Grecy w Baktrii i w Indiach: wybrane problemy ich historii
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Polish |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Kraków
"Historia Iagellonica"
2009
|
| Ausgabe: | Wyd. 2. |
| Schriftenreihe: | Mediterraneum
studia z dziejów świata starożytnego ; 2 |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Beschreibung: | Zugl.: Kraków, Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Diss. 1998. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Greek kingdoms in Bactria and India Bibliogr. s. [235]-243. Indeks "Bibliografia opublikowanych prac Stanisława Kality" s. [257] |
| Beschreibung: | 267 s., [8] s. tabl. il. - Ill. 21 cm |
| ISBN: | 9788388737923 |
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| 490 | 1 | |a Mediterraneum : studia z dziejów świata starożytnego |v 2 | |
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| 500 | |a Bibliogr. s. [235]-243. Indeks | ||
| 500 | |a "Bibliografia opublikowanych prac Stanisława Kality" s. [257] | ||
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804143491746365440 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | SPIS TREŚCI
Od
Redaktora
..............................................................................5
Spis skrótów
................................................................................9
Wstęp
........................................................................................ 11
I. Wprowadzenie
....................................................................17
Tło geograficzne
.......................................................................17
Zarys historii badań
..................................................................23
Zarys historii Greków w Baktrii i w Indiach
..........................34
П.
Secesja Diodotosa
..............................................................53
Problem datowania początków państwa
greko-baktryjskiego
..................................................................53
Przekaz Justynusa a świadectwa numizmatyczne
.............. 55
Rewolta w Baktrii w
relaqi Strabona
......................................71
Czy Seleukos
II
uznał suwerenność Diodotosa
II?
............75
Ш.
Punkt przełomowy
..........................................................83
Uwagi o przebiegu wojny Eutydemosa z
Antiocheni
III
... 83
IV.
Ekspansja w Indiach
........................................................95
Zachodnia granica Indii w starożytności
.................................96
Między Aleksandrem a Demetriosem
................................105
Źródła historyczne do inwazji Greków baktryjskich
w Indiach
..................................................................................113
Źródła narracyjne greckie i rzymskie
.................................113
Źródła indyjskie
...................................................................117
Monety
.................................................................................122
8___________________________________________
SPIS TREŚCI
Początki ekspansji. Pierwsi greccy królowie w Indiach
........125
Apollodotos i Menander
..........................................................141
Apollodotos
.........................................................................142
Menander
.............................................................................145
Ekspansja poza Pendżab
................................................153
Czy „Imaos to Jamuna?
.................................................
l6l
Inwazja w głębi Indii
......................................................165
Grecy nad Oceanem?
.....................................................176
Armia Greków w Indiach
........................................................181
V.
Państwo indo-greckie
......................................................195
Kwestia administracji
...............................................................195
Problem znaczenia słowa „Jawanowie
.................................203
„Indianizacja Greków
.............................................................207
Izolacja państw indo-greckich. Problem ich miejsca
w historii świata hellenistycznego
..........................................216
Podsumowanie
......................................................................225
Mapa
—
Bliski i Środkowy Wschód
Ш-І
wp.n.e
............229
Chronologia panowania władców greko-baktryjskich
i indo-greckich
......................................................................231
Bibliografia
.............................................................................235
Summary
.................................................................................245
Bibliografia opublikowanych prac Stanisława Kality
...257
Indeks
......................................................................................259
GREEK
KINGDOMS IN BACTRIA AND INDIA.
SELECTED PROBLEMS FROM THEIR HISTORY
Summary
The book deals with the history of the furthest part of
the world reached by Europeans in antiquity. Bactria was
a country whose territory was approximately the same as
present-day northern Afghanistan. India is to be understood
as the area referred to by ancient geographers, i.e. the
territory south of the Hindu Kush range and east of the
Indus; their criteria were not very precise, which is the
subject of one of the chapters.
The historical sources for the Greeks and their kingdoms
in these territories during the Hellenistic period are
extremely scant and mostly limited to numismatic finds;
these make it possible, for example, to identify
approximately forty rulers with Greek names. However,
classical sources, e.g. Polybius, Strabo, Plutarch, Justin,
mention few of them, and only in passing, so that historical
researchers are left with plenty of unsolved problems and
forced to enter the realm of hypotheses. Only a handful
of facts and dates are reasonably reliable and it is on these
that the generally accepted outline of the history of the
Greek kingdoms in Bactria and the northern Indian
Peninsula is based.
