Holdings: Heart development and regeneration

Heart development and regeneration: 1

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Format:	Book
Language:	English
Published:	Amsterdam [u.a.] Elsevier, Acad. Press 2010
Edition:	1. ed.
Online Access:	Inhaltsverzeichnis Klappentext
Physical Description:	XXXII, 565, 31 S. Ill., graph. Darst.
ISBN:	9780123724908

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adam_text	Volume I .Contents List of Contributors Foreword Preface Heart Evolution 1.1. Evolutionary Origins of Hearts losé Xavier-Neto, Brad Davidson, Marcos Sawada Simoes-Costa, Rodrigo Abe Castro, Hozana Andrade Castillo, Allysson Coelho Sampaio and Ana Paula Azambuja I. Introduction II. Animal Circulatory Pumps: Micropumps and Macropumps H.A. Macropumps or Specialized Pumping Organs III. What is a Heart? Telling Homology from Analogy IV. What Phylogenies Tell Us About the Origins of Pumping Organs IV.A. Morphological and Molecular Phylogenies IV.B. Phylogenies and the Origin of Pumping Organs IV.C. Peristaltic Pumps Arose in Connection with Blood Vascular Systems of Bilaterians V. The Rise of Blood Vascular Systems V.A. Myoepithelial Cells, Myocytes and the Origin of the Ancestral Peristaltic Pump VI. A Gut Origin for the Ancestral Peristaltic Pump: An Alternative View VI.A. Origins of Pumping Organs: A Synthesis VII. Reconstructing the Circulation in the Bilaterian Ancestor VILA. The Impact of the Ancestral Peristaltic Pump Concept xxv VII.B. Homology, Analogy and Gene xxix Regulatory Networks 12 xxxi VII.C. Parallel Avenues in the Evolution of Hearts and Pumping Organs 14 VII.D. A Reappraisal of the Different Categories of Pumping Organs 14 VIII. Hemodynamic Constraints May Have Shaped Modern Pumping Organs Out of a Primitive Peristaltic Pump 16 VIII.A. Solutions to the Shortcomings of Peristaltic Pumps: A Mixed Bag of Tricks 17 IX. The Evolution of Chambered Hearts Among Deuterostomes 19 IX.A. Deuterostome Phylogenies 19 3 IX.B. The Pumping Organs of Deuterostomes 19 4 IX.C. Vertebrates 25 IX.D. Extant Vertebrates 25 4 X. Chordates: A Synthesis 26 XI. The Evolutionary Origin of Cardiac 5 Chambers 26 XI.A. The Problem 26 5 XII. Chordate Phylogenies and the Origin of Vertebrate Hearts 27 5 XII.A. EarlierViews 27 XII.B. Alternative Phylogenies for the 6 Vertebrate Heart 27 XIII. Scrutinizing Cardiac Chamber Evolution 28 Xlll.A. Using the Typical Attributes of 6 Cardiac Chambers as Handles 28 9 XIII.B. Gene Regulatory Networks and the Emergence of Cardiac Muscle 28 XIII. С The Evolution of Chamber 9 Myocardium 28 XIII.D. The Inflow/Outflow Organization 28 10 XIV. The Path to a Chambered Heart 29 XV. Hypotheses for the Evolution of 12 Cardiac Chambers 29 XV.A. The Sequential Hypothesis 29 12 XV.B. The Recruitment Hypothesis 31 XV.C. The Inflow/Outflow Patterning 12 Hypothesis 32 vu Vlil Contents XVI. Challenges to the Inflow/Outflow Patterning Hypothesis 32 XV1.A. The Second Heart Field 33 XVI.B. Conflicting Evidence 33 XVI.C. The Second Heart Field Goes Evolutionary 34 XVI.D. One Cardiac Field After All? 35 XVI.E. Reconciling Cardiac Anterior- Posterior Patterning with the Heterogeneous Nature of the Cardiac Field 35 XVI.F. Retinoic Acid Signaling and Cardiac Anterior-Posterior Patterning in Amphibians and Fish 35 XVII. Conclusions 38 References 38 1.2. Development and Aging of the Drosophila Heart Rolf Bodmer and Manfred Fräsch I. Introduction 47 II. Morphology and Morphogenesis of the Drosophila Heart 47 H.A. Heart Structure 47 II.B. Embryology of Heart Development 48 III. Genetic Control of the Formation and Dorsal Expansion of the Mesoderm 50 III.A. Twist and Snail 50 III.B. Heartless 51 IV. Transcription Factors Controlling Cardiac Specification 51 IV.A. The NK Homeobox Gene tinman 