Zolotoordynskie goroda Nižnego Povolžʹja i ich okruga:
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Russian |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Moskva
Izdat. Firma "Vostočnaja Literatura" RAN
2010
|
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Abstract Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | In kyrill. Schr., russ. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache S. 340-350 |
| Beschreibung: | 349 S., [8] Bl. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| ISBN: | 9785020363526 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Zolotoordynskie goroda Nižnego Povolžʹja i ich okruga |c L. F. Nedaškovskij |
| 264 | 1 | |a Moskva |b Izdat. Firma "Vostočnaja Literatura" RAN |c 2010 | |
| 300 | |a 349 S., [8] Bl. |b Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. | ||
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| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 500 | |a In kyrill. Schr., russ. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache S. 340-350 | ||
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| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Steppe |0 (DE-588)4057302-3 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 651 | 7 | |a Ural-Gebiet |0 (DE-588)4565226-0 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
| 651 | 7 | |a Goldene Horde |0 (DE-588)4093721-5 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf | |
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| 689 | 0 | 1 | |a Ural-Gebiet |0 (DE-588)4565226-0 |D g |
| 689 | 0 | 2 | |a Steppe |0 (DE-588)4057302-3 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | 3 | |a Goldene Horde |0 (DE-588)4093721-5 |D g |
| 689 | 0 | 4 | |a Stadt |0 (DE-588)4056723-0 |D s |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804143418708852736 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Summary
THE GOLDEN HORDE CITIES
OF THE LOW VOLGA REGION
AND THEIR PERIPHERY
The monograph is devoted to the problem of formation and trends of development
of large Golden Horde cities of the Low Volga region (the centre of the Golden Horde,
domain of the Jochid khans) and their periphery. This is a completely new and unstudied
topic of the Golden Horde Archaeology. By analyzing and mapping of archaeological
and numismatic materials, the major part of which have not been published before, we
defined more exactly the chronology of the monuments, revealed the peculiarities of
their origin, characterised their population and economy. Results of paleobotanical
research to the first time applied to the Golden Horde settlements, are given in
attachment.
Ethno-confessional processes in the Low Volga and steppe Ural regions in the
Golden Horde period
The period of existence of the unified Jochid state (the middle of the
1
3th
—
the
second quarter of the 15th century) was an important stage of ethnic and confessional
processes in the Low Volga and Ural regions. That time was a crucial epoch in the
formation of the Tatar nation and its ethnical self-consciousness. On this stage the
Islamization of the region under consideration was also taking place.
Before the Mongol invasion which literally exploded the whole situation existing
at that time, the nomads, Polovtsians (Kipchaks), reigned in the Volga and Ural
steppes. Except them no other large ethnic groups inhabited these territories before the
Mongol invasion.
Among other peculiarities of the pre-Mongolian time, we can mention a much
smaller density of population of the steppe Volga region in comparison with the steppe
Ural and the southern Russian steppes (there are less than
30
burials of that epoch in
the Volga region and hundreds in the northern Black Sea and Ural regions) and a
practically complete absence of sedentary population. The Kipchaks religion was
shamanism.
After the Mongol invasion the ethnical situation in the region changed. Ethnic
Mongols and the nomads of Central Asian origin, included by them into the empire,
appeared here. There is a convincing opinion that the Mongols transferred chyornye
kłobuki
( the black caps ) from the southern Russian steppes to the Low Volga region,
which became the domain of the Golden Horde khans and the centre of Ulus Jochi. The
sedentary Old Russian and Mordvin population moved to the Low Volga region from
the north-west in the second half of the 13th
—
14th centuries.
In the cities, founded on the initiative and under the supervision of the Golden
Horde khans, multiethnic population lived. The main part of the city-dwellers was,
obviously, the sedentary Kipchaks. There were also significant Khorezm,
Bulgar
and Old Russian components. There lived ethnic Mongols, Finnish and other
peoples as well.
340
In the nomadic steppe prevailed the Kipchak component with a significant influence
of Central Asian (including Mongol) part.
Among the religious beliefs of the early period of existence of Ulus Jochi (up to the
beginning of the 14th century) the Turko-Mongolian shamanism dominated in the
nomadic steppe. Mongolian shamanism is identifiable by archaeological finds of
primitive metallic figures of little men {iltakhans, symbolizing man s soul and fastened
to ongons
—
images of the Mongol deities) in the Golden Horde cities and nomad
burials of the Low Volga region.
In the Golden Horde there was also an influence of the Nestorian branch of
Christianity, widespread among the tribes of Central Asia before Chingis Khan.
William of Rubruck mentioned the construction of a big Nestorian church on the right
bank of the Volga on the instructions of Sartakh, son of khan
Batu,
in
1254.
In the second half of the 13th century the Orthodox Church came to the Low Volga
region with the Russian population. In
Sarai, in
1261
the orthodox
Sarai
diocese was
founded, which gradually included into the orbit of its influence the population not
connected originally with the territory of
Rus.
We have information of Ibn
Batuta,
who
visited the Golden Horde in
1333-1334,
that Kipchaks partially accepted Christianity.
In the mouth of Volga, at the cemetery Mayachnyy Bugor I, dated by coins of the
1270S-1320S, a typical Golden Horde burial in coffin but with the Orthodox cross was
excavated in
1992.
