CONDITIONS 1020
22.10.1 THE SELECTED METHODOLOGY 1022
22.10.2 SECOND-ORDER EFFECTS 1026
22.11 RELIABILITY AND SIZING OF STAND-ALONE PV SYSTEMS 1028
22.12 THE CASE OF SOLAR HOME SYSTEMS 1033
22.13 ENERGY YIELD OF GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS 1035
22.13.1 IRRADIANCE DISTRIBUTIONS AND INVERTER SIZE 1038
22.14 CONCLUSIONS 1038
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1039
REFERENCES 1039
23 PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1043
TJERK H. REIJENGA AND HENK F. KAAN 23. I INTRODUCTION 1043
23.1.1 PHOTOVOLTAICS (PV) AS A CHALLENGE FOR ARCHITECTS AND ENGINEERS
1043 23.1.2 DEFINITION OF BUILDING INTEGRATION 1045
23.2 PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1046
23.3
23.4
23.2.1 ARCHITECTURAL FUNCTIONS OF PV MODULES 23.2.2 PV INTEGRATED AS
ROOFING LOUVRES, FACADES AND SHADING DEVICES 23.2.3 ARCHITECTURAL
CRITERIA FOR WELL-INTEGRATED SYSTEMS
23.2.4 INTEGRATION OF PV MODULES IN ARCHITECTURE BIPV BASICS
23.3.1 CATEGORIES AND TYPES OF BUILDING 23.3.2 CELLS AND MODULES STEPS
IN THE DESIGN PROCESS WITH PV 23.4.1 URBAN ASPECTS
23.4.2 PRACTICAL RULES FOR INTEGRATION 23.4.3 STEP-BY-STEP DESIGN
23.4.4 DESIGN PROCESS: STRATEGIC PLANNING 23.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
1046
1052
1053
1056
1060
1060
1067
1070
1070
1072
1072
1074
1074
1075
IMAGE 18
CONTENTS
24 PHOTOVOLTAICS AND DEVELOPMENT JORGE M. HUACUZ, JAIME AGREDANO AND
LALITH GUNARATNE 24.1 ELECTRICITY AND DEVELOPMENT 24.1.1 ENERGY AND
EARLY HUMANS
24.1.2 LET THERE BE ELECTRICITY 24.1.3 ONE-THIRD OF HUMANITY STILL IN
DARKNESS 24.1.4 THE CENTRALIZED ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 24.1.5 RURAL
ELECTRIFICATION 24.1.6 THE RURAL ENERGY SCENE 24.2 BREAKING THE CHAINS
OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT
24.2.1 ELECTRICITY APPLICATIONS IN THE RURAL SETTING 24.2.2 BASIC
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY 24.3 THE PV ALTERNATIVE
24.3.1 PV SYSTEMS FOR RURAL APPLICATIONS 24.3.2 BARRIERS TO PV
IMPLEMENTATION 24.3.3 TECHNICAL BARRIERS 24.3.4 NONTECHNICAL ISSUES
24.3.5 TRAINED HUMAN RESOURCES 24.4 EXAMPLES OF PV RURAL ELECTRIFICATION
24.4.1 ARGENTINA
24.4.2 BOLIVIA 24.4.3 BRAZIL 24.4.4 MEXICO 24.4.5 SRI LANKA 24.4.6 WATER
PUMPING IN THE SAHEL 24.5 TOWARD A NEW PARADIGM FOR RURAL
ELECTRIFICATION
REFERENCES
1078
1078
1078
1079
1079
1080
1080
1081
1081
1081
1082
1083
1083
1084
1087
1090
1094
1095
1095
1096
1097
1098
1099
1100
1101
1103
INDEX 1106
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author2 | Luque, Antonio |
| author2_role | edt |
| author2_variant | a l al |
| author_facet | Luque, Antonio |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV037179586 |
| classification_rvk | ZN 8190 ZP 3730 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)706985735 (DE-599)HBZHT016417501 |
| dewey-full | 621.31244 |
| dewey-hundreds | 600 - Technology (Applied sciences) |
| dewey-ones | 621 - Applied physics |
| dewey-raw | 621.31244 |
| dewey-search | 621.31244 |
| dewey-sort | 3621.31244 |
| dewey-tens | 620 - Engineering and allied operations |
| discipline | Elektrotechnik / Elektronik / Nachrichtentechnik Energietechnik |
| edition | 2. ed. |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV037179586 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T22:52:47Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9780470721698 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-021094490 |
| oclc_num | 706985735 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-1043 DE-29T DE-858 DE-634 DE-M347 DE-83 DE-898 DE-BY-UBR DE-210 |
| owner_facet | DE-1043 DE-29T DE-858 DE-634 DE-M347 DE-83 DE-898 DE-BY-UBR DE-210 |
| physical | XXXII, 1132 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. 25 cm |
| publishDate | 2011 |
| publishDateSearch | 2011 |
| publishDateSort | 2011 |
| publisher | Wiley |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering ed. by Antonio Luque ... 2. ed. Chichester Wiley 2011 XXXII, 1132 S. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. 25 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Fotovoltaik (DE-588)4121476-6 gnd rswk-swf Solarzelle (DE-588)4181740-0 gnd rswk-swf Fotovoltaik (DE-588)4121476-6 s Solarzelle (DE-588)4181740-0 s DE-604 Luque, Antonio edt Digitalisierung Deutsches Museum application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=021094490&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering Fotovoltaik (DE-588)4121476-6 gnd Solarzelle (DE-588)4181740-0 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4121476-6 (DE-588)4181740-0 |
| title | Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering |
| title_auth | Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering |
| title_exact_search | Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering |
| title_full | Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering ed. by Antonio Luque ... |
| title_fullStr | Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering ed. by Antonio Luque ... |
| title_full_unstemmed | Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering ed. by Antonio Luque ... |
| title_short | Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering |
| title_sort | handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering |
| topic | Fotovoltaik (DE-588)4121476-6 gnd Solarzelle (DE-588)4181740-0 gnd |
| topic_facet | Fotovoltaik Solarzelle |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=021094490&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
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