After the collapse of Alexander the Great s short-lived
empire, the Asian part of the kingdom passed to the
246
SUMMARY
Seleucid dynasty established by one of Alexander s officers.
The easternmost province of the kingdom was Bactria. It
was situated on the fringes of a vast empire, separated
from the West by the desert which occupies the centre of
the Iranian Plateau and from the South and East by the
high mountains of the Pamir and Hindu Kush ranges, but
it was advantageously located at an intersection of long¬
distance trade routes, primarily from India to the West. All
this contributed to a situation where the idea of secession
and founding their own state had probably entered the
minds of Seleucid governors many years before it actually
happened. Finally, around the middle of the 3rd century
ВС
the satrap
Diodotus,
taking advantage of a favourable
political situation, proclaimed himself king of Bactria. This
marked the beginning of
250
years of history for a kingdom
that changed in nature and borders. Since Alexander had
already forced settlers chosen from among his Greek (not
Macedonian) soldiers to live there, and the administrators
of the province known from ancient texts were also Greek,
we call it the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. Sources mention
the son of a rebellious satrap,
Diodotus
II, who made an
anti-Seleucid alliance with the kingdom of the Parthians,
a people which was coming to power in Iran at the time
and dividing Bactria from the Western part of the Seleucid
Kingdom. At the end of the 3rd century the army of
Antiochus III managed to enter Bactria; the ruler tried to
emulate the success of Alexander of Macedon s eastern
campaign. A two-year war with Euthydemus, who ruled
Bactria at the time after overthrowing
Diodotus
II, ended
in the triumph of the usurper and the young Greco-Bactrian
Kingdom. Antiochus recognised Euthydemus s claim to
the throne and offered the hand of his daughter to the
Bactrian ruler Demetrius.
At the beginning of the 2nd century
ВС
Demetrius
started the expansion of the Greco-Bactrians south of the
Hindu Kush, entering the area that the ancients regarded
SUMMARY
_______________________________________________247
as part of India. These lands had been partly conquered
by Alexander but after his death had quickly returned to
their North Indian dynasties. The Greek kings of Bactria
not only conquered the land across which Alexander s
army had once marched but were able to strengthen their
rule there, as a result of which the Indo-Greek Kingdom,
as it is called by historians, survived almost two centuries
in the Punjab.
Of the kings with Greek origins who ruled in India the
most frequently mentioned by both classical and Indian
sources is Menander, who can probably be credited with
the most spectacular successes of the Indo-Greek Kingdom,
including the impressive campaign into the interior of the
Indian Subcontinent: this reached the lower Ganges in
the region of Patna (Pataliputra), about
800
km further
east (in a straight line) than the most distant point reached
by Alexander the Great s army. Menander most probably
ruled in the middle of the 2nd century
ВС.
In the years
directly prior to his rule there must have been tumultuous
events in Bactria itself that led to an internal division within
the extended area of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. The
throne of Bactria itself was taken by the usurper Eucratides
I and thereafter we may confidently talk about at least
two kingdoms originating from the common tradition, the
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom ruled by Eucratides and his
successors and the Indo-Greek Kingdom dominated, as it
seems, by Menander s house. This division is rather
imprecise since some lands south of the Hindu Kush range
fell to the successors of Eucratides, at least by the end of
2nd century
ВС,
when an invasion or, to be more precise,
the complicated movements of Central Asian peoples,
pushed die Greeks south, thus ending their kingdom in
Bactria. There is indirect evidence for this in the report of
Ching-chien, an emissary of the Han dynasty in China
who reached Bactria in the 120s
ВС.
248
SUMMARY
The remaining history of these Greek kingdoms, which
now survived only in the northern part of India, has to be
reconstructed on the basis of numismatic finds. The names
of the Greek kings, which constitute a large group
—
too
numerous to originate from only one kingdom
—
remain
practically the only trace of the Greek enclave in the Indus
Basin, which was ended by invasions of the nomadic Sakas,
who established new kingdoms and dynasties in the north
of the Indian Subcontinent at the beginning of the Common
Era.