In the city Bezdezh, evidently situated on the Low Volga, Russian
chronicles mention under
1318
the building of an Orthodox church. There are many
finds of objects of Orthodox cult in the Low Volga region.
In the second half of the 13th
—
14th centuries, the influence of the Catholic
Church was notable in the region. It was mainly connected with the Franciscan order
and its Aquilonis
vicaria
(founded in the 1270s or in the 1280s, probably in
1274)
which organised its activity in the Golden Horde and consisted of two
custodias
—
Gazaria
and
Sarai.
We have data about Franciscan monks and their activity in baptism
of nobility in
Sarai;
one of them, friar Stephanus, was killed by Moslems in
1334.
Franciscans received aid and protection even from khan Uzbek, who made Islam the
state religion of the Golden Horde, and his predecessors. There are even mentions of
conversion to Christianity of persons, who probably could be associated with the
brother and nephews of khan Tokta, if not this khan himself. The bases of the
Franciscan monks were located in the 14th century not only in large Ulus Jochi
cities
—
in the Low Volga region convents of Fratrum Minorum were established in
Sarai
(already existed in
1286),
Ukek and Khadji-Tarkhan
—
but in the nomadic steppe
too. In the 14th century, in
Sarai
there was a Catholic diocese as well.
Buddhism probably began to penetrate into the steppe. We have data that when
khan Uzbek came to power, he ordered to kill lamas and magicians (to whom his
predecessor Tokta gave a big honour ) to strengthen Islam.
In the first half of the 14th century (since
1312),
the role of the state religion in Ulus
Jochi was assumed by Islam. Its penetration into the Low Volga and steppe Ural
regions probably began straight after the Mongol invasion. First of all, the sedentary
population was converted to Islam mainly under the influence of
Bulgar
and Khorezm.
As early as the second half of the 13th century, Moslem mausoleums functioned in the
Low Volga region. The Golden Horde khan
Berke
(1258-1266)
adopted Islam in
Bukhara
trom
the Sufi leader Sayf ad-Din Bakharzi, the follower of Najm ad-Din
Kubra. Even in the last third of the 13th
—
beginning of the 14th century, Moslem
341
formulas
presented on Jochid coins. However, the spread of Islam in the 13th century
should not be overestimated as it did not have the status of a state religion. The situation
changed in
1312.
When khan Uzbek
(1312-1342)
came to power, he made all the
Mongol aristocracy adopt Islam (those who refused to do so, including
120
Chingizid
princes, were killed by Uzbek). The majority of city-dwellers of the Low Volga region
were probably Moslems already during the reign of Uzbek; we know mosques and
Islamic mausoleums of the early to mid-14th century in the Low Volga region.
In the steppe, the Islamization process went much harder. The leading role in the
Islamization of the Ulus Jochi nomads belonged not to the classical Islam but to the
Sufi tariqah (Yasaviyah, Naqshbandiyah, Kubraviyah). Khan Uzbek probably accepted
Islam from the saint of Yasavi lineage Sayyid
Ata.
The Sufi Islam, with its milder
system of ritual demands, was more easily accepted by the nomads. The initial wave of
Islamization (in the beginning of Uzbek s reign) obviously did not fully touch the
steppes. This led to a new push of the state policy of Islamization under Janibek
(1342—
1357).
This policy was not entirely fruitful, however: the complete Islamization of the
nomads of the Low Volga and steppe Ural regions took place only in the beginning
of the 15th century (it was connected with the policy of the powerful emir Idegey).
In the
1
5th century the ancient nomadic tradition of burial mounds disappears in
the steppes, that must have been connected with the Islamization process.
Even in the period of the Ulus Jochi disintegration there continued to exist in the
steppe survivals of the Turko-Mongolian shamanism. Even the epic Idegey twice
mentioned the god Tengri. Ibn Arabshakh
(1388-1450)
wrote about nomads of the
Golden Horde: Some of them till this time still worship the idols . One of the Italian
merchants, Iosaphath
Barbaro
(he lived since
1436
till
1452
in Tana, a Venetian colony
in the mouth of the Don), mentions wooden or rag idols transported on carts and
other pagan elements. The same author also mentioned a situation when he noticed
in the steppe a plate put upside down. When he picked it up, he discovered some
boiled millet under it. He asked one nomad to explain that fact and got an answer
that the millet was left by pagans. The Italian expressed his surprise that there still
existed any, to which his interlocutor laughed and answered: They are numerous, but
they hide .
The Golden Horde city of the Low Volga region and its periphery: Analysis
of archaeological monuments
Materials of
465
archaeological objects, which formed groups around four largest
Golden Horde cities of the Low Volga region, have been examined in this book.
159
monuments of the Golden Horde time, including
53
settlements,
23
sites,
18
burial
grounds,
31
barrow groups,
21
coin hoards and
13
separate finds of coins are known in
the region of Uvek site, situated on the southern outskirts of modern Saratov.
98
monuments, including
17
settlements,
7
burial grounds,
27
barrow groups,
46
hoards
and
1
separate find of Jochid coin are taken into consideration in the region of
Tsarevskoe site, situated in the
Leninsky
area of the Volgograd region.
108
monuments, including
4
settlements,
57
sites,
10
burial grounds,
1
barrow
(?)
and
36
hoards are known in the region of Selitrennoe site, situated in the Harabalinsky
area of Astrakhan region.
