Ancient building technology: 3,1 Vol. 3, Construction ; Pt. 1, Text
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| 1. Verfasser: | |
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Leiden [u.a.]
Brill
2009
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| Schriftenreihe: | Technology and change in history
12,1 |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | XXXVI, 325 S. Kt. 30 cm |
| ISBN: | 9789004177451 9789004177468 |
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Ancient building technology |n 3,1 |p Vol. 3, Construction ; Pt. 1, Text |c by G. R. H. Wright |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804140849001398272 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | CONTENTS
The Limits
of the Ancient World
.................................................................. vi
List of Illustrations
............................................................................................. xvii
Abbreviations in General References
.............................................................. xxxv
Introduction
......................................................................................................... xxxvii
Chapter One: Preparatory Measures
............................................................... 1
Efficient construction of a developed building project depends on prior
furnishing of directions and information to the builder. These preparatory
measures comprise project drawings, written directions (specifications) and
detailed estimates of quantities required. Not all these measures necessarily
apparent in any one building tradition. Project drawings (and models) considered
in Mesopotamian Building; Egyptian Building; Greek Building (noting recent
controversy); Roman Building. Specifications limited to literate societies and
above all a feature of Classical Greek monumental building (on contract). Prior
estimate of quantities vital for carrying out building projects, but all projects
everywhere at all times beset by unforeseen increase in costs. Considerable
evidence in cuneiform texts concerning this question in Mesopotamian building,
but consideration must be given to it in all developed building projects.
Chapter Two: Setting out
.................................................................................. 17
Setting out on the ground plans of projected buildings a different operation
from surveying (accurately recording existing positions on the ground); but
may be preceeded by preliminary surveying of the area. Basic surveying
procedures. Position established by measurement of bearing (angle) and/or
distance from datum.
Triangulation
and traverse with offsets. Roman surveying:
use
oí
groma
and chorobate. Setting out markings must be clear of area to be
covered by building. Different system necessary for rock cut monuments.
Setting out in antiquity effected by measurement of distances, not of angles.
Basic geometry of ancient building plans (round, rectangular, polygonal,
curved). Setting out addressed to concerns of: orientation (geographical and
astronomical), line (path and length), angle (how obtained), level (original level
plane necessary for all measurements and for all detail in elevation). Setting out
practice in ancient world little investigated. Conditioned by geometry of design.
Constitutes the vital nexus between design and construction. Illustration of this
significance in Egyptian and in Classical Greek monumental building.
X
CONTENTS
Chapter Three: Building Site Development and Installations
.................... 41
Organisation of (monumental) building construction site vital for
success of project. Underlying question of terrain (NB Middle Eastern
tells). Appearance of monumental public building (massive stone
tower) at Neolithic Jericho, ca
8,000
ВС.
First monumental earth/brick building
in Mesopotamia during 5th millennium
ВС.
Simple site development and
installations because of portability of material. Earliest monumental stone
construction Bastard Ashlar with blocks finely dressed only at face. Evolved in
Mesopotamia on model of brick masonry during latter 4th Millennium
ВС.
Striking development of this construction at Saqqarah in Old Kingdom Egypt,
ca
2650
ВС.
Blocks not overly massive and construction manageable by
manhandling. During mid
2nd
Millennium
ВС
this type of stone masonry
spread over Eastern Mediterranean and Levant as socle to mud brick or rubble
superstructure, thus construction not difficult. During 5th Millennium in the
forested regions of Europe wood construction of a monumental nature with
large tree trunks, ca
1
ton or more. Earth ramps etc required to set them
upright. Such devices and installations gave onto Megalithic Stone building
(4,000
BC-2,000
ВС)
using massive unhewn or roughly shaped slabs etc of
many tons burden. This construction prominent in Western Mediterranean and
on Atlantic seaboard of Europe. Megalithic Engineering mastered use of the
two basic machines: inclined plane and lever. In Egypt during Pyramid Age
(ca
2,500
ВС)
Bastard Ashlar construction supplanted by Pharaonic Masonry.
Very large blocks set with a minimum of dressing then finely dressed in situ.
Construction engineered by large scale earth ramps and fills together with
expert levering. Special procedures for pyramid building. In Levant and East
Mediterranean during middle and latter part of
2nd
Millennium
ВС
building
with large unhewn or roughly trimmed boulders termed Cyclopean Masonry.
Mainly for fortifications and terrace walling, but NB use for monumental
Iholos tombs. Construction based on earthworks.
Organisation and development of monumental building sites revolutionised
during 6th cent.
ВС
by introduction of clean lifting in Classical Greek ashlar
masonry construction. Installation of mechanical devices incorporating pulleys
(block and tackle) together with extensive wooden scaffolding replace
installation of earthern ramps, embankments, fills etc avoiding necessity for
large gangs of unskilled labour. Types of lifting devices described in ancient
records according to rig (one
legger,
two
legger
etc.) and also to arrangement
of machinery (single haul, triple haul etc.). Power input assisted by windlass,
capstan etc. Ideosyncratic administrative arrangements of Classical Greek
monumental building.
