Aleksander Wielki:
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | Polish |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Wrocław
Wydawn. Uniw. Wrocławskiego
2007
|
| Ausgabe: | Wyd. 2. |
| Schriftenreihe: | Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis
2957 |
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract |
| Beschreibung: | 630 S., [24] Bl. Ill. 22 cm |
| ISBN: | 9788322928233 |
Internformat
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| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Aleksander Wielki |c Krzysztof Nawotka |
| 250 | |a Wyd. 2. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Wrocław |b Wydawn. Uniw. Wrocławskiego |c 2007 | |
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| 490 | 1 | |a Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis |v 2957 | |
| 505 | 0 | |a Bibliogr. s. [535]-560. Indeksy | |
| 600 | 1 | 7 | |a Aleksander / III Wielki / (król Macedonii / 356-323 a.C.) / biografia |2 jhpk |
| 600 | 1 | 7 | |a Aleksander <III Wielki, król Macedonii , 356-323 a.C.> - biografia |2 jhpk |
| 600 | 1 | 4 | |a Alexander <the Great, 356-323 B.C> |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804138464245972992 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Spis
tresei
Przedmowa
................................... 5
Rozdział I
·
Dzieciństwo, rodzina, Macedonia
................ 15
1.
Narodziny Aleksandra
......................... 15
2.
Macedonia
................................ 20
3.
Dynastia Argeadów
............................ 33
4.
Filip
II
i odbudowa państwa macedońskiego
............. 37
5.
Armia macedońska Filipa
II
i Aleksandra
............... 49
6.
Dzieciństwo Aleksandra, lata szkolne
................. 65
Rozdział
II
·
Następca tronu
..................... ..... 75
1.
U boku ojca
............................... 75
2.
Cheroneja
................................ 84
3.
Kongres w Koryncie i początek wojny z Persją
............ 90
4.
Afera Piksodarosa
............................ 118
5.
Wesele Kleopatry
............................ 120
6.
Śmierć Filipa
.............................. 125
Rozdział III
·
Pierwsze lata panowania
.................... 130
1.
Przejęcie władzy i pogrzeb Filipa
................... 130
2.
Wojna na północy
............................ 146
3.
Zagłada Teb
............................... 152
Rozdział
IV·
Od Abydos do Aleksandrii
................... 162
1.
Granik
-
pierwsze zwycięstwo
..................... 162
2.
Wolność Greków maloazjatyckich
................... 186
3.
Od Halikamasu do Cylicji
-
kampania w Azji Mniejszej
....... 203
4.
Bitwa pod Issos
............................. 232
5.
Azja Mniejsza, Fenicja, Syria, Palestyna
................ 254
6.
Aleksander w Egipcie
......................... 285
Rozdział
V
·
Król Azji
............................. 306
1.
Z
Memfis
do Mezopotamii
....................... 306
2.
Powstanie Agisa III
........................... 314
3.
Gaugamela
............................... 320
4.
Babilon,
Suza i
Persepolis
....................... 335
5.
Śmierć Dariusza III i upadek Parmeniona
............... 362
630
Spis treści
6.
Podbój wschodniego Iranu
....................... 379
7.
Czas intryg i niepokojów
........................ 403
Rozdział
VI
·
Wyprawa do Indii
........................ 416
1.
Z Sogdiany nad Indus
......................... 416
2.
Taksila
i Poros
............................. 430
3.
Hyfasis
—
kres wyprawy
........................ 443
4.
W stroną Oceanu
............................ 449
Rozdział
VII
·
Ostatnie lata
.......................... 463
1.
Śladami Cyrusa i Semiramidy
..................... 463
2.
Kryzys imperium
............................ 470
3.
Wesele w Suzie
............................. 478
4.
Bunt w Opis
.............................. 485
5.
Grecja w
324
roku: wygnańcy i nowy bóg
.............. 492
6.
Śmierć Hefajstiona
........................... 501
7.
Powrót do Babilonu
.......................... 506
Rozdział
VIII·
Śmierć, ostatnie plany, grób
................. 514
1.
Śmierć Aleksandra
........................... 514
2.
Dziedzictwo Aleksandra
........................ 521
3.