100
monuments, including
16
settlements,
57
sites,
20
burial grounds,
1
barrow group
and
6
coin hoards are taken into consideration in the region of Sharenyy Bugor site,
situated on the northern outskirts of modern Astrakhan.
342
So, every large city of the Low Volga region in the Golden Horde period had its
own periphery, in which from
3
to
5
towns were situated.
Villages in the Low Volga in the Golden Horde time appeared at the same time, as
the cities (second half of the 13th
—
beginning of the 14th century), but ceased to exist
already in the end of 14th century. Agriculture was mostly developed in the northern
part of the region, at the Uvek site periphery, settlements of the central part of which
where closely connected to each other (insert fig.
1, 5-9).
Groups of settlements
existed in the Tsarevskoe (insert fig.
2, 10-14),
Selitrennoe (insert fig.
3)
and Sharenyy
Bugor (insert fig.
4)
regions as well, but in the periphery of the Selitrennoe site and in
the delta of the Volga (insert fig.
15-19)
they appeared in the early
—
mid-14th
century only.
Judging by the area occupied by the settlements, population of the cities was much
bigger than that of their periphery (fig.
21-33),
where the town population, in turn, was
bigger than the rural one. Huge Golden Horde cities of the Low Volga couldn t be
completely provided by food from the nearest villages
—
the delivery of cattle and
dairy products by nomads, the existence of urban agriculture, livestock, fishing,
hunting and trade, and also the import of agricultural production from other regions of
the Golden Horde were also needed.
The analysis of the quantity of sites which existed in each of the periods allotted by
us makes it possible to conclude that the principles of development of the largest
Golden Horde Low Volga cities regions were approximately the same (fig.
34-38;
the
black colour in diagrams
34-47
and
56-57
shows the number of settlements).
The earliest monuments everywhere appeared as early as the second half of the
13th
—
beginning of the 14th century. The period of flourishing of the Low Volga
cities regions, like the period of the most vigorous growth of the Golden Horde as a
whole, refers to the time of the rule of Uzbek
(1312-1342)
and Janibek
(1342-1357),
while at the initial stage of the internecine wars the commencing decline had not yet
the scale of the following stage
(1365-1380).
In the period of Toktamysh rale
(1380-
1395),
a slight economic rise took place. There are only slight differences in the two
latest periods. Thus, the Uvek site and the monuments of its region seem to cease to
exist after Tamerlane s raid of
1395,
with which the decline of the Tsarevskoe site and
surrounding monuments is also connected. As for the monuments of the Selitrennoe
site region and of the Sharenyy Bugor site, they also existed in the later period and up
to the Ulus Jochi disintegration, while the Selitrennoe site region remained econo¬
mically more developed, like in the 14th century.
The diagrams made for each chronological period separately (fig.
39-45),
show the
extent of economic power of the region of each large city of the Jochids domain at the
different stages of monetary circulation. Thus, in the period of the Golden Horde
flourishing (the early to mid-14th century), we can observe the growth of significance
of the region of the Tsarevskoe (with the majority of objects of that time) and
Selitrennoe sites in comparison with the earlier stage, when the monuments of the
region of the Uvek site dominated (fig.
39-41).
During the apogee of internecine wars
(1365-1380),
the economy of Ukek region was significantly weakened (fig.
42),
while
during Toktamysh reign
(1380-1395)
the surroundings of Selitrennoe site for the first
time become the most important region of the Low Volga (fig.
43)
(in the earlier stages
fewer monuments existed there than in the region of the Tsarevskoe site). In the end of
the 14th
—
middle of the 15th century, the undisputed leadership of the region of the
343
Selitrennoe
site persists against the background of complete decline of other groups of
monuments (fig.
44-45).
One more diagram (fig.
46)
shows the proportion of monuments of different Low
Volga regions for the Golden Horde time as a whole, and another one (fig.
47)
the
extent of involvement of these regions population into the monetary circulation.
Comparing the aristocratic (in mausoleums and crypts) burials in the Low Volga
(fig.
48),
we can conclude that their percentage was significantly higher in the region of
the Tsarevskoe site, and significantly lower in the Sharenyy Bugor region, than in other
regions investigated. It is notable that among the burials in mausoleums and crypts the
largest proportion of complexes with the north and north-east orientation (characteristic
for the Mongols) is found in the burial places of the Uvek site (fig.
49),
monuments of
which region dominate on the earliest chronological stage, when the Golden Horde
aristocracy, mostly Central Asian by origin, was weakly affected by Islamic influence.
The percentage of burials with golden and silver goods (fig.
50)
is higher for the
regions of the Uvek site and of Sharenyy Bugor. Settled aristocracy in the examined
regions lived mostly in the urban centres. Only
6 (3.4%)
of the
177
known aristocratic
burials were situated in countryside.
The share of burials with Muslim orientation is approximately the same
everywhere
— 82.7-97.1%
(fig.
51),
but it is maximum for the region of the Selitrennoe
site, where there the majority of monuments is of the chronologically latest stages
(1380-1459),
connected with the domination of Islam in the Golden Horde.
Apparently, that was also the reason for the smallest shares of burials with grave goods
(fig.
52)
and burials without crypts with non-Muslim orientations (fig.
53)
in the region
of the Selitrennoe site.
It is notable that the share of burials without crypts with non-Muslim orientations is
maximum for the region of the Sharenyy Bugor site (fig.
