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Fundamental principles of engineering nanometrology:

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1. Verfasser:	Leach, Richard K. (VerfasserIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	English
Veröffentlicht:	Amsterdam [u.a.] Elsevier 2010
Ausgabe:	1. ed.
Schriftenreihe:	Micro & nano technologies series
Schlagworte:	Metrology Microtechnology Nanotechnology Nanostruktur Metrologie Nanotechnologie
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltsverzeichnis Klappentext
Beschreibung:	XXVI, 321 S. Ill., graph. Darst.
ISBN:	0080964540 9780080964546

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adam_text	Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................xv FIGURES .......................................................................................................xvii TABLES .........................................................................................................xxv CHAPTER 1 Introduction to metrology for micro- and nanotechnology .... 1 1.1 What is engineering nanometrology? ..................................... 2 1.2 The contents of this book ..................................................... 3 1.3 References ......................................................................... 4 CHAPTER 2 Some basics of measurement ........................................... 5 2.1 Introduction to measurement ............................................. 5 2.2 Units of measurement and the SI ....................................... 6 2.3 Length ............................................................................. 7 2.4 Mass ................................................................................10 2.5 Force ...............................................................................12 2.6 Angle ...............................................................................13 2.7 Traceability ......................................................................14 2.8 Accuracy, precision, resolution, error and uncertainty ...........15 2.8.1 Accuracy and precision ............................................16 2.8.2 Resolution and error .................................................16 2.8.3 Uncertainty in measurement .....................................17 2.8.3.1 The propagation of probability distributions... 18 2.8.3.2 The GUM uncertainty framework ...................19 2.8.3.3 A Monte Carlo method .................................21 2.9 The laser ..........................................................................23 2.9.1 Theory of the helium-neon laser ................................23 2.9.2 Single-mode laser wavelength stabilisation schemes. ..25 2.9.3 Laser frequency-stabilisation using saturated absorption ...............................................................25 2.9.3.1 Two-mode stabilisation ................................27 2.9.4 Zeeman-stabilised 633 nm lasers .............................28 2.9.5 Frequency calibration of a (stabilised) 633 nm laser .....30 2.9.6 Modern and future laser frequency standards .............31 2.10 References .......................................................................31 vi Contents CHAPTER 3 Precision measurement instrumentation - some design principles .......................................................................35 3.1 Geometrical considerations ................................................36 3.2 Kinematic design ..............................................................36 3.2.1 The Kelvin clamps ...................................................37 3.2.2 A single degree of freedom motion device ..................38 3.3 Dynamics .........................................................................38 3.4 The Abbe Principle ............................................................40 3.5 Elastic compression ..........................................................41 3.6 Force loops .......................................................................43 3.6.1 The structural loop ...................................................43 3.6.2 The thermal loop .....................................................43 3.6.3 The metrology loop ..................................................44 3.7 Materials ..........................................................................44 3.7.1 Minimising thermal inputs ........................................45 3.7.2 Minimising mechanical inputs ..................................46 3.8 Symmetry .........................................................................46 3.9 Vibration isolation .............................................................47 3.9.1 Sources of vibration .................................................47 3.9.2 Passive vibration isolation ........................................49 3.9.3 Damping .................................................................50 3.9.4 Internal resonances ..................................................50 3.9.5 Active vibration isolation ..........................................51 3.9.6 Acoustic noise .........................................................51 