51 IV.B. The Dorsocross Т -box Genes 54 IV.C. The GATA-Encoding Gene pannier 54 IV.D. The islet-1 Ortholog ta/ /up 56 IV.E. The Zinc-Finger Encoding Gene zfh 7 and the Homeobox Gene eve in Pericardia! Cell Specification 56 V. Combinatorial Signals During Cardiac Induction 57 V.A. The Signaling Factors Encoded by decapentaplegic and wingless 57 V.B. A Combinatorial Model for Specifying the Precardiac Mesoderm 59 V.C. Early Diversification within the Cardiac Mesoderm 61 VI. Lineage Decisions and Notch Signaling During the Specification of Cardiac Cells 64 VII. Axial Patterning, Diversification and Differentiation of the Myocardium 64 VILA. Intrasegmental Myocardial Diversification Within the Developing Dorsal Vessel 64 VII.B. Axial Patterning and Subdivision of the Dorsal Vessel 67 VII.C. Differentiation of the Dorsal Vessel 69 VIII. Assembly of the Cardiac Tube 71 VIII.A. Myocardial Polarity 71 VI1I.B. The Mevalonate Pathway 72 IX. Remodeling of the Larval to the Adult Dorsal Vessel 72 X. Controls of the Physiology and Aging of the Adult Heart 74 X.A. Control of the Heart Rhythm 75 X.B. Pericardial Influences on Heart Function: even-skipped 77 X.C. Insulin Receptor Signaling, Potassium Channels and Cardiac Aging 78 References 79 1.3. Cardiac Development in the Frog Mark Mercóla, Rosa M. Guzzo and Ann C. Foley I. Introduction 87 II. The Heart-Forming Region in the Early Embryo 87 III. Sources of Heart-Inducing Signals 89 IV. Inhibitory Signals and the Concept of a Cardiac Field 90 V. Signaling Pathways that Induce Heart Development 91 V.A. Early Wnt Signaling Establishes Dorsoanterior Mesoderm 91 V.B. Specification of the Heart Field by Wnt Antagonists, TGFß family members and Cerberus 92 V.C. Bone Morphogenetic Proteins and Progression to Beating Myocardium 94 V.D. Transcription Factor Control of Cardiac Muscle Gene Activity 94 VI. Morphogenetic Studies of Heart Tube Formation 95 VI.A. Formation and Closure of the Heart Tube 95 VLB. The Three-Chambered Amphibian Heart 97 VII. Conclusions and Prospects 98 References 98 1.4. Cardiac Development in the Zebrafish Ian C. Scott and Deborah Yelon I. Introduction II. Experimental Approaches for Analysis of Heart Development in Zebrafish H.A. Genetics II.B. Regulation of Gene Activity 103 103 104 105 Contents IX U.C. Embryological Manipulation 106 II. D. Imaging 106 III. Mechanisms Regulating Zebrafish Heart Development 108 111. A. Overview of Stages of Zebrafish Development Τ 08 III. В. Cardiac Progenitor Specification 109 III.C. Heart Tube Assembly 111 11 I.D. Morphogenesis of the Cardiac Chambers and Atrioventricular Cushions 112 IV. Use of Zebrafish as Models of Heart Disease 115 V. Conclusions 116 References 116 1.5. An Overview of Avian Heart Structure and Development Katherine Moynìhan, Frank Stockdale and David Bader I. Overview of Chapter 121 II. Anatomy of the Chick Heart 121 H.A. Circulation, Chambers and Valves 121 N.B. Coronary Circulation and Conduction 122 U.C. Histology 123 III. Development: An Overview 123 IV. Determination and Earliest Development 123 IV.A. Cardiogenic Determination 125 IV.B. Inducers of Cardiomyogenic Determination 125 IV.C. In vitro Analysis of Cardiogenic Mesoderm 126 V. Early Morphogenetic Changes in the Forming Heart Tube 126 V.A. Diversification of Myogenic Cell Lineages 127 VI. Trabeculation and Cardiac Myocytes 129 VII. Summary 131 References 131 Part 2 Cardiac Precursor Populations and Lineages 2.1. The Specification of Myocardial Progenitor Cells in the Ciona Tadpole Michael Levine I. Overview 137 II. Specification of the Heart Field 137 H.A. Fibroblast Growth Factor Signaling and Heart Induction 138 N.B. Directed Migration of Myocardial Progenitor Cells 139 U.C. Uncoupling Heart Migration and Differentiation 