53),
where there was probably
the most pronounced ethnic divercity of population turning to the settled way of life.
The percentage of graves under burial mounds with Muslim rituals is significantly
higher for the region of the Uvek site than for region of the Tsarevskoe site (fig.
54),
where a large part of nomadic burials with goods made of precious metals (fig.
55)
is found.
Old Russian materials, which attest to the presence of Old Russian population,
were found at many sites of the Low Volga region. Part of these materials was
imported, but another part was locally manufactured.
Old Russian materials are present at
22 (24.4%)
and Mordvin at
8 (8.9%)
of the
90
known settlements in the four largest groups of sites of the Low Volga region
studied by our research.
The chronology of monuments with Old Russian materials (fig.
56)
is about the
same as the chronology of all monuments that surrounded the largest Golden Horde
cities of the Low Volga (fig.
38).
A similar picture is also revealed for the less
numerous Mordvin materials (fig.
57).
But we must mention some differences as well.
The share of the settlements with Old Russian materials was the largest in the early
period of the Golden Horde history (two thirds of all settlements of this time had Old
Russian materials), and in the next periods this share was stable
—
from one third to
the half of all settlements up to the disintegration of Ulus Jochi.
Old Russian and Mordvin materials are presented only in urban centres in the
regions of Tsarevskoe, Selitrennoe and Sharenyy Bugor sites, but in the periphery of
344
Uvek
site they were found at villages as well. Russian population could be engaged in
agriculture in the northern part of the Low Volga region, where the number of sites
with Old Russian materials is the largest.
Villages situated around Golden Horde cities of the Low Volga region have
developed farming, fishing and trade. They were capable of partially providing the
cities with food and row materials for craftsmen. Cities provided the rural settlements
with production of high technological crafts (glazed pottery, glass and cast-iron wares,
many kinds of non-ferrous articles), which did not exist in towns and villages.
Unglazed Golden Horde pottery was also brought from the cities to the rural
settlements in enormous quantities. The bulk of ironwares from the villages is also the
production of urban crafts. Villages were provided through the cities not only with
craftsmen s wares, but also with expensive imported goods (wine, brocade, silk, even
lustre wares, gilded and enamelled glass vessels) too.
A number of crafts (pottery, glass, cast-iron production, advanced kinds of non-
ferrous metal processing) could not exist under the conditions of nomadic daily life,
therefore all their production found in nomadic burial mounds must be considered
imported from the settlements. Nomads received in exchange for livestock production
a broad range of craftsmen s goods, many of which (vessels, bone ornamented
facings of quivers, some types of bronze mirrors) were produced in the cities by
craftsmen who expressly took into account aesthetic tastes and traditions of nomads.
Nomads received imported goods as well.
As a result of complex analysis, we could state that Golden Horde cities of the Low
Volga region were closely connected by internal trade (based on monetary circulation)
with their settled and nomadic periphery.
Economy of the Golden Horde population
Traditionally the Golden Horde appeared to historians as a nomadic state with the
low developed agriculture. But from the point of view of new archaeological data, this
opinion does not seem to be correct.
It should be noted that the territory of the Golden Horde included old agricultural
regions such as
Bulgar,
Khorezm, Crimea, and the Northern Caucasus.
The settled regions of the Golden Horde had a well developed agriculture. At the
settlements Bagaevskoe, Kolotov Buerak, Hmelevskoe I and Shiroky Buerak in the
Low Volga (Saratov region of Russia) during our excavations of
2001-2003
very
valuable data were obtained as a result of flotation of the cultural layer and the filling
of the investigated constructions. These processes were for the first time applied to the
Golden Horde settlements.
The analysis of the macrobotanical remains was carried out in the Laboratory of
Scientific Methods of the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of
Sciences by E. Yu. Lebedeva. Finds of numerous ears fragments were marked at
the settlements Shiroky Buerak, Bagaevskoe and Hmelevskoe I: these traces of
crop thrashing confirmed the fact of crop cultivation by the population of
excavated sites and exclude the version that grain was imported. The noted absolute
prevalence of millet in the samples
(53.4%
of all cereals), which exceeds rye
(20.1%),
wheat
(19.6%),
barley
(5.9%),
oats
(0.7%)
and peas
(0.3%)
taken
together, cannot be accidental.
Medieval authors clearly noted millet cultivation in the Golden Horde. As early as
the middle of the
1
3th century,
Plano Carpini
and William of Rubruck mentioned that
345
millet
was an
important
food in the Mongol Empire, referring to other cereals, such as
rice and barley, as grains used for producing drinks. Millet, oats, wheat,
emmer,
barley,
rice, peas and lentil are mentioned in the
Coman
part of the dictionary Codex
Cumanicus . The Codex was originally written in
1303
and was based on materials of
the late 13th century; it was compiled for the Italians who came to Ulus Jochi. Al-
Omari
(700-749
AH,
1300/01-1348/49
AD) also mentions the agricultural works of
the Golden Horde, saying: They have very few crops, the least of which are wheat and
barley, and beans almost cannot be found. Most often crops of millet are found there;
they eat it and, as for products of land, it (constitutes their main) food . According to
al-Omari, wheat, barley, lentil, and two kinds of millet, called millet (dohn) and a kind
of millet similar to the seed of trefoil (dzhavers), were sold in the markets of
Sarai.