3.10 References .......................................................................52 CHAPTER 4 Length traceability using interferometry ............................55 4.1 Traceability in length ...........................................................55 4.2 Gauge blocks - both a practical and traceable artefact ...........56 4.3 Introduction to interferometry ...............................................58 4.3.1 Light as a wave ..........................................................58 4.3.2 Beat measurement when ωι Φ α>2 ..............................61 4.3.3 Visibility and contrast ................................................61 4.3.4 White light interference and coherence length ..............62 4.4 Interferometer designs .........................................................64 4.4.1 The Michelson and Twyman-Green interferometer ...........64 4.4.1.1 The Twyman-Green modification .....................65 4.4.2 The Fizeau interferometer ...........................................66 4.4.3 The Jamin and Mach-Zehnder interferometers ..............68 4.4.4 The Fabry-Pérot interferometer ...................................70 4.5 Gauge block interferometry ..................................................72 4.5.1 Gauge blocks and interferometry .................................72 4.5.2 Gauge block interferometry .........................................72 Contents vii 4.5.3 Operation of a gauge block interferometer ....................74 4.5.3.1 Fringe fraction measurement - phase stepping .......................................................74 4.5.3.2 Multiple wavelength interferometry analysis ........................................................75 4.5.3.3 Vacuum wavelength .......................................76 4.5.3.4 Thermal effects .............................................76 4.5.3.5 Refractive index measurement .......................77 4.5.3.6 Aperture correction .......................................78 4.5.3.7 Surface and phase change effects ..................79 4.5.4 Sources of error in gauge block interferometry ..............80 4.5.4.1 Fringe fraction determination uncertainty ..........80 4.5.4.2 Multi-wavelength interferometry uncertainty ...................................................80 4.5.4.3 Vacuum wavelength uncertainty .....................80 4.5.4.4 Temperature uncertainty ................................80 4.5.4.5 Refractive index uncertainty ...........................81 4.5.4.6 Aperture correction uncertainty ......................81 4.5.4.7 Phase change uncertainty ..............................81 4.5.4.8 Cosine error ..................................................82 4.6 References .........................................................................82 CHAPTER 5 Displacement measurement .............................................85 5.1 Introduction to displacement measurement ...........................85 5.2 Displacement interferometry ................................................86 5.2.1 Basics of displacement interferometry .........................86 5.2.2 Homodyne і nterferometry ...........................................86 5.2.3 Heterodyne interferometry ..........................................87 5.2.4 Fringe counting and sub-division .................................89 5.2.5 Double-pass interferometry .........................................89 5.2.6 Differential interferometry ..........................................90 5.2.7 Swept-frequency absolute distance interferometry ........91 5.2.8 Sources of error in displacement interferometry ............92 5.2.8.1 Thermal expansion of the metrology frame ......92 5.2.8.2 Deadpath length ...........................................93 5.2.8.3 Cosine error ..................................................93 5.2.8.4 Non-linearity .................................................94 5.2.8.5 Heydemann correction ...................................95 5.2.8.6 Random error sources ....................................97 5.2.8.7 Other source of error in displacement interferometers .............................................97 5.2.9 Angular interferometers ..............................................98 5.3 Capacitive displacement sensors ..........................................99 viii Contents 5.4 Inductive displacement sensors ..........................................100 5.5 Optical encoders ...............................................................102 5.6 Optical fibre sensors ..........................................................104 5.7 Calibration of displacement sensors ....................................106 5.7.1 Calibration using optical interferometry .....................107 5.7.1.1 Calibration using a Fabry-Pérot interferometer .............................................107 5.7.1.2 Calibration using a measuring laser ..............107 5.7.2 Calibration using X-ray interferometry ........................108 5.8 References ....................................................................... Ill CHAPTER 6 Surface topography measurement instrumentation ..........115 6.1 Introduction to surface topography measurement ...............115 6.2 Spatial wavelength ranges ................................................116 6.3 Historical background of classical surface texture measuring instrumentation ..............................................117 6.4 Surface profile measurement ............................................120 6.5 Areal surface texture measurement ...................................121 6.6 Surface topography measuring instrumentation ..................122 6.6.1 Stylus instruments .................................................123 6.7 Optical instruments .........................................................126 6.7.1 Limitations of optical instruments ...........................127 6.7.2 Scanning optical techniques ...................................132 6.7.2.1 Triangulation instruments ..........................132 6.7.2.2 Confocal instruments .................................134 6.7.2.2.1 Confocal chromatic probe instrument ................................138 6.7.2.3 Point autofocus profiling ............................139 6.7.3 Areal optical techniques .........................................142 6.7.3.1 Focus variation instruments .......................142 6.7.3.2 Phase-shifting interferometry .....................144 6.7.3.3 Digital holographic microscopy ...................147 6.7.3.4 Coherence scanning interferometry .............149 6.7.4 Scattering instruments ...........................................152 6.8 Capacitive instruments ....................................................155 6.9 Pneumatic instruments ....................................................156 6.10 Calibration of surface topography measuring instruments ......156 6.10.1 Traceability of surface topography measurements .....................................................156 6.10.2 Calibration of profile measuring instruments ..........157 6.10.3 Calibration of areal surface texture measuring instruments ........................................................159 6.11 Uncertainties in surface topography measurement .............162 Contents ¡x 6.12 Comparisons of surface topography measuring instruments ... 165 6.13 Software measurement standards .....................................167 6.14 References .....................................................................168 CHAPTER 7 Scanning probe and particle beam microscopy ................177 7.1 Scanning probe microscopy ................................................178 7.2 Scanning tunnelling microscopy .........................................180 7.3 Atomic force microscopy ....................................................181 7.3.1 Noise sources in atomic force microscopy ..................182 7.3.1.1 Static noise determination ...........................183 7.3.1.2 Dynamic noise determination .......................183 7.3.1.3 Scanner xy noise determination ....................183 7.3.2 Some common artefacts in AFM imaging ...................185 7.3.2.1 Tip size and shape ......................................185 7.3.2.2 Contaminated tips .......................................186 7.3.2.3 Other common artefacts ..............................186 7.3.3 Determining the coordinate system of an atomic force microscope .....................................................186 7.3.4 Traceability of atomic force microscopy .....................187 7.3.4.1 Calibration of AFMs .....................................188 7.3.5 Force measurement with AFMs .................................189 7.3.6 AFM cantilever calibration ........................................191 7.3.7 Inter- and intra-molecular force measurement using AFM ..............................................................193 7.3.7.1 Tip functionalisation ...................................195 7.3.8 Tip sample distance measurement ............................196 7.3.9 Challenges and artefacts in AFM force measurements .................................................197 7.4 Scanning probe microscopy of nanoparticles .......................198 7.5 Electron microscopy ..........................................................199 7.5.1 Scanning electron microscopy ..................................199 7.5.1.1 Choice of calibration specimen for scanning electron microscopy ......................200 7.5.2 Transmission electron microscopy .............................201 7.5.3 Traceability and calibration of transmission electron microscopes ...............................................202 7.5.3.1 Choice of calibration specimen .....................203 7.5.3.2 Linear calibration ........................................203 7.5.3.3 Localised calibration ...................................203 7.5.3.4 Reference graticule .....................................204 7.5.4 Electron microscopy of nanoparticles ........................204 7.6 Other particle beam microscopy techniques .........................204 7.7 References .......................................................................207 χ Contents CHAPTER 8 Surface topography characterisation ...............................211 8.1 Introduction to surface topography characterisation ..............211 8.2 Surface profile