By
1st
Cent.
ВС
building industry in Rome akin to that of modern world in
scale, range and diversity, cf organisation of enterprise scope, of projects, types
of construction, geographic extension. Augustus, Trajan, Hadrian, the greatest
imperial builders. Decline in all forms of building except fortifications and
churches from later
3rd
Cent, onwards. Exposition focussed on Roman
CONTENTS Xl
Concrete building, considered in three typical instances: urban apartment
buildings, The Colosseum, The Pantheon. Highly developed works organisation
completed large projects quickly, matching present day results in time. Basic to
site development and installations was the virtuoso development of timber work
of scaffolding, centering and shuttering. Use of cranes of various types, together
with tripods and towers to mount block and tackle hoisting with compound
pulleys. Large span concrete domes e.g. the Pantheon, which is the largest ever
built in traditional materials and a high point of ancient building technology,
construction of both standing centering and flying centering on large scale.
Monumental building procedure unchanged when Roman Concrete
.construction lapsed early in the 4th century AD and was replaced by Byzantine
mixed brick and stone building. Ayia Sophia was built in early 6th cent. AD in
similar manner to Pantheon in early
2nd
cent. AD. After Ayia Sophia no further
development in building technology until early Renaissance.
Chapter Four: Wood Construction
.................................................................
Ill
No scientific definition of the substance and discussion includes all vegetal
materials, both pliable and rigid, used in construction. Wood traditionally
regarded as man s earliest building material, promoting interpretation of some
building forms in other materials as derived from original construction in
wood. Wood not durable, thus very restricted survival of material remains of
ancient wooden building, and most evidence secondary (post holes etc.). Pliable
materials (canes, rushes etc.) used structurally (bound up in bundles or
interwoven) or as cladding. Notable use of pliable material in Nile Valley
during Neolithic period, determining later architectural forms in stone
construction. Use of heavy timber (both hewn and unhewn) dependent on
capacity to fell large trees
—
well established by
3rd
Millennium
ВС.
Original
mode of fixing by lashing (unhewn) and joinery (hewn); carpentry (nailing) a
later development (cf in Roman times). Restricted use in load bearing
structures (i.e. log cabin style), but always the standard material for framed
structures—cf substantial timber framed houses in temperate Europe from
Neolithic times onwards. Also Timber Circles , precursors of Megalithic stone
circles (Stonehenge). Wood much used throughout the Levant and
Mediterranean in mixed construction both within the same building element
(e.g. walls) and for different elements of a building (e.g. roofs as opposed to
walls). NB use of wood as foundations, columns, roofs (both flat and pitched).
Because of its strength in both compression and tension wood commonly used
for reinforcing other materials (e.g. brick and stone masonry). Equally wood
the common material for auxiliaries and fittings.
Chapter Five: Stone Construction
................................................................... 139
Development of stone and of brick for load bearing construction closely
interrelated. Basic categories of building stone—field stone, quarry stone; small
block, large block. Field stone occurs naturally as flat plates and as rounded
Xli CONTENTS
boulders both used to advantage in building. Early use (5th Millenium
ВС)
of
very massive units of unhewn stone in West European Megalithic construction.
Development of finely dressed quarry stone construction in Early Dynastic
Egypt by mid
3rd
Milleniume
ВС,
both small block (Zoser) and large block
(Pharaonic). Pharaonic masonry construction highly systematised, affording
greatly speeded up time schedule. Proceedure restricted to socio-economic
circumstances in Egypt. Small block (Zoser) masonry ( bastard ashlar )
diseminated to neighbouring lands ca mid
2nd
Millenium
ВС.
Rapid
development during 6th century
ВС
of superb finely dressed, dry stone ashlar
masonry in Classical Greece, also occurrence there of Lesbian, polygonal and
trapezoidal masonry. Stone typically employed as load-bearing construction.
Stability promoted by bonding, fixing either with cementious mortar or with
cramps and dowels; also by reinforcing with other materials (e.g. timber,
metals). Varied application of these measures in rubble masonry, Pharaonic
Egyptian building, Bastard ashlar, and Classical Greek ashlar. Stone was
employed as framed construction
—
NB
Les Villes Mortes
of North Syria in Late
Aniquity. Two modes of stone building construction: as all stone building and
as an element in mixed construction. Limitation of all stone building because
of relative weakness of stone in tension, thus unsuitability as roofing. However
occurrence of monumental stone roofing both trabeated (Pharaonic Egypt) and
arcuated (vaults and domes) in Classical and Late Antique building. Stone as an
element in mixed construction largely for foundations and substructures of
walls. Also striking use of stone for columns and piers, even when roof of other
material as e.g. in Classical building and in Achaemenid Persian building.