Iosaphath
Barbaro
also wrote about the usage of millet by the people of the Golden
Horde as food and as ritual offering. Besides millet, he also mentions wheat and oats,
which was used as horse food. Ambrogio
Contarmi,
who passed through the Low
Volga region in
1476,
refers to rice and dried crusts of quite good wheat flour as well
as onion and garlic.
Italian and Greek merchants bought different kinds of grain in the Golden Horde:
wheat, millet and barley, in order of preference. Francesco Pegolotti informs about the
high qualities of wheat, imported from Caffa and Moncastro. Nevertheless, not all
regions of the Ulus Jochi were completely able to provide themselves with agricultural
products. The famous Arab traveller Ibn
Batuta
provided information on the
distribution of wheat and barley from Termez to Khorezm on ships by way of the Amu
Darya River.
William of Rubruck mentioned vineyards and wine in the North-Eastern Caucasus.
The Codex Cumanicus contains words for orange, lemon, peach, pomegranate,
apricot, plum, fig, grape, megalocarpous muscat grape, sweet cherry, date, cucumber,
melon, turnip, cabbage, beet, pumpkin, onion, garlic, spinach, parsley, lettuce, fennel,
pear, and apple in the
Cuman
part. Al-Omari also provided interesting information
on fruits, nuts, vegetables, and melons in his observation on the Golden Horde. He
wrote: There (growing on) different trees, different fruits (as follows): grapes,
pomegranates, quinces, apples, pears, apricots, peaches and nuts. There (existed) a
fruit, which in the Kipchak language was called batenk
(badenjan?)
[i.e. eggplant.
—
L.N.], which looks like a grape.
..
What concern to the melon is that it is consuming
(?)
their extraordinary, and more than others it s yellow race. It preserves and is available
there during (all) year. It has an extraordinary sweetness and pleasant taste, and
together with this tells a lot of it s abundance and cheapness. Some local people
squeeze it s juice and boil down halvah (sweetness) from it. In their cities growing
many vegetables, as rutabaga, turnip, cabbage and others . Ibn Batata, who personally
visited Khorezm, clearly appreciated Khorezmian watermelons: The melons of
Khwarizm have no equal in any country of the world, East or West... Their rind is
green, and the flesh is red, of extreme sweetness and firm texture. A remarkable thing
is that they are cut into strips, dried in the sun, and packed in reed baskets... They
are exported from Khwarizm to the remotest parts of India and China, and of all the
dried fruits there are none which excel them in sweetness . In addition, the tarkhan
yarliq of khan Timur-Qutlug, issued in
1398,
mentioned vineyards, gardens, mills and
farmers in the environs of Sudak in Crimea, as also about granary taxes and
threshing-floor fares.
346
In the Codex Cumanicus , the word plough appears a number of times in
connection to its use, for example: ploughman, till by plough, plough-share, arable
land. The Egyptian historian Rukn ad-Din Baibars (d.
1325),
describing conflict between
the Tokta and Noghay, mentioned also a bidentate wooden plough. Ploughs had heavy
iron ploughshares that were aligned symmetrically or had right-side asymmetry and
plough blades. Wooden plough in the Golden Horde time was bidentate with
asymmetric iron vomers and device for the fall of the soil, according to available data.
Different hoes were also used for agriculture, and sickles and scythes were used for
harvesting.
Iosaphath
Barbaro
lived from
1436
until
1452
in Tana, a Venetian colony at the
mouth of the Don River. In his book Voyage to Tana he provides an interesting
perspective about agriculture in the steppe part of the Golden Horde, where nomads
appear at the fields during the sowing and harvesting only, and informs us about
goog
crop capacity: Lands are fertile there and give the crop of wheat fifty-fold
—
and its
height is like that of Padua wheat,
—
and the crop of millet is a hundred-fold.
Sometimes they get such a plenteous crop that they leave it in the steppe .
Hunting, which was mostly carried out for obtaining furs, has little significance as a
source of meat in comparison to livestock, which was developed not only among
nomads and which exported its production to India, Persia and European countries. At
Golden Horde sites the bone remains of many types of wild animals and several types
of birds have been discovered. These faunal data, interpreted along with written sources,
show that hunting played an auxiliary role in the economy of the population. Still,
the number of bones of wild mammals at the settlements, if they were present at all
(tab.
1-2),
did not make up a significant portion of the total faunal assemblage
(fig.
6).
Judging by the quantity of meat that could be obtained from one individual
of various animals (tab.
3),
in the food of population of the Low Volga region
absolutely prevailed beef, mutton and horse meat. Rural population consumed more
beef and less mutton and horse meat than city dwellers, who received more cattle from
the nomads.
Marco Polo provided information about hunting in the eastern part of Jochid state
for ermines, sables, squirrels, silver foxes and marmots. They are perfectly able to
hunt, using mainly bows , Iosaphath
Barbaro
reported about the population of Ulus
Jochi. The fur of sable, ermine, marten, weasel, fox, lynx, squirrel, hare, beaver, otter,
marmot, and polar bear (which came mainly from the northern regions of the territory)
was one of the most important items actively exported by the Golden Horde.