This outline of the Greek presence in Central Asia and
India raises more questions than answers. Whole decades
of history for large areas remain a matter for speculation
based on shaky foundations because of the very limited
sources, particularly written texts. For this reason
numismatists have, for many years, led the way in
reconstructing the history of the Greco-Bactrians and Indo-
Greeks. With regard to ancient texts, the current perception
among scholars is that these are a source of information
so thoroughly explored that nothing more can be found.
I decided to verify this and analyse some problems of the
history of the Greco-Bactrians and Indo-Greeks through
the prism of the narrative sources, comparing my own
conclusions with the latest findings of researchers who
rely on different sources, mostly numismatic. This decision
has led to some rather surprising results.
The first problem I applied myself to was the matter of
establishing the chronology of events leading to the
emergence of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. This is one of
the most complicated questions in the history of the Greco-
Bactrians. Academic research on this problem is largely
dependent on two short passages in the works of Marcus
Junianus
Justin and Strabo. In the case of both we face
internal contradictions in the chronological elements used
by the authors, which means that, no matter what
SUMMARY
249
interpretation of the texts we choose, we must question
the authenticity of some part of the account. This applies
in particular to Justin s account, which links events in
Bactria with simultaneous happenings in Parthia, thus
creating a very complicated puzzle of chronological
interrelations and challenging historians to the very difficult
task of putting them into order. For this reason discussion
of this source is the nucleus of the chapter devoted to the
issue of dating the origins of Bactria s independence.
Historical studies distinguish between two basic
approaches to the chronology of the Bactrian secession.
The first assumes that this event, or rather this process,
took place in approximately
250
ВС;
the second assumes
that it happened somewhat later, during the fraternal war
between Seleucus II Callinicus and Antiochus Hierax
(239-
238).
The advocates of the former theory mostly refer to
numismatic evidence that the satrap
Diodotus,
who initially
minted coins in the name and with the image of Antiochus
II (d.
247),
then started to issue money on his own behalf:
this would suggest that in the reign of Seleucus II Bactria
was no longer, either formally or in actual fact, a part of
the Seleucid Kingdom. This theory appears to derive further
support from the fact that Justin used a Roman consular
date which is at present interpreted to denote the year
250.
Although this date is attached to a rebellion in Parthia,
the fact that the passage also mentions Diodotus s secession
is used as justification for linking this unclear report with
conclusions drawn from the numismatic analysis.
However, Justin connects this consular date with the
reign of Seleucus II, who in fact started to rule a few years
later. This puts a serious question mark over the possibility
of treating the date of
250
seriously. Moreover, the text
also seems to indicate that the separation of Bactria from
the Seleucid kingdom occurred during the fraternal war,
i.e. not before
239
ВС.
250
SUMMARY
I asked whether there was any possibility of reconciling
the indications of the two types of sources, numismatic
and written, which would enable us to corroborate one
of the theories or find a compromise solution. It turned
out that it was possible, just by looking at the logical
structure of the narrative from a different angle, to combine
Justin s sentence about Diodotus s secession with the date
of
250
found at the beginning of the passage without
changing the content of Justin s text. This in turn enabled
us to bring the evidence of the text into line with the
conclusions drawn from the numismatic finds. All that is
required is for the passage on the fraternal war, which
made it impossible for Seleucus II to interfere in Parthia,
to be treated as a parenthesis which illustrates the historical
circumstances for the strengthening of the new status quo
in Asia. The very next sentence about the secession in
Bactria, especially the expression eodem
tempore,
should
be understood to refer to the date of the Parthian rebellion.
One of the elements of this dating is the consular year,
now interpreted to mean
250
ВС.
Naturally not all doubts will be dispersed this way,
since we are still faced with the problem of the internal
discrepancy of the chronological elements used by the
Roman writer (the consular date and the years of Seleucus
II s rule). There is also the question of the appropriateness
of using a consular date for events from very distant regions
of the Hellenistic world. However, the proposed reading
of the text enables us to find common ground between
the numismatic conclusions and the written text, thus
strengthening, I believe, the theory that
Diodotus
declared
himself the king of Bactria around
250,
towards the end
of Antiochus II s rule.