characterisation ..........................................212 8.2.1 Evaluation length ..................................................213 8.2.2 Total traverse length ..............................................213 8.2.3 Profile filtering ......................................................213 8.2.3.1 Primary profile ..........................................215 8.2.3.2 Roughness profile ......................................215 8.2.3.3 Waviness profile ........................................216 8.2.4 Default values for profile characterisation ................216 8.2.5 Profile characterisation and parameters ...................216 8.2.5.1 Profile parameter symbols ..........................217 8.2.5.2 Profile parameter ambiguities .....................217 8.2.6 Amplitude profile parameters (peak to valley) ...........218 8.2.6.1 Maximum profile peak height, Rp ...............218 8.2.6.2 Maximum profile valley depth, Rv ...............218 8.2.6.3 Maximum height of the profile, Rz ..............218 8.2.6.4 Mean height of the profile elements, Re ............................................219 8.2.6.5 Total height of the surface, Rt ....................219 8.2.7 Amplitude parameters (average of ordinates) ............219 8.2.7.1 Arithmetical mean deviation of the assessed profile, Ra ...................................219 8.2.7.2 The root mean square deviation of the assessed profile, Rq ..................................221 8.2.7.3 S kewness of the assessed profile, Rsk .........222 8.2.7.4 Kurtosis of the assessed profile, Rku ...........223 8.2.8 Spacing parameters ...............................................224 8.2.8.1 Mean width of the profile elements, RSm ........................................................224 8.2.9 Curves and related parameters ................................224 8.2.9.1 Material ratio of the profile .........................224 8.2.9.2 Material ratio curve ...................................225 8.2.9.3 Profile section height difference, Roc ..........226 8.2.9.4 Relative material ratio, Rmr .......................226 8.2.9.5 Profile height amplitude curve ....................226 8.2.10 Profile specification standards ................................227 8.3 Areal surface texture characterisation .................................229 8.3.1 Scale-limited surface ...............................................229 8.3.2 Areal filtering ..........................................................230 8.3.3 Areal specification standards ....................................232 8.3.4 Unified coordinate system for surface texture and form .................................................................234 8.3.5 Areal parameters .....................................................235 Contents xi 8.3.6 Field parameters .....................................................235 8.3.6.1 Areal height parameters ...............................236 8.3.6.1.1 The root mean square value of the ordinates, Sq .....................236 8.3.6.1.2 The arithmetic mean of the absolute height, Sa ......................236 8.3.6.1.3 Skewness of topography height distribution, Ssk ..........................236 8.3.6.1.4 Kurtosis of topography height distribution, Sku ..........................236 8.3.6.1.5 The maximum surface peak height, Sp ...................................237 8.3.6.1.6 The maximum pit height of the surface, Sv ..................................237 8.3.6.1.7 Maximum height of the surface, Sz ..................................237 8.3.6.2 Areal spacing parameters .............................237 8.3.6.2.1 The auto-correlation length, Sal ....237 8.3.6.2.2 Texture aspect ratio of the surface, Str .................................238 8.3.6.3 Areal hybrid parameters ...............................238 8.3.6.3.1 Root mean square gradient of the scale-limited surface, Sdq ............238 8.3.6.3.2 Developed interfacial area ratio of the scale-limited surface, Sdr ...239 8.3.6.4 Functions and related parameters .................239 8.3.6.4.1 Areal material ratio of the scale limited surface ............................239 8.3.6.4.2 Areal material ratio of the scale-limited surface, Smc(c) .......239 8.3.6.4.3 Inverse areal material ratio of the scale-limited surface, Sdc(mr) ......239 8.3.6.4.4 Areal parameters for stratified functional surfaces of scale- limited surfaces ...........................240 8.3.6.4.5 Void volume, Vv(mr) .....................241 8.3.6.4.6 Material volume, Vm(mr) ..............241 8.3.6.4.7 Peak extreme height, Sxp .............241 8.3.6.4.8 Gradient density function .............242 8.3.6.5 Miscellaneous parameters ............................242 8.3.6.5.1 Texture direction of the scale-limited surface, Std .............242 8.3.7 Feature characterisation ...........................................243 8.3.7.1 Step 1 - Texture feature selection ................243 xii Contents 8.3.7.2 Step 2 - Segmentation ................................243 8.3.7.2.1 Change tree .................................245 8.3.7.3 Step 3 - Significant features ........................248 8.3.7.4 Step 4 - Selection of feature attributes .........248 