140 II.D. Heart Differentiation Network 140 111. Future Prospects 141 References 141 2.2. The Second Heart Field Robert G. Kelly and Sylvia M. Evans I. Introduction 143 II. Discovery and Initial Characterization of the Second Heart Field 143 H.A. The Avian Second Heart Field 143 II.B. The Mammalian Second Heart Field 144 U.C. The Second Heart Field Paradigm 146 III. Evaluating the Contribution of the Second Heart Field 149 III.A. The Contribution of the Second Heart Field at the Arterial Pole 149 lll.B. The Contribution of the Second Heart Field at the Venous Pole 150 IV. The Contribution of Nonmyocardial Cell Types to Development of the Arterial Pole of the Heart and the Limits of the Second Heart Field 151 IV.A. Pharyngeal Endoderm and Ectoderm 151 IV.B. Endocardium and Epicardium 151 IV.C. Neural Crest Cells 152 IV.D. The Edge of the Second Heart Field 153 V. Transcriptional Networks Controlling the Second Heart Field 153 V.A. Transcriptional Circuits Driving Second Heart Field Differentiation 153 V.B. The Role of Pitx2c in the Second Heart Field 154 V.C. 7òx7 Regulation of the Second Heart Field 155 VI. Signaling Networks Controlling the Second Heart Field 157 VI.A. Fibroblast Growth Factor Signaling 157 VLB. Bone Morphogenetic Protein Signaling 159 VI. С Hedgehog Signaling 160 VLD. Retinoic Acid Signaling 160 VI.E. Notch Signaling 160 VI.F. Wnt Signaling and Intersections with TGFß Signaling During Outflow Tract Morphogenesis 161 VII. Outstanding Questions Concerning Second Heart Field Deployment 161 VIII. The Biomedical Significance of the Second Heart Field 162 С ontcnts Vlll.A. The Second Heart Field and Congenital Heart Defects 162 Vlll.B. The Second Heart Field and Resident Cardiac Progenitor Cells 164 References 164 2.3. Patterning and Development of the Conduction System of the Heart: Origins of the Conduction System in Development Vincent M. Christoffels, Willem M.H. Hoogaars and Antoon EM. Moorman I. Introduction 1 71 II. Myocardial Origin and Composition of the Developing Conduction System 173 III. Markers for the Forming Conduction System 173 IV. Pacemaker Activity, Polarity and the Formation of the Sinus Node 176 V. Chamber Differentiation, Atrioventricular Canal Specification and the Formation of the Atrioventricular Node 1 79 VI. Internodal Tracts and Outflow Tract 181 VI.A. The Formation of the Atrioventricular Bundle and Proximal Bundle Branches 182 VLB. The Peripheral Ventricular Conduction System: Distal Bundle Branches and Purkinje Fiber Network 183 VII. Formation of the Conduction System Components by Recruitment or by Early Specification and Outgrowth 185 References 187 Part3 Patterning of the Early Heart Tube 3.1. The Behavior of Cells that Form the Myocardial Compartments of the Vertebrate Heart Sigolène M. Meilhac and Margaret E. Buckingham I. Introduction 195 II. Progenitor Cell Migration 195 III. Formation of the Myocardial Epithelium 197 IV. Behavior of Cells in the Second Heart Field ι 98 V. Formation of the Cardiac Tube 200 VI. Expansion of the Cardiac Chambers 203 VI.A. Cell Proliferation 203 VI.B. Other Aspects of Cell Behavior 205 VII. Outflow Tract Morphogenesis VILA. Rotation of Outflow Tract Myocardium VII.B. Septation VIII. Concluding Remarks References 2Ü7 207 209 209 211 3.2. Early Cardiac Growth and the Ballooning Model of Cardiac Chamber Formation Antoon EM. Moorman, Cert van den Berg, Robert H. Anderson and Vincent M. Christoffels I. Introduction 219 II. Diversity of Cardiac Myocytes: The Primary versus the Chamber Myocardium 220 III. The Cardiac Chambers 220 III.A. Evolutionary Conservation 220 III.B. Chamber Development is a Local Process 221 IV. Fields, Lineages and Cardiac Precursor Cells 223 V. Cardiac Growth 225 V.A. Growth by Addition 225 V.B. Formation