The second problem I addressed in my analysis was
related to events a few decades later in Bactria, which are
mentioned in the historical account of Polybius of
Megalopolis, namely Antiochus Ill s war with Euthydemus,
SUMMARY
251
king of Bactria, and to be more specific, the alleged siege
of Euthydemus capital, Bactra, by the Seleucid army. All
modern historical studies of the Hellenistic period cite
this as reliable information: the siege lasted two years
and, since it was fruitless, in the end Antiochus supposedly
decided to negotiate with Euthydemus and as a result
recognised the sovereignty of the king of Bactria. The
problem is that although Polybius records that there was
a war and negotiations, there is no comment whatsoever
that would entitle us to claim that Antiochus besieged
Bactra, least of all for two years.
Although we do have an isolated extract from another
chapter by Polybius, which describes an unidentified siege
of the Bactrians , there is no information here on how
long this siege lasted, whether it had anything to do with
Antiochus Ill s expedition, or if it was the capital of Bactria
that was besieged. I therefore concluded that the picture
of events during Antiochus war with Euthydemus
established in specialist literature (including syntheses in
textbooks) is unjustified; statements about a two-year siege
of Bactra, formulated as if it were an unquestionable fact,
are in fact the result of repetition, generation after
generation, of a quite weak hypothesis put forward at the
beginning of modern historical research on Hellenistic
Bactria. It is also worth noting an additional point. We
have literary evidence for another war in Bactria fought a
few decades later by this Eucratides with the mysterious
Demetrius, King of the Indians , who is to be distinguished
from Demetrius, son of Euthydemus. The report mentions
a siege of the Bactrian king s army by Demetrius soldiers;
Polybius reference to the siege of the Bactrians may
describe this event, rather than Antiochus Ill s hypothetical
attack on Euthydemus capital.
The next chapters are devoted to the Indian stage of
the history of the Greco-Bactrians, first of all their
252
SUMMARY
expansion but also, to a lesser extent, the issues of the
shape of the Indo-Greek kingdoms and their place in the
history of the Hellenistic world. Among the important
problems discussed in this part of the book, it was
necessary to answer the question about where exactly
ancient writers located the Western border of India if we
were to identify what they meant when they described
this or that general as the conqueror of India . It turned
out that it is impossible to find a single solution to this
problem, taking into consideration all authors and the
whole Hellenistic period. Depending on the historical
context, the author s knowledge, and how detailed his
work was, India was a name given either to the territories
located between the Hindu Kush and the Indus (e.g. Justin)
or only to the lands on the West bank of the Indus and
stretching to the Hindu Kush. There is also a distinction
between ethnic territories and political borders. In defining
the latter the point of reference is probably the eastern
border of the Persian Empire in the times of the
Achaemenids, i.e. before Alexander of
Macedón.
Hence,
for Straho the Indo-Greek king Menander certainly ruled
India, since his kingdom stretched as far as east Punjab,
and perhaps even further. We must remember, however,
that after Alexander s death the borders of the territories
controlled by North Indian kings moved much further
west
—
they reached the Hindu Kush and the desert areas
of Eastern Iran. The Seleucids failed to sustain Alexander s
achievement and were unable to maintain control over
these eastern territories, losing (to Chandragupta Maurya)
vast areas not only in India proper but also in Gandhar,
Paropamisadae and Arachosia. Thus for the Greco-
Bactrians the Indian border was very near, running along
the passes of the Hindu Kush, so that Demetrius I, crossing
the Hindu Kush with his army, might have indeed been
treated as a conqueror of India, even though he probably
never crossed the Indus.
SUMMARY
_______________________________________________253
All the evidence clearly indicates that the most important
of the Greek rulers in India was Menander (I). He is the
only Greek king there who has been remembered by both
the Western and local tradition, namely the Buddhist
philosophical treatise Milinda Panba, in which Menander-
Milinda poses questions to the Indian
sage Nâgasena.
The
length of Menander s rule is demonstrated by his
numismatic legacy since there are thousands of preserved
specimens of many types of coins.