8.3.7.5 Step 5 - Quantification of feature attribute statistics .......................................249 8.3.7.6 Feature parameters .....................................249 8.3.7.6.1 Density of peaks, Spd ..................250 8.3.7.6.2 Arithmetic mean peak curvature, Spc ............................................250 8.3.7.6.3 Ten point height of surface, S10z...250 8.3.7.6.4 Five point peak height, S5p ..........250 8.3.7.6.5 Five point pit height, S5v .............250 8.3.7.6.6 Closed dale area, Sda(c) ...............250 8.3.7.6.7 Closed hill area, Sha(c) ................251 8.3.7.6.8 Closed dale volume, Sdc(c) ..........251 8.3.7.6.9 Closed hill volume, Shv(c) ............251 8.4 Fractal methods ................................................................251 8.4.1 Linear fractal methods .............................................252 8.4.2 Areal fractal analysis ................................................255 8.4.2.1 Volume-scale analysis ..................................255 8.4.2.2 Area-scale analysis ......................................255 8.5 Comparison of profile and areal characterisation ..................257 8.6 References .......................................................................258 CHAPTER 9 Coordinate metrology ....................................................263 9.1 Introduction toCMMs ........................................................263 9.1.1 CMM probing systems ..............................................266 9.1.2 CMM software .........................................................266 9.1.3 CMM alignment .......................................................267 9.1.4 CMMs and CAD .......................................................267 9.1.5 Prismatic against freeform ........................................268 9.1.6 Other types of CMM .................................................268 9.2 Sources of error on CMMs ..................................................268 9.3 Traceability, calibration and performance verification of CMMs ..........................................................................269 9.3.1 Traceability of CMMs ...............................................270 9.4 Miniature CMMs ...............................................................272 9.4.1 Stand-alone miniature CMMs ....................................273 9.4.1.1 A linescale-based miniature CMM ................273 9.4.1.2 A laser interferometer-based miniature CMM ..........................................................274 9.5 Miniature CMM probes ......................................................275 Contents xiii 9.6 Calibration of miniature CMMs ...........................................281 9.6.1 Calibration of laser interferometer-based miniature CMMs ......................................................283 9.6.2 Calibration of linescale-based miniature CMMs ..........283 9.7 References .......................................................................285 CHAPTER 10 Mass and force measurement ......................................289 10.1 Traceability of traditional mass measurement ..................289 10.1.1 Manufacture of the Kilogram weight and the original copies ...................................................290 10.1.2 Surface texture of mass standards .......................291 10.1.3 Dissemination of the kilogram ............................291 10.1.4 Post nettoyage-lavage stability ............................292 10.1.5 Limitations of the current definition of the kilogram ......................................................292 10.1.6 Investigations into an alternative definition of the kilogram ..................................................293 10.1.6.1 The Watt balance approach ..................294 10.1.6.2 The Avogadro approach ........................294 10.1.6.3 The ion accumulation approach ............295 10.1.6.4 Levitated superconductor approach ......295 10.1.7 Mass comparator technology ...............................295 10.1.7.1 The modern two-pan mechanical balance ..............................................296 10.1.7.2 Electronic balances .............................296 10.2 Low-mass measurement ................................................297 10.2.1 Weighing by sub-division ....................................297 10.3 Low-force measurement .................................................298 10.3.1 Relative magnitude of low forces .........................298 10.3.2 Traceability of low-force measurements ...............298 10.3.3 Primary low-force balances .................................299 10.3.4 Low-force transfer artefacts ................................301 10.3.4.1 Deadweight force production ................301 10.3.4.2 Elastic element methods .....................301 10.3.4.3 Miniature electrostatic balance methods .............................................304 10.3.4.4 Resonant methods ..............................304 10.3.4.5 Further methods and summary .............306 10.4 References ...................................................................308 APPENDIX A ................................................................................................311 