Battue hunting, on the tradition, established by Yasa, was an original school of
military training, a kind of army manoeuvres. Hunting was also one of the traditional
entertainments of Jochid aristocracy. Hawkers and masters of panthers were mentioned
in the lists of the Golden Horde officials in the yarliqs of Mengu-Timur
(1267),
Birdibek
(1357),
Tulyakbek
(1379)
and Timur-Qutlug
(1398).
Hunting falcons,
gyrfalcons, and golden eagles
(?)
are mentioned by William of Rubruck. Russian
chronicles reported on
1283
that Golden Horde hawkers hunted swans. In
702
AH
(1302/1303
AD), ambassadors from Tokta brought ilkhan Gazan, among other gifts,
hunting falcons, furs of Kirghiz squirrels, Karluk weasels
( fennec ),
Slavic ermines
and Volga Bulgarian sables . Falcons are also mentioned among the gifts sent by khan
Uzbek in
717
AH
(1317/1318
AD) to the Egyptian sultan. Gyrfalcons were sent by
Uzbek to a great khan of the Yuan dynasty in China. Ambassadors of Janibek, arriving
347
in Egypt in sha baan
758
AH (July
20—
August
18, 1357
AD) delivered gifts
including sable furs and birds of prey. Also on January
30, 1385
AD, ambassadors of
Toktamysh brought the Egyptian sultan seven falcons among other gifts. Iosaphath
Barbaro
reported about hunting with falcons and gyrfalcons, and also about hunting for
deer, goose, goldfinch.
Fishery was also well developed and exported its production abroad. At many
Golden Horde sites archaeologists have uncovered fish hooks, boat cramps, sinkers,
and fish remains such as bones and scales. Based on the types of artefacts discovered
it seems that the most popular method of catching fish was by moving nets (both small
and large) through a body of water. In addition, sometimes they would keep a large net,
or a layered net, in one place to catch fish, or they would use seine nets. Lastly, it
seems the fish were also caught using fishing rods and live bait. Moveable fishing nets
were more popular than stationary nets. Bones of sturgeon, white sturgeon, stellate
sturgeon, sterlet, pike, pike- perch, chub, sheatfish and bream were found on
settlements. At some settlements the percentage of fish bones was very significant
(fig.
9)
and fish consumption probably made up a large portion of the diet of the local
population (tab.
3-4).
Especially important in food were sturgeons and white
sturgeons. It must be noted that fish consumption of the urban population was bigger
than the rural population one. Italian merchants imported dried and salted whole fish,
as well as cured fillets of fish (primarily sturgeon), and caviar from the Golden Horde.
William of Rubrack similarly reported on how merchants from Constantinople
purchased dried sturgeons, breams and other fishes in boundless quantity at the
mouth of the Don River. The same traveller have commented on how inhabitants of
this region always had large quantities of dried fish.
Johann
Schiltberger characterises
Azak as a city on a bank of Don, abounding with a fish, which it exported on a big
ships and galleys to Venice, Genoa and islands of Archipelago . Iosaphath
Barbaro,
referring to the Volga River and the Caspian Sea, reported that in the river, as well as
in the sea, the quantity of a fish is incalculable . Contarini discussed the fishing of
sturgeons, white sturgeons, and seals in the Caspian Sea.
Among the trades we must mention salt extraction, honey, nut, grasses and roots
gathering.
Salt extraction was closely connected with the salting and drying of fish. Presence
of this trade in the Golden Horde and export of salt to
Rus
is mentioned in the reports
by
Barbaro,
Contarini, and William of Rubrack, who discussed the significant amount
of money that came to the khan s treasury from the control of salt production. One of
the mountains along the Ural River was labelled salt mountain on the map of the
cosmographer
Fra Mauro,
dated to
1459.
Wild hive beekeeping had a certain importance. Honey and beeswax were exported
by Ulus Jochi, and honey, grasses, and roots were gathered and used as food by the
local population. The Codex Cumanicus contained the names of nut, hazelnut,
almond, pistachio, chestnut, rue, mint, sage in the
Cuman
part, indicating that these
resources were also gathered. Moreover, herbs were gathered for medicinal purposes.
For example, the inflorescences of Levant wormwood were exported from the Black
Sea and Azov Sea regions to Western Europe and to the Near East.
Ulus Jochi had crafts, well developed for its time.
Originality of production of the Golden Horde crafts enables us to differentiate it
from wares of manufacturing centres of other medieval states.
348
First
of all, we must note pottery making among all other crafts. Unglazed red-clay
pottery is specific to the Golden Horde sites. Ceramic wares of different shapes and
sizes were widely used. As a rule, they had no artistic design and sophisticated
ornamentation, but had high technical characteristics. Stamped grey-clay pottery was
also in use. Kilns of different types, used for firing unglazed pottery, are known at
many settlements of the Volga region and peripheral regions of the Ulus Jochi.
Kashi and red-clay glazed pottery was manufactured in the Golden Horde in
significant quantities. Kilns for firing glazed ceramics (vessels and architectural
decorations as well) are known in the Low Volga at Selitrennoe, Tsarevskoe and
Uvekskoe sites.
The Golden Horde has a developed glassmaking. Monochrome and polychrome
beads, pendants, finger rings, bracelets, insets of finger rings, vessels and window
glasses were widely used. Glassmaking workshops were found in the Volga region at
Bolgarskoe and Selitrennoe sites.
Blacksmith s work and iron making craft were well advanced. The appearance of
cast-iron production in Europe is connected with the Golden Horde crafts. Constructions
connected with iron processing were found not only in cities, but in many rural
settlements of the Golden Horde time as well. The set of blacksmith s instruments is
known even from the mound of nomadic burial.
Non-ferrous metalwork was also well developed; wastes from the casting of bronze
wares were found not only in cities, but also in the rural settlements of the Golden
Horde.
Elaboration
of the gemstones and precious stones existed in the Golden Horde cities
of the Volga region, particularly at the Bolgarskoe and Selitrennoe sites.
Bone carving with a number of techniques was on a high level also. Bone carving
workshops are known at Tsarevskoe, Selitrennoe and Bolgarskoe sites.
Tanning craft was developed as well. More than
1500
fragments of wares and
scraps of leather, raw material and instruments were found at Bolgarskoe site.
Fragments of boots, soft shoes and sandals were also revealed there.
Clothing, head-dresses, belts, purses and mirror-cases were manufactured from
fabric. Written sources named only broadcloths of the Golden Horde and Khorezmian
silks, the rest of cloth mentioned on the territory of Ulus Jochi have a different foreign
origin. Cloths and row materials for their manufacture, instead of ready-to-wear
clothing, were brought to the Golden Horde; that fact is convincingly attested by
written sources and archaeological finds of clothing of the Golden Horde s own style
only.
Felt was also used for covering and decorating bullock carts, trunks, for making
blankets, cloaks, shabracL·, caps against the rain , shoes and images of deities
(ongons).
Woodworking craft is deserved to be distinguished too. Wooden vessels were
occasionally colourfully painted. Building craft has been enormously developed in the
Golden Horde.
Trade connections of the Golden Horde Volga region were very broad:
Rus,
Western and Central Europe, Black Sea region, the Mediterranean, Near and Middle
East, Central Asia, India, China, Korea.
The weak development of weaving in the Golden Horde stimulated import of
Western European fabrics, which let Europe to receive the Golden Horde s foodstuffs,
349
furs and raw materials, and Oriental silk and spices as well. Venetian and Genoese
merchants traded not only at the Black and Azov Sea shores, but visited the Low
Volga, the domain of the Golden Horde khans, and even China. Commodities in this
period included not only expensive silk fabrics, furs and spices but, first of all,
consumer goods
—
grain, cattle, fish, honey, broadcloths, linen, raw materials.
So, the undertaken research let us to talk about the high level of development of
material culture of the Golden Horde, included in the World History context.
ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ
Введение
.......................................................................................................................................... 3
Глава
I
.
История развития взглядов на древности Золотой Орды.
Археологические исследования крупнейших золотоордынских
городищ Нижней Волги и памятников их округи
............................................. 20
§ 1.1.
История развития взглядов на золотоордынские древности
............................... 20
§ 1.2.
История изучения крупнейших золотоордынских городищ
Нижней Волги и памятников их округи
................................................................ 26
Глава
II.
Царевскоегородище него округа
...................................................................... 31
§ 2.1.
Поселения
................................................................................................................. 31
§ 2.2.
Грунтовые могильники
........................................................................................... 39
§ 2.3.
Курганы
..................................................................................................................... 51
§ 2.4.
Клады монет
............................................................................................................. 83
§ 2.5.
Отдельные находки монет
...................................................................................... 87
Глава
III.
Селитренное городище и его округа
............................................................... 89
§3.1.
Поселения
................................................................................................................. 89
§ 3.2.
Местонахождения
.................................................................................................... 94
§ 3.3.
Грунтовые могильники
........................................................................................... 102
§3.4.
Курганы
..................................................................................................................... 118
§ 3.5.
Клады монет
............................................................................................................. 118
Глава
IV.
Городище Шареный Бугор и его округа
......................................................... 123
§4.1.
Поселения
................................................................................................................. 123
§ 4.2.
Местонахождения
.................................................................................................... 130
§ 4.3.
Грунтовые могильники
........................................................................................... 137
§4.4.
Курганы
..................................................................................................................... 154
§ 4.5.
Клады монет
............................................................................................................. 154
Глава
V.
Хозяйство населения Золотой Орды
.................................................................. 156
§ 5.1.
Земледелие, скотоводство и промыслы
................................................................. 156
§5.2.
Ремесло
..................................................................................................................... 172
§ 5.3.
Торговля золотоордынского Поволжья
................................................................. 191
Заключение
.................................................................................................................................... 212
Список использованной литературы и архивных материалов
................................................... 247
Список сокращений
........................................................................................................................ 296
Приложение
Алешинская
A.C.,
Спиридонова Е.А. Заключение по результатам спорово-пыльцевого
анализа на золотоордынских поселениях Саратовской области
............................................... 297
Список иллюстраций
...................................................................................................................... 326
Summary
........................................................................................................................................... 340
ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ
Введение
...................................................................................................................... 3
Глава
I
.
История развития взглядов на древности Золотой Орды.
Археологические исследования крупнейших золотоордынских
городищ Нижней Волги и памятников их округи
............................................. 20
§1.1.
История развития взглядов на золотоордынские древности
............................... 20
§ 1.2.
История изучения крупнейших золотоордынских городищ
Нижней Волги и памятников их округи
................................................................ 26
Глава
II.
Царевское городище и его округа
...................................................................... 31
§ 2.1.
Поселения
................................................................................................................. 31
§ 2.2.
Грунтовые могильники
........................................................................................... 39
§ 2.3.
Курганы
..................................................................................................................... 51
§ 2.4.
Клады монет
............................................................................................................. 83
§ 2.5.
Отдельные находки монет
...................................................................................... 87
Глава
III.
Селитренное городище и его округа
............................................................... 89
§ 3.1.
Поселения
................................................................................................................. 89
§ 3.2.
Местонахождения
.................................................................................................... 94
§ 3.3.
Грунтовые могильники
........................................................................................... 102
§3.4.
Курганы
..................................................................................................................... 118
§ 3.5.
Клады монет
............................................................................................................. 118
Глава
IV.
Городище Шареный Бугор и его округа
......................................................... 123
§ 4.1.
Поселения
................................................................................................................. 123
§ 4.2.
Местонахождения
.................................................................................................... 130
§ 4.3.
Грунтовые могильники
........................................................................................... 137
§4.4.
Курганы
..................................................................................................................... 154
§ 4.5.
Клады монет
............................................................................................................. 54
Глава
V.
Хозяйство населения Золотой Орды
.................................................................. 156
§ 5.1.
Земледелие, скотоводство и промыслы
................................................................. 156
§5.2.
Ремесло
..................................................................................................................... 172
§ 5.3.
Торговля золотоордынского Поволжья
................................................................. 191
Заключение
.................................................................................................................................... 212
Список использованной литературы и архивных материалов
................................................... 247
Список сокращений
........................................................................................................................ 296
Приложение
Алешинская
A.C.,
Спиридонова Е.А. Заключение по результатам спорово-пыльцевого
анализа на золотоордынских поселениях Саратовской области
............................................... 297
Список иллюстраций
......................................................................................................................
326
Summary
........... .......................................................... 340
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Nedaškovskij, Leonard F. |
| author_facet | Nedaškovskij, Leonard F. |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Nedaškovskij, Leonard F. |
| author_variant | l f n lf lfn |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV036754392 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)705943325 (DE-599)BVBBV036754392 |
| era | Geschichte gnd |
| era_facet | Geschichte |
| format | Book |
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| geographic | Ural-Gebiet (DE-588)4565226-0 gnd Goldene Horde (DE-588)4093721-5 gnd Untere Wolga Region (DE-588)4107439-7 gnd |
| geographic_facet | Ural-Gebiet Goldene Horde Untere Wolga Region |
| id | DE-604.BV036754392 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T22:47:21Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9785020363526 |
| language | Russian |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-020671594 |
| oclc_num | 705943325 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 349 S., [8] Bl. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. |
| publishDate | 2010 |
| publishDateSearch | 2010 |
| publishDateSort | 2010 |
| publisher | Izdat. Firma "Vostočnaja Literatura" RAN |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Nedaškovskij, Leonard F. Verfasser aut Zolotoordynskie goroda Nižnego Povolžʹja i ich okruga L. F. Nedaškovskij Moskva Izdat. Firma "Vostočnaja Literatura" RAN 2010 349 S., [8] Bl. Ill., graph. Darst., Kt. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier In kyrill. Schr., russ. - Zsfassung in engl. Sprache S. 340-350 Geschichte gnd rswk-swf Stadt (DE-588)4056723-0 gnd rswk-swf Steppe (DE-588)4057302-3 gnd rswk-swf Ural-Gebiet (DE-588)4565226-0 gnd rswk-swf Goldene Horde (DE-588)4093721-5 gnd rswk-swf Untere Wolga Region (DE-588)4107439-7 gnd rswk-swf Untere Wolga Region (DE-588)4107439-7 g Ural-Gebiet (DE-588)4565226-0 g Steppe (DE-588)4057302-3 s Goldene Horde (DE-588)4093721-5 g Stadt (DE-588)4056723-0 s Geschichte z DE-604 Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=020671594&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen 2 application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=020671594&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Nedaškovskij, Leonard F. Zolotoordynskie goroda Nižnego Povolžʹja i ich okruga Stadt (DE-588)4056723-0 gnd Steppe (DE-588)4057302-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4056723-0 (DE-588)4057302-3 (DE-588)4565226-0 (DE-588)4093721-5 (DE-588)4107439-7 |
| title | Zolotoordynskie goroda Nižnego Povolžʹja i ich okruga |
| title_auth | Zolotoordynskie goroda Nižnego Povolžʹja i ich okruga |
| title_exact_search | Zolotoordynskie goroda Nižnego Povolžʹja i ich okruga |
| title_full | Zolotoordynskie goroda Nižnego Povolžʹja i ich okruga L. F. Nedaškovskij |
| title_fullStr | Zolotoordynskie goroda Nižnego Povolžʹja i ich okruga L. F. Nedaškovskij |
| title_full_unstemmed | Zolotoordynskie goroda Nižnego Povolžʹja i ich okruga L. F. Nedaškovskij |
| title_short | Zolotoordynskie goroda Nižnego Povolžʹja i ich okruga |
| title_sort | zolotoordynskie goroda niznego povolzʹja i ich okruga |
| topic | Stadt (DE-588)4056723-0 gnd Steppe (DE-588)4057302-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Stadt Steppe Ural-Gebiet Goldene Horde Untere Wolga Region |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=020671594&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=020671594&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT nedaskovskijleonardf zolotoordynskiegorodaniznegopovolzʹjaiichokruga |