of the Heart Tube from a Single Caudal Growth Center 226 V.C. Growth of the Chambers 226 V.D. Fate of Remaining Primary Myocardium 229 VI. Differentiation of Chamber Myocardium 230 VI.A. Patterning of the Compartments 230 VLB. Patterning and Formation of the Trabecular Ventricles 230 VII. The Origin of the Components of the Chambers in the Mature Heart 231 VILA. Contributions of the Primary Myocardium Flanking the Chambers: The Cranio-Caudal Axis 231 VIII. Concluding Thoughts 232 References 233 3.3. Retinoids and Heart Development Karen Niederreither and Pascal Dollé 1. Introduction 237 II. Early Heart Morphogenesis and Patterning 239 ILA. Dynamic Patterns of Retinoic Acid Synthesis during Early Heart Development 239 II.B. Retinoic Acid Signaling Restricts the Zebrafish Cardiac Progenitor Cell Pool 240 Contents XI U.C. Retinole Acid and Anterior- Posterior Patterning of the Heart Tube 240 II.D. Retinole Acid Deficiency Alters Murine Second Heart Field Formation 243 U.E. Retinoic Acid and Left-Right Heart Looping Morphogenesis 243 III. Later Events in Outflow Tract Septation and Patterning of the Posterior Pharyngeal Arches 245 III.A. Investigations of Defective Outflow Tract Development 245 III.B. Retinoic Acid Deficiency Affects Posterior Branchial Arch Development 247 IV. Regulation of Myocardial Cell Proliferation and Differentiation 248 IV.A. Epicardlal Retinoic Acid Induces Myocardial Growth 248 IV.B. Retinoid Regulation of Heart Differentiation has Implications for Regeneration and Progenitor Cell Specification 249 References 250 3.4. A System for Describing Congenital Cardiac Malformations and Correlating Them with Abnormal Cardiac Development Robert H. Anderson, Antoon F. M. Moorman, Sandra Webb and Nigel A. Brown I. Introduction 255 II. Describing the Cardiac Components 255 III. Describing the Congenitally Malformed Heart 257 IV. The Starting Point for Analysis 258 V. Analysis of the Atrioventricular Junctions 259 VI. Analysis of the Ventriculo-Arterial Junctions 263 VII. Cataloging the Associated Malformations 273 VIII. Conclusion 276 References 276 Part 4 Asymmetry in Cardiac Development 4.1. Cardiac Left-Right Asymmetry Jeffrey D. Amack and H. Joseph Yost I. Introduction 281 II. Overview of Cardiac Left-Right Development 281 III. Left-Right Nomenclature 282 III.A. Inversion 283 III. В. Global Randomization 283 I U.C. Isolated Randomization 283 III.D. Failure of Left-Right Morphogenesis 283 IV. Cardiac Looping 284 IV.A. Mechanisms of Looping 284 IV.B. Asymmetry in the Heart Tube 284 V. An Asymmetric Signaling Cascade Controls Cardiac Left-Right Development 285 V.A. Asymmetric Signaling in Chick: A Role for the Node 286 V.B. A Conserved Nodal-Lefty-Pitx2 Pathway 287 V.C. RoleoftheMidllne 287 VI. Left-Right Cilia and Asymmetric Fluid Flow 288 VI.A. Discovery of Asymmetric Nodal Flow In Mouse 288 VLB. Asymmetric Fluid Flow in Zebrafish: Ciliated Cells are Necessary for Left-Right Development 289 VI.C. Left-Right Cilia and the Organ of Asymmetry 290 VI.D. How does Asymmetric Flow Send Left-Right Signals? 290 VII. Asymmetries that Precede Cilia-Dependent Asymmetric Flow 291 VIII. Conclusions and Future Perspectives 292 References 293 .2. Molecular Mechanisms of Left-Right Development Hiroshi Hamada I. Overview 297 II. Symmetry Breaking by Cilia and Fluid Flow 298 III. Action of Nodal Flow 299 IV. Transfer of an Asymmetric Signal from the Node to the Lateral Plate Mesoderm 300 IV.A. The Route of Signal Transfer 300 IV.B. Expression of Nodal, a Left-Side Determinant, Begins at the Node 300 I V.C. The Nodal Signal is Transferred Directly from the Node to the Lateral Plate Mesoderm 300 V. Molecular Patterning by the Asymmetric Signals Nodal and Lefty 301 VI. The Cellular Basis of Asymmetric