When talking about the times of the greatest glory and
largest territorial extent of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, we
refer, for the reasons mentioned above, to the era of
Menander. That is why the existing, although very scant,
reports on his military achievements in India are so
important. One of the most important pieces
ofinformation
is provided by Strabo, who records that Menander crossed
the Hypanis River (present-day Beas in east Punjab) and
advanced as far as the
Imaüs ,
a name usually considered
to be a distortion of the Yamuna River (Isamos). The
Yamuna is one of the great rivers in the north of India,
a tributary of the Ganges; the two rivers flow almost parallel
to each other for several hundred kilometres. On the basis
of this assumption, Strabo s report is inevitably associated
with a widely discussed fragment of an ancient Indian
manuscript of
Yuga
Purana
that preserves a tradition about
an attack of the Yawans (Greeks) on Pataliputra (Patna),
a city on the Ganges not far from its junction with the
Yamuna. However, having thoroughly analysed all parts
of Strabo s work relating to the geography of India I have
come to the conclusion that
Imaüs
does not refer to
a river but, as everywhere else, to the Himalayas, which
obviously changes significantly the meaning of the quoted
sentence. On this interpretation, Strabo provides evidence
of the Indo-Greek Kingdom s territorial expansion east of
the Beas River towards the Himalayas. Menander s possible
rule of the Himalayan foreland east of Punjab is confirmed,
254
SUMMARY
to an extent, by find-spots for his coins which include the
treasure of Saharanpur (approximately
150
km north of
New Delhi).
It seems that the
Yuga
Purana
report mentioned above
refers to a different, probably later, event that was more
of a plundering expedition than a part of long-term
territorial expansion. This is indicated both by the political
context of the expedition and, quite simply, by the distance
between the Indo-Greek Kingdom in Punjab and
Pataliputra. Although the ancient Indian author does not
mention the name of the ruler, or chieftain of the Yawans,
all indirect evidence that we have points to Menander as
the main suspect .
We also have traces, unfortunately very fragmentary
and vague, in both Western and Indian sources which
indicate some Greek military activities much further south
of the Yamuna Valley, perhaps as far south as the coastal
provinces near the Indus estuary; this was probably
a different expedition, but it is difficult to put forward
a clear and well-founded hypothesis about this event.
Discussion of the shape and organisation of
administrative and military matters covers many detailed
issues, and here I would like to focus on just one, probably
the most important, aspect. This is the fact that the ruling
elite must have included representatives of the Indian
population. Without such representatives
-
in view of the
relatively small number of descendants of the settlers from
Europe
—
it would have been impossible for the Indo-
Greek kingdoms to survive for so long. There is some
epigraphic evidence that there were people with Indian
names among the royal officials. Although there is evidence
that the term Yawana originally referred to Greeks, it
later began to be used to refer to people whose names
and religion had nothing to do with the Greek tradition.
SUMMARY
255
The undoubted assimilation of the Greeks, their fusing
with Indian civilisation (including religious aspects, e.g.
Menander s supposed links to Buddhism, the dedication
of a column by a Greek Vishnu worshipper) does not
change the fact that there are visible remnants of Greek
influence on Indian culture. I am mainly referring to
indications in the art, in particular the sacral sculptures
from the Gandhara region that enjoyed its golden age in
the centuries immediately after the disappearance of the
last of the Indo-Greek kingdoms. Greek influence on the
art of the ancient northern India, later probably magnified
and modified by the lively contacts of the Indian
Subcontinent with the Roman Empire, is certainly one of
the most interesting permanent effects of the encounter
between the Eastern and Western worlds in the turbulent
times after Alexander the Great. However, we must not
lose sight of the right proportions and forget that, regardless
of this quite long encounter with representatives of the
Mediterranean world (the Greco-Bactrians), India remained
India, whereas the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek
kingdoms were forgotten for centuries.
The reasons for this and the particular place of these
political entities in the history of the Hellenistic era are
the subject of the last chapter. The conclusion is that the
Western world forgot the Greeks living on the other side
of the Hindu Kush because of their geographical and
political isolation, particularly after Greek rule in Bactria
ended and the northern nomads became established there.
The location made it impossible for the Indo-Greek
kingdoms to be anything other than a part of the economic
and political system of India. From this perspective it needs
to be said that their history is also a part of ancient Indian
history, not the history of an island of academically
understood Hellenism deprived of the context of the
world in which it existed.