Appendix: Rock Cut Monuments
Chapter Six: Brick (Earth/Clay) Construction
.............................................. 229
Introductory historical resume. Neolithic origins, ca
8000
ВС-бООО ВС,
connected with round house building. Hand modelled mud bricks succeeded
by form moulded mud bricks, which became standardised for use in rectangular
building (in Mesopotamia ca
4500
ВС).
Mesopotamian brick masonry. Brick the
material used for all building monumental and domestic. Several distinct forms
of brick used, flat square bricks, flat rectangular bricks, long narrow bricks
(Riemchen), plano-convex bricks. Riemchen and plano-convex bricks
characteristic of
3rd
Millennium
ВС;
square brick characteristic of later times,
notably
Neo
Babylonian. Burnt bricks introduced for special purposes, ca
3rd
Millennium, to become increasingly used for general construction (cf Neo-
Babylonian period). Varied, highly developed system of pattern bonding during
2nd
Millennium
ВС.
Brick arcuated construction from an early age for both
arches and vaults, NB corbelled, radial and pitch brick setting. Egyptian brick
masonry evolved rapidly during later pre-dynastic and early dynastic times (ca
3000
ВС).
Originally influenced by Mesopotamia, its subsequent development
was entirely independent. After introduction of fine stone masonry (mid
3rd
Millennium
ВС)
use of brick generally restricted to certain classes of building.
Basic brick form rectangular, twice as long as broad (cf traditional modern
CONTENTS Xlii
bricks).
Pree
use of bricks set on edge provided scope for varied pattern
bonding. Burnt brick not used as standard construction until late age, notably
in Roman period. Early use of brick vaulting for roofing (underground)
structures by corbelled, radial and pitched brick setting. Later use of brick
vaulting in free standing structures. During Pharaonic times principally in
utilitarian buildings, e.g. storehouses; but occasionally brick temples occur (cf
Temple of Amun at Malqata). During Roman period brick used for buildings
of all description, monumental and domestic, with attendant brick vaulting.
Possible influence of Roman construction. Roman brick masonry. Obscure
origin of monumental building in burnt brick at Rome. Earliest attested use of
burnt brick as triangular facing units to Roman Concrete construction (opus
testaceum) during
1st
century AD. However extrinsic evidence that burnt bricks
were manufactured and used previously. Roman bricks of square format, thus
little scope for developed bonding schemes
—
in appearance walls are of simple
stretcher bond. Although most large span roofing effected in concrete, there are
examples of brick masonry domes, e.g. Temple of Diana at Baiae and the
Mausoleum of Diocletian at
Spalato.
Much Roman brick masonry in the
provinces. In Anatolia and Greece during
2nd
century AD excellent load
bearing brick construction (e.g. Kizil Avlu at
Pergamům)
perhaps owing
something to a survival of the Old Mesopotamian building tradition. Whatever
the construction, the technique of Roman brick laying superior, with a peak of
excellence in the first half of the
2nd
century AD. Byzantine brick masonry. All
monumental brick construction in burnt brick, with square bricks, generally ca
11
on a side (ca
15 / 37
cms) as in Roman brick masonry. However aspect of
Byzantine brickwork changed through ever increasing thickness of mortar
joints which come to exceed that of the bricks. Monumental buildings either all
brick construction or mixed brick and stone construction. Mixed construction
of courses of brick masonry and courses of stone masonry succeeding each
other in some regular pattern. Striking change from Roman practice in large
span roofing from concrete to brick construction, erected not over circular plan
but over square chambers using structural devices of the pendentive and the
squinch. Byzantine brick domes built either with or without centering. Roman
background for construction in brick using centering. Sassanian background for
dome construction without centering. Abiding question of
Rom oder
Orient
applicable to Byzantine brick construction as well as to design. Late Iranian
Brick Masonry. Parthian Building (ca
100
BC-224 AD). Parthian art and
architecture essentially Hellenistic in derivation not traditional Middle Eastern,
but this refers to design. Survival of old Mesopotamian tradition of building
construction (i.e. brick masonry): General use of burnt brick in monumental
building. Square bricks the standard format; an innovation in brick laying is
setting square bricks on edge to effect pattern bonding. Where preserved,
roofing of rectangular chambers by barrel vaults, little or no surviving evidence
of domes or cross vaults. Evidence restricted almost entirely to underground
construction (vaulted chamber tombs in Mesopotamian tradition, NB at
Assur).
Effectively varied brick construction in interest of avoiding centering, both by
XIV
CONTENTS
pitched brick setting and by reducing spans by corbelling out haunches. Very
little direct record of brick roofing to free standing buildings. Roofing of Palace
at
Assur
reckoned to be pitched brick barrel vaulting. Sassanian Building
(224
AD-627 AD). Sassanian empire geographically extended with varied materials
and modes of construction. Rubble construction more prominent than brick.