Morphogenesis 303 VII. Diversity Among Vertebrates 304 References 305 XII 4.3. Pitx2 in Cardiac Left-Right Asymmetry and Human Disease James F. Martin, Brad A. Amendt and Nigel A. Brown I. Left-Right Asymmetry and Heart Disease 307 II. Cardiac Disease and the Nodal- /.efty-P/tó Left-Right Asymmetry Pathway 308 H.A. Nodal Signaling: Mutations in Human Patients 309 III. Pitx2 and Cardiac Morphogenesis 309 Ill.A. Pitx2 Function: Evidence from Loss-of-Function Studies in Mice 311 III.B. Pitx2, the Second Heart Field and Outflow Tract Development 312 III.C. The Role of the Pitx2-Mediated Left-Right Asymmetry Pathway in О utf I ow Tract G rowth З 1 З 11 I.D. Pitx2 and 70x7 in Second Heart Field 315 IV. Pathways Regulating Pitx2 Expression 316 V. Pitx Genes and Transcriptional Regulation 317 V.A. Pitx2 in the Inflow Tract and Atrial Fibrillation 319 VI. Conclusions and Future Considerations 319 References 319 Parts Epicardial Development 5.1. Epicardial Lineage: Origins and Fates Takashi Mikawa and Thomas Brand I. Introduction 325 II. Epicardial Development 326 H.A. Induction and Specification of the Epicardial Anlagen 326 N.B. Proepicardial Growth toward the Heart 330 U.C. Epicardial Sheet Formation and Patterning of the Myocardium 332 II.D. Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transformation 332 U.E. Fate Diversity of Proepicardium and Epicardial Cells 333 III. Epicardial Marker Genes 334 Ill.A. Wilms Tumor Gene 1 (Wtl) 334 III.B. Т -box Genes 335 III.C. Serum Response Factor (SRF) 335 IH.D. GATA Genes 3З6 Contents III.E. Epicardin 336 lll.F. Forkhead Transcription Factors 336 III.G. Cited2 and Pbx Genes 336 I H.H. The Bves/Popdc Gene Family 337 IV. Evo-Devo Aspects 337 V. The Epicardium: A Progenitor Cell Population 338 VI. The Role of the Epicardium in Heart Regeneration 338 VII. Outlook 338 References 339 5.2. The Epicardial Signaling Center in Development and Disease KoryJ. Lavine and David M. Ornitz I. Introduction 345 I.A. Stages of Cardiac Development 345 I.B. Midgestational Heart Development 345 II. Epicardium and Myocardial Proliferation 347 H.A. Development of Epicardium 347 II.B. Derivatives of the Epicardium 347 U.C. Function of the Epicardium 347 II.D. Epicardial Control of Myocardial Growth 348 U.E. Fibroblast Growth Factor 9 (FGF9) as a Retinoic Acid Inducible Factor 349 II.F. FGF Signaling Regulates the Progression of Myocardial Differentiation 349 III. Coronary Vascular Development 349 Ill.A. Epicardium and Coronary Development 350 III.B. An FGF-HH-VEGF/ANG Signaling Pathway Controls Coronary Development 350 III.C. The Epicardium Acts as a Signaling Center for Heart Development 351 III.D. A Ventricular Wave of H H Activity Mediates Coronary Development 352 III.E. Mechanism by which HH Controls Vegf and Angiopoietin2 Expression 352 lll.F. FGF Regulation of HH Signaling 352 III.G. Development of Coronary Arteries and Veins 353 IV. Role of Signaling Pathways Governing Midgestational Heart Development in Adult Heart Disease 354 IV.A. Developmental Signaling Pathways in the Treatment of Ischemie Heart Disease 354 IV.B. HH Signaling Mediates Coronary Vessel Growth in the Adult Heart 355 References 356 Contents XIII Cushions, Valves and Septa 6.1. Molecular Regulation of Cushion Morphogenesis Todd D. Camenisch, Raymond B. Runyan and Roger R. Markwald I. Origins and Morphogenetic Stages of Valve-Septal Development 363 I.A. Introduction 363 I.B. Structure-Function Relationships of Early Cushions 365 II. Cushion Formation 366 H.A. The Extracellular Matrix 366 N.B. Dynamics of the Matrix 367 U.C. The Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Paradigm 368 II.D. TGFßs as Mediators of Epithelial- Mesenchymal Transition 370 U.E. BMP Signaling in Epithelial- Mesenchymal Transition 