Grób Aleksandra
............................ 526
Bibliografia
................................... 535
Summary
.................................... 561
Indeks osobowy, geograficzny, rzeczowy
................... 569
Indeks źródeł
.................................. 598
Spis ilustracji
.................................. 621
Spis map
.................................... 627
Alexander
the Great
Summary
Recent decades have seen quite a few books on Alexander the Great whose authors
reject the very term biography for a work reconstructing the career of this his¬
torical character. This volume is, for a change, a biography of Alexander in which,
in accordance with the rules of the genre, I try to give an account of his life set
against the background of the history of Greece, Macedonia and the Persian empire
in the fourth
с
B.C. Hence chapter I begins with the birth of Alexander, chapter
VIII
deals with his death, will ( last plans ), funeral cortege and hypotheses con¬
cerning the precise location and fate of his tomb, while the rest of the book mostly
tells the story of his life and campaigns. This book is not yet another contribution
to military history. It is not to deny its importance but so much has been said on the
military aspect of Alexander s career in recent decades that I could hardly contribute
anything more of substance. In fact, Alexander study of late has been dominated by
a minimalist approach which reduces him to little more than a soldier and conqueror
divorced from any serious vision of the future. In belief that the pendulum has swung
too far in reaction to the idealising period embodied by W.W. Tarn s famous study,
I propose to return to the questions of Alexander s motives, aims and reasons for
his qualified at best success in building a lasting empire. Nowadays books on
Alexander the Great, be they biographies or non-biographies, rarely contribute new
facts; their role is instead to present to the reader a new interpretation of this char¬
acter, arguably the most researched in human history. This book is no exception and
accordingly the present Summary does not summarise Alexander s life and career
but rather informs the reader what is the position taken by the author in matters of
scholarly contention.
Should a rigorous definition of biography be applied, no modem biography of
a person living in classical antiquity would ever be written because of the inadequate
source basis. Therefore this book contains passages normally excluded from the realm
of biography. Thus a substantial portion of chapter I ( Childhood, family, Macedonia )
deals with the political, social and military history of Macedonia in the fourth
с
B.C.,
in particular under Philip II. Macedonia is shown as an aristocratic state whose social
structure had more in common with neighbouring Thessaly and Thrace than with the
poleis of central and southern Greece. Macedonia of Alexander s childhood and youth
was a curious double monarchy in which the effective political power of Philip
Π
co¬
existed with the nominal kingship of his nephew Amyntas IV. This chapter presents
562
Summary
also the military build-up of Macedonia under Philip
Π
who more than doubled the
strength of the companion cavalry, created a very efficient corps of engineers equipped
with formidable siege engines and fielded a large infantry force of phalanx and
pezhetairoi, the latter called hypaspists under Alexander once the name pezhetairoi
had been transferred to the phalanx. This book subscribes to the minority view that
the Macedonian phalanx, composed of soldiers armed with long sarissai but with very
limited body armour (save for officers), owed its shape to the social and economic
conditions of Macedonia no less than to military considerations. The king needed
a full-strength infantry while his peasant subjects could not afford the costly
hoplite
panoply. Philip II solved this riddle by creating a military unit equipped at the king s
expense in superior offensive weapon of sarissai offsetting the inadequate defensive
gear. Little certain is known about the childhood of Alexander. This book remains
sceptical on the frequently alleged influence of
Olympias
on her son as a cause of
(overblown) Alexander s conflicts with his father. Our sources, scanty as they are,
show Philip s great care devoted to the education of Alexander from his early child¬
hood considered the heir apparent. The most celebrated episode of Alexander s edu¬
cation happened in Mieza under the auspices of Aristotle. The only tangible part of it
was regular classical schooling based on extensive readings of poetry, although it
would be rash to disregard Aristotle s general intellectual influence on Alexander and
his boyhood friends in their formative years.