256_______________________________________________
SUMMARY
As the British historian Peter Green said, the Greek
Kingdom in Bactria and India started its career as the fifth
empire of the Hellenistic world but with time it was
absorbed by India and ended its history as part of the
Indian world.
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Kalita, Stanisław |
| author_facet | Kalita, Stanisław |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Kalita, Stanisław |
| author_variant | s k sk |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV036800180 |
| ctrlnum | (gbd)1030524 (OCoLC)706011330 (DE-599)BVBBV036800180 |
| edition | Wyd. 2. |
| era | Geschichte 300 v. Chr -1 v. Chr. gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte 300 v. Chr -1 v. Chr. |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Baktrien (DE-588)4004308-3 gnd Indien (DE-588)4026722-2 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Baktrien Indien |
| id | DE-604.BV036800180 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T22:48:31Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788388737923 |
| language | Polish |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-020716386 |
| oclc_num | 706011330 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 267 s., [8] s. tabl. il. - Ill. 21 cm |
| psigel | gbd_4_1311 |
| publishDate | 2009 |
| publishDateSearch | 2009 |
| publishDateSort | 2009 |
| publisher | "Historia Iagellonica" |
| record_format | marc |
| series | Mediterraneum |
| series2 | Mediterraneum : studia z dziejów świata starożytnego |
| spelling | Kalita, Stanisław Verfasser aut Grecy w Baktrii i w Indiach wybrane problemy ich historii Stanisław Kalita Wyd. 2. Kraków "Historia Iagellonica" 2009 267 s., [8] s. tabl. il. - Ill. 21 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Mediterraneum : studia z dziejów świata starożytnego 2 Zugl.: Kraków, Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Diss. 1998. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache u.d.T.: Greek kingdoms in Bactria and India Bibliogr. s. [235]-243. Indeks "Bibliografia opublikowanych prac Stanisława Kality" s. [257] Geschichte 300 v. Chr -1 v. Chr. gnd rswk-swf Griechen (DE-588)4022046-1 gnd rswk-swf Baktrien (DE-588)4004308-3 gnd rswk-swf Indien (DE-588)4026722-2 gnd rswk-swf Baktrien [6 B2 AFG] (DE-2581)TH000008641 gbd Indien [Barrington p. 5 - 6] (DE-2581)TH000010529 gbd Münzen der Indo-Griechen (DE-2581)TH000008526 gbd Numismatik außerhalb der griechisch - römischen Welt (DE-2581)TH000008522 gbd Griechen (DE-588)4022046-1 s Indien (DE-588)4026722-2 g Baktrien (DE-588)4004308-3 g Geschichte 300 v. Chr -1 v. Chr. z DE-604 Mediterraneum studia z dziejów świata starożytnego ; 2 (DE-604)BV035050639 2 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=020716386&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=020716386&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Kalita, Stanisław Grecy w Baktrii i w Indiach wybrane problemy ich historii Mediterraneum Griechen (DE-588)4022046-1 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4022046-1 (DE-588)4004308-3 (DE-588)4026722-2 |
| title | Grecy w Baktrii i w Indiach wybrane problemy ich historii |
| title_auth | Grecy w Baktrii i w Indiach wybrane problemy ich historii |
| title_exact_search | Grecy w Baktrii i w Indiach wybrane problemy ich historii |
| title_full | Grecy w Baktrii i w Indiach wybrane problemy ich historii Stanisław Kalita |
| title_fullStr | Grecy w Baktrii i w Indiach wybrane problemy ich historii Stanisław Kalita |
| title_full_unstemmed | Grecy w Baktrii i w Indiach wybrane problemy ich historii Stanisław Kalita |
| title_short | Grecy w Baktrii i w Indiach |
| title_sort | grecy w baktrii i w indiach wybrane problemy ich historii |
| title_sub | wybrane problemy ich historii |
| topic | Griechen (DE-588)4022046-1 gnd |
| topic_facet | Griechen Baktrien Indien |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=020716386&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=020716386&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV035050639 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT kalitastanisław grecywbaktriiiwindiachwybraneproblemyichhistorii |