APPENDIX В ................................................................................................315 INDEX ..........................................................................................................317 ENGINEERING / PHYSICS JTAL PRINCIPLES OF ENGINEERING NANOMETROLOGY Richard Leach The principles of engineering metrology applied to the micro- and nanoscale: essential reading for all scientists and engineers involved in the commercialisation of nanotechnology and measurement processes requiring accuracy at the nanoscale. The establishment of common standards will be an essential key to unlocking the commercial potential of Micro- and Nanotechnologies (MNT), enabling fabrication plants to interchange parts, packaging and design rules. Effectively MNT standardization will provide the micro- and nanoscale equivalents of macro-scale nuts and bolts or house bricks. Currently there is a major thrust for standardization of MNT activities, with committees of the ISO, IEC and numerous national and regional committees being set up. In this book Professor Richard Leach, of the UK s National Physical Laboratory (NPL) makes a significant contribution to standardization in the field of MNT, extending the principles of engineering metrology to the micro- and nanoscale, with a focus on dimensional and mass metrology. The principles and techniques covered in this book form the essential toolkit for scientists and engineers involved in the commercialisation of nanotechnology and measurement processes requiring accuracy at the nanoscale. Key topics covered include: • Basic metrological terminology, and the highly important topic of measurement uncertainty. • Instrumentation, including an introduction to the laser • Measurement of length using optical interferometry, including gauge block interferometry • Displacement measurement and sensors • Surface texture measurement, stylus, optical and scanning probe instruments, calibration, profile and areal characterisation • Coordinate metrology • Low mass and force metrology About the Author Professor Richard Leach is a Principal Research Scientist in the Mass & Dimensional Group, Engineering Measurement Division at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), UK. Related Titles Applied Nanotechnology by Jeremy Ramsden 9780815520238 Nanotechnology Environmental Health and Safety; Risks, Regulation and Manageme Matthew Hull and Diana Bowman 9780815515869
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illustrated	Illustrated
indexdate	2024-07-09T22:10:45Z
institution	BVB
isbn	0080964540 9780080964546
language	English
oai_aleph_id	oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-018958742
oclc_num	435734573
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owner	DE-83 DE-703 DE-29T
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physical	XXVI, 321 S. Ill., graph. Darst.
publishDate	2010
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publisher	Elsevier
record_format	marc
series2	Micro & nano technologies series
spelling	Leach, Richard K. Verfasser aut Fundamental principles of engineering nanometrology Richard K. Leach 1. ed. Amsterdam [u.a.] Elsevier 2010 XXVI, 321 S. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Micro & nano technologies series Metrology Microtechnology Nanotechnology Nanostruktur (DE-588)4204530-7 gnd rswk-swf Metrologie (DE-588)4169749-2 gnd rswk-swf Nanotechnologie (DE-588)4327470-5 gnd rswk-swf Nanostruktur (DE-588)4204530-7 s Nanotechnologie (DE-588)4327470-5 s DE-604 Metrologie (DE-588)4169749-2 s Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=018958742&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=018958742&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Klappentext
spellingShingle	Leach, Richard K. Fundamental principles of engineering nanometrology Metrology Microtechnology Nanotechnology Nanostruktur (DE-588)4204530-7 gnd Metrologie (DE-588)4169749-2 gnd Nanotechnologie (DE-588)4327470-5 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4204530-7 (DE-588)4169749-2 (DE-588)4327470-5
title	Fundamental principles of engineering nanometrology
title_auth	Fundamental principles of engineering nanometrology
title_exact_search	Fundamental principles of engineering nanometrology
title_full	Fundamental principles of engineering nanometrology Richard K. Leach
title_fullStr	Fundamental principles of engineering nanometrology Richard K. Leach
title_full_unstemmed	Fundamental principles of engineering nanometrology Richard K. Leach
title_short	Fundamental principles of engineering nanometrology
title_sort	fundamental principles of engineering nanometrology
topic	Metrology Microtechnology Nanotechnology Nanostruktur (DE-588)4204530-7 gnd Metrologie (DE-588)4169749-2 gnd Nanotechnologie (DE-588)4327470-5 gnd
topic_facet	Metrology Microtechnology Nanotechnology Nanostruktur Metrologie Nanotechnologie
url	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=018958742&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=018958742&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
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