372 II.F. Notch as a Regulator of Epithelial- Mesenchymal Transition 373 II.G. Receptor Tyrosine Kinase and Ras-MAPK Signaling During Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition 374 H.H. Calcium and VEGF as Regulators of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition 375 III. Post-Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Remodeling of Cushions into Valvuloseptal Structures 376 III.A. Proliferation and Elongation 376 III.B. Differentiation 377 III. С Attenuation and Compaction 377 III.D. Delamination and Formation of Supporting Valve Structures 377 III.E. Abnormal Morphogenesis (Pediatric Valvular Diseases) 378 IV. Regulation of Post-Epithelial- Mesenchymal Transition Cushion Morphogenesis: Lessons from Adult Valve Diseases 378 V. The Living Valve 379 V.A. When Does Valvulogenesis End? 379 References 380 6.2. Signaling Pathways in Valve Formation: The Origin of Congenital Defects Joaquim Crego-Bessa, José M. Pérez-Pomares and José Luis de la Pompa I. Introduction II. Valve Anatomy and Function 389 389 III. Early Embryogenesis of Heart Valves: The Origins of Cardiac Valve Cell Populations 392 IV. Late Embryogenesis of Valves 393 V. Signaling Pathways and Effectors of Endocardia! Epitheliai-to-Mesenchymal Transformation and Valve Morphogenesis 393 V.A. TheTGFßSuperfamily 394 V.B. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) 396 V.C. Calcineurin and Nuclear Factor of Activated Т -Cel Is (NFATc) 397 V.D. Neuregulin 1 (NRG1)andErbB3 398 V.E. Sox9 398 V.F. Gata4 399 V.G. Notch 399 V.H. NeurofibromatosisType 1 (Nfi) 401 VI. Normal and Abnormal Signaling in Valve Development: The Origin of Congenital Defects 402 VI.A. Altered Developmental Mechanisms and Their Morphological Reflection 403 VLB. Abnormal Developmental Processes in Cardiac Valve Formation 404 VII. Tissue Engineering: In Vitro Generation of Functional Valvular Tissue 406 VIII. Future Prospects 407 References 407 Part/ Cardiac Neural Crest and Pharyngeal Patterning 7.1. Role of Cardiac Neural Crest Cells in Morphogenesis of the Heart and Great Vessels Kimberly E. Inman, Max Ezin, Marianne Bronner-Fraser and Paul A. Trainor I. Introduction 417 II. Neural Crest Formation 417 III. The Cardiac Neural Crest 418 IV. Evolution of the Cardiac Neural Crest 420 V. Cardiac Neural Crest Cells and Morphogenesis of the Heart and Great Vessels 421 VI. Interactions between Cardiac Neural Crest and Mesoderm 423 VII. Pharyngeal Endoderm and the Cardiac Crest 424 VIII. Genetic Regulation of Cardiac Neural Crest Cell Patterning 425 VIII.A. Expansion of the Cardiac Neural Crest Cell Population 425 XIV Contents VIII. В. Migration of the Cardiac Crest 426 IX. The Post-Migratory Cardiac Crest 429 IX.A. Aortic Arch Remodeling 429 IX.B. Outflow Tract Septation 430 IX.C. Differentiation of Cardiac Neural Crest 431 X. Persistence of Cardiac Neural Crest Cells in the Heart 432 XI. Summary 434 References 434 7.2. Role of Cardiac Neural Crest in the Development of the Caudal Pharyngeal Arches, the Cardiac Outflow and Disease Mary R. Hutson and Margaret L Kirby 441 441 442 442 442 443 I. Introduction I.A. Origin of the Neural Crest I.B. Neural Crest Cell Lineages II. Cardiac Neural Crest Cells in the Caudal Pharynx H.A. Pharyngeal Arch Arteries II.B. Pharyngeal Glands III. Cardiac Neural Crest and the Formation of the Arterial Pole 443 III.A. Septation of the Arterial Pole 443 III.B. Formation of the Arterial Pole 444 IV. Cardiac Neural Crest Ablation Model 445 IV.A. Direct Defects: Outflow Septation, Aortic Arch Arteries and Pharyngeal Glands 446 IV.B. Indirect Defects: Role for Cardiac Neural Crest Cells to Modulate Signaling in the Caudal Pharynx 447 IV.C. Arterial Pole Alignment versus Septation 448 V. Cardiac Neural Crest Cells at the Venous Pole are Associated with the Conduction System 448 VI. Factors Important in Cardiac Neural Crest Induction and Function 448 VI.A. Transcription Factors 449 VLB. Signaling Factors 450 VI.C. Gap Junctions 453 VII. Human Syndromes that are Likely to Involve Cardiac Neural Crest 453 VILA. DiGeorge and Velocardiofacial Syndromes 453 VII.B. CHARGE Syndrome 454 Vll.C. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) 455 VILD. Retinoic Acid (RA) Embryopathy 455 VUL Conclusions and Future Perspectives 455 References 456 PartJB Making Vessels 8.1. Origin of the Vertebrate Endothelial Cell Lineage: Ontogeny and Phylogeny Ramón Muñoz-Chápuli and José M. Pérez-Pomares I. Introduction 465 И. A Brief Synopsis of the Circulatory Systems in Metazoans 467 ILA. Coelomic Circulatory Systems 467 N.B. Hemal Circulatory Systems 468 U.C. Anatomy of Coelomic and Hemal Invertebrate Circulatory Systems 469 II.D. Blood Cells in Invertebrates 470 U.E. The Invertebrate Heart 471 II.F. Development of the Invertebrate Hemal Circulatory System 472 II.G. Vertebrate Endothelium is an Exception in the Animal Kingdom 472 III. The Ontogeny of the Endothelium 472 III.A. The Basic Anatomy of Vertebrate Vasculature 472 III.B. Mechanisms of Vascular Formation and Growth: Angiogenesis versus Vasculogenesis 473 111. С Fine Features of Embryonic Vasculogenesis 474 III.D. Origin and Differentiation of Vertebrate Angioblasts 475 III.E. Endothelial Cell Types: The Paradigmatic Case of Cardiac Endothelial Lineages 476 lll.F. Molecular Regulation of Embryonic Vasculogenesis: Essential Elements 477 IV. Phylogeny of the Endothelium 478 IVA. A Hypothesis on the Origin of Endothelial Cells 478 IV.B. The Origin of Pericytes and Vascular Smooth Muscle 479 IV.C. Supporting Evidence 480 IV.D. An Evo-Devo Conclusion 481 References 481 8.2. Vascular Development Ondine Cleaver and Paul Α. Krieg I. Introduction to Vascular Development 487 II. The Origin of Endothelial Cells 488 H.A. Endothelial Origins in the Mesoderm 488 Contents XV 11. В. Molecules Regulating Differentiation of Endothelial Cells 490 U.C. Extraembryon ic and Intraembryonic Angioblasts 490 II.D. Vascular Studies: Classical Embryology to Molecular Breakthroughs 490 III. Blood Islands 491 IV. The Hemangioblast 491 IV.A. In Vitro Studies: Embryonic Stem Cell Differentiation 493 IV.B. In Vitro Studies: Embryonic Cells 493 IV.C. In Vivo Studies 493 V. The Endothelial Cell 494 V.A. Cellular Mechanisms of Blood Vessel Assembly 494 VI. Vasculogenesis and Angiogenesis 495 VI.A. Vasculogenesis 497 VLB. Molecules Regulating Vasculogenesis 497 VI.C. Extracellular Matrix and Cell Adhesion Molecules 499 VLD. Molecules Regulating Tubulogenesis 501 VI. E. Angiogenesis 502 VI.F. Molecules Regulating Angiogenic Remodeling 507 VII. Vascular Patterning 508 VILA. Patterning during Vasculogenesis: Primary Plexus Formation 508 VII.B. Patterning during Angiogenesis: Sculpting Growing Blood Vessels 509 VII.C. Molecules Regulating Vascular Patterning 511 VIII. Vessel Maturation and Vascular Wall Formation 512 VIII.A. The Endothelial Basement Membrane 514 VIII. B. The Vascular Wall 514 VIII.C. Molecules Regulating Mural Cell Recruitment and Vessel Maturation 515 VIII.D. Transcriptional Regulation of Endothelial Gene Expression 517 IX. Endothelial Heterogeneity and Plasticity 517 IX.A. Endothelial Cell Heterogeneity 517 IX.B. Endothelial Cell Plasticity 518 X. Conclusion 518 References 519 8.3. Arteriovenous Patterning in the Vascular System Thomas Cri d ley I. Introduction 529 II. Arteriovenous Patterning: Genetic Prepatterning 529 ILA. Ephrins and EPH Receptors 529 N.B. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor and the Notch Pathway in Zebrafish 531 U.C. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor and the Notch Pathway in Mice 532 II. D. FOXC1/FOXC2 533 ILE. SOXF Subgroup Genes 533 II.F. COUP-TFII 534 II.G. Chemical Genetic Screens in Zebrafish: Pathways Downstream of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor 534 H.H. Phospholipase С Gamma 535 ILL TGFß Signaling, Endoglin/AcvrH and Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia 535 II.J. In Vitro Differentiation of Endothelial Cells from Stem Cells 535 III. Arteriovenous Patterning: Role of Hemodynamic Flow and Other Environmental Cues 536 lll.A. Endothelial Cell Plasticity Revealed by Cell Transplantation 536 II!.B. Endothelial Cell Plasticity Revealed by Disruption of Hemodynamic Flow 536 III. C. Hypoxia and Oxygen Tension 537 IV. Conclusions and Perspectives 538 References 538 8.4. Lymphatic Vascular Development Natasha L. Harvey I. Introduction 543 II. Lymphatic Vessels: A Historical Perspective 543 III. A Comparison of Lymphatic Vessel and Blood Vessel Architecture 544 lll.A. Lymphatic versus Blood Capillaries 545 III.B. Lymphatic Collectors 546 III.C Junctions between Lymphatic Endothelial Cells 546 IV. The Embryonic Origin of Lymphatic Endothelial Cells 547 IV.A. A Venous Origin of Lymphatic Vessels 547 IV.B. A Mesenchymal Origin of Lymphatic Vessels 548 XVI Contents V. Molecular Markers of Lymphatic Endothelial Cells 549 V.A. Cell Surface Markers of Lymphatic Endothelium 549 V.B. Lymphatic Endothelial Cell Surface Markers Involved in Immune Cell Trafficking 551 V.C. Macrophage Mannose Receptor 552 V.D. Nuclear Markers of Lymphatic Endothelium 552 VI. Genesis and Remodeling of the Lymphatic Vasculature 554 VI.A. Lymphangiogenesis Promoting Factors 554 VLB. EphrinB2 and Postnatal Lymphatic Remodeling 555 VI.C. The Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) Family: VEGF-A, -B, -C and-D and PIGF 555 VI.D. Alternative Splicing and Proteolytic Processing of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) Family Members 556 VI.E. PDGF-BB, FGF-2, HGF, IGF-1 and -2, Adm 556 VI. F. Integrins 557 VI. G. Hemopoietic Cells and Lymphangiogemc Signals 557 VI.H. Signaling Downstream of VEGFR3 558 VII. Separation of the Lymphatic and Blood Vascular Networks 558 VILA. Syk, SLP-76 and PLOtf 558 VIII. How Does Lymphatic Vascular Development Go Wrong in Disease? 559 IX. Future Perspectives in Lymphatic Vascular Development 560 References 560 Index 11 The development of the cardiovascular system is a rapidly advancing area in biomedical research, now coupled with the burgeoning field of cardiac regenerative medicine. A lucid understanding of these fields is paramount to reducing human cardiovascular diseases of both fetal and adult origin. Significant progress can now be made through a comprehensive investigation of embryonic development and its genetic control circuitry. Heart Development and Regeneration, written by experts in the field, provides essential information on topics ranging from the evolution and lineage origins of the developing cardiovascular system to cardiac regenerative medicine. A reference for clinicians, medical researchers, students, and teachers, this publication offers broad coverage of the most recent advances. Volume One discusses heart evolution; contributing cell lineages; model systems; cardiac growth; morphology and asymmetry; heart patterning; epicardial, vascular, and lymphatic development; and congenital heart diseases. Volume Two includes chapters on transcription factors and transcriptional control circuits in cardiac development and disease, epigenetic modifiers including microRNAs, genome-wide mutagenesis, imaging, proteomics approaches, the theory and practice of stem cells, and cardiac regeneration.
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