Also in chapter II ( Crown Prince ) Philip II is a figure no less prominent than
Alexander. In
338
he defeated the united Greek armies at Chaeronea, ending at a
stroke the centuries-long domination of Greek
hoplites on
battlefields of the east¬
ern Mediterranean and making a major breakthrough in the Western military doc¬
trine by winning a pitched battle by a charge of cavalry armed, for the first time,
with long lances. The following year in Corinth he made most of Greek states con¬
clude a common peace treaty (forming the so-called League of Corinth) designed
as a tool of Macedonian hegemony in continental Greece. Greece and the position
of Macedonia in it was always the principal preoccupation of Philip s policy. His
plans of invading Persia belong to this realm too. The war aims he proclaimed in
Corinth: avenging crimes committed by Xerxes in
480-479
and liberating the
Greeks of Asia, rang an echo among a substantial portion of Greek public opinion,
buying Philip a greater following in Greece. A successful war could give the League
of Corinth a positive
raison d être,
alongside the negative one which was to pre¬
serve the common peace. All of these would have strengthened Philip s grip on
Greece. No evidence proves that Philip s plans for invading Persia were earlier than
342,
while his real war aims were probably limited to western Asia Minor. Persia
might appear an easy target to the Greeks and Macedonians of the third quarter of
the fourth century. They were largely ignorant of the workings of the Achaemenid
Empire and of its feudal nature, not to mention its size and resources. Persia was
treated by the Greeks with a mixture of admiration and contempt, while the com¬
mon ancient misconception of the overwhelming importance of Greek mercenaries
Summary
563
as the only valuable fighting force of the Great King is curiously shared by some
modern scholars. In the last years of Philip s rule Alexander played an increasing¬
ly important role of his father s trusted aid. Only after Chaeronea tensions emerged,
first in connection to the offer made in
337
by the satrap of
Caria
Pixodaros to marry
his daughter Ada to a son of Philip. Alexander s feeling of insecurity is betrayed by
his involvement which thwarted Philip s plan to accept Ada as a bride of his sec¬
ond son Arridhaeus. The greatest rift between father and son resulted from Philip s
marriage to Cleopatra which threatened eventually to disturb the balance of power
at the polygamous Macedonian court, affecting the position of both Alexander and
Olympias.
It is, however, not enough to convincingly inculpate either of the two in
the assassination of Philip in September/October
336.
Chapter III ( First years in power ) shows Alexander establishing his position
of leadership in Macedonia, Greece and the Balkans in
336-334.
1 remain sceptical
as to the scale of the alleged great purge conducted by Alexander in the autumn
of
336,
although his successful elimination of contenders for power, including
Amyntas IV, served as a royal ritual of passage of sorts, establishing the new king s
position within the Macedonian elite. Following his father s death, Alexander was
acclaimed king by soldiers present in Aigai. This gesture, although politically expe¬
dient, needs not to be understood as an exercise of the alleged constitutional right
of Macedonian soldiers assembly. Events of the autumn of
336
show in fact that
no precise rules governing succession to the throne existed in Argead Macedonia.
This chapter ponders as well over the issue of identification of the occupants of the
tombs in the Great Tumulus of
Vergina,
especially tombs II and III, never touched
by robbers. Ceramological and anthropological arguments weigh heavily against
identifying the man buried in tomb II with Philip II, who was in all probability
interred in tomb I, looted in antiquity. The most spectacular event of the one and
a half years between Alexander s accession to the throne and the beginning of his
expedition to Asia was the sack of Thebes in
335.
This horrifying deed, however
decried by Athenian orators, was not considered illegitimate by a substantial por¬
tion of Greek public opinion and indeed welcomed by some neighbours of Thebes.
Its aftermath, apart from raising aversion to Macedonia in Greece, had also some
positive outcome for Alexander. By proving that wrath of the king of Macedonia
had no limits, it helped his viceroy Antipater keep Greece in check during
Alexander s long absence.
Chapter IV ( From Abydos to Alexandria ) is concerned with the first stage of
the Asian expedition, from the beginning to the conquest of Egypt. Alexander s
motives for invading Persia are largely unknown to us save his pothos (longing), or
constant striving at crossing boundaries and measuring himself against achievements
of his mythological ancestors. Needs of the great army inherited from Philip
П,
which
could not be met without a constant influx of booty, and the very nature of the
Macedonian military monarchy also contributed to the decision to start the war.
Alexander s march from
Pella
to Granicus was brimming with symbolic gestures
564
Summary
alluding to the previous conflicts between Europe and Asia: Trojan war and the inva¬
sion of Xerxes whose route was retraced in the spring of
334
and whose crimes were
to be avenged. Planting the spear in the beach upon his landing proclaimed
Alexander s will to conquer Asia at the same time giving birth to the Hellenistic polit¬
ical doctrine of legitimacy of power gained by virtue of conquest. Darius III entrust¬
ed the conduct of war to the satraps of Asia Minor, probably in contempt of
Alexander, a newcomer to serious politics. The first clash occurred in early May
334
on the Granicus. Macedonian army prevailed over the Persians in numerical strength,
quality and leadership, with the best Persian general Memnon of Rhodes reduced to
commanding only his small cavalry contingent. I subscribe to the view that Alexander
attacked in the afternoon of the day on which his