Brick employed almost entirely as mud brick. Brick laying in general carried on
Parthian manners. Continued construction of barrel vaulting with vault of ca
26m span over the
Iwan
of the Palace at Ctesiphon (6th Cent. AD), made
possible by great wealth of the Empire. A momentous structural innovation the
introduction of the dome carried on squinches over a square chamber. This
construction occurred in Iran from the beginning of the Sassanian period (ca
250
AD), and later appeared widely dispersed East and West. Vaults occurred
assembled from prefabricated reinforced ribbing. Earliest examples in Median
building (8th Cent.
ВС)
but main development in Sassanian building, where
material of construction gypsum plaster with reinforcing of pliant canes and
rushes etc.
Chapter Seven: Roman Concrete Construction
............................................ 269
Most significant overall technical advance afforded by Roman Concrete was
capacity to roof large areas with cross vaults and domes
—
free spans of roofing
were thus magnified from a few metres (ca
5
m-7 m) to over
40
m, and this
advance was maintained but never exceeded until 20th century AD engineering.
This revolutionary development in and about Rome during
1st
and
2nd
centuries AD made possible by expert timber construction of centering and
shuttering. Three possible types of centering for large span concrete roofing:
standing centering, flying centering, axial tower centering. Shuttering fabricated
by timber boarding, but often included brick lining and also upstanding brick
string courses inset into concrete. Placing of Roman Concrete against and above
shuttering, a difficult and little discussed operation, effected from exterior and
requiring special access installations.
АД
compartmentalising of concrete mass
by way of inset brick work an advantage both in the placing and in the curing
of concrete.
Structural behaviour of Roman Concrete domes and cross vaults with their
inset brick masonry long a disputed issue, vexed by obscurantist concept of
monolithic construction . Whether or not the dome etc constituted a monolith
(i.e. behaved in isolation as a single rigid unit) did not take the structure out of
the laws of statics. Thus concrete domes were stressed in tension ( hoop
tension ) at the haunches and developed vertical fissures in this region when
the material of construction was not strong enough to resist these stresses. In
later Roman times
(3rd
and 4th centuries AD) concrete domes incorporated
increasing use of brick meridional arches. Difficult to determine whether such
arches were conceived as reinforcing to concrete structure or as a brick framed
structure with concrete infill. In either event such arches provided strength in
compression, and did not function to reinforce the structural weakness in
tension at the haunches of concrete. In later times this reinforcing provided by
CONTENTS
XV
way of circumferent metal chains inset at the haunches but no evidence of such
a device in Roman times. Two fold Roman measures to counteract failure in
hoop tension: minimising self load of structure by use of lighter weight
materials in upper registers, together with extremely solid masonry imposts and
extensive buttressing to resist outward thrust.
Conclusion
........................................................................................................... 285
Index
..................................................................................................................... 299
|
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| id | DE-604.BV035873039 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T22:06:30Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9789004177451 9789004177468 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-018731195 |
| oclc_num | 643504518 |
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| physical | XXXVI, 325 S. Kt. 30 cm |
| psigel | gbd_8 |
| publishDate | 2009 |
| publishDateSearch | 2009 |
| publishDateSort | 2009 |
| publisher | Brill |
| record_format | marc |
| series | Technology and change in history |
| series2 | Technology and change in history |
| spelling | Wright, George R. H. 1924-2014 Verfasser (DE-588)174051891 aut Ancient building technology 3,1 Vol. 3, Construction ; Pt. 1, Text by G. R. H. Wright Leiden [u.a.] Brill 2009 XXXVI, 325 S. Kt. 30 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Technology and change in history 12,1 Technology and change in history ... (DE-604)BV013038392 3,1 Technology and change in history 12,1 (DE-604)BV011405235 12,1 Digitalisierung BSBMuenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=018731195&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Wright, George R. H. 1924-2014 Ancient building technology Technology and change in history |
| title | Ancient building technology |
| title_auth | Ancient building technology |
| title_exact_search | Ancient building technology |
| title_full | Ancient building technology 3,1 Vol. 3, Construction ; Pt. 1, Text by G. R. H. Wright |
| title_fullStr | Ancient building technology 3,1 Vol. 3, Construction ; Pt. 1, Text by G. R. H. Wright |
| title_full_unstemmed | Ancient building technology 3,1 Vol. 3, Construction ; Pt. 1, Text by G. R. H. Wright |
| title_short | Ancient building technology |
| title_sort | ancient building technology vol 3 construction pt 1 text |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=018731195&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV013038392 (DE-604)BV011405235 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT wrightgeorgerh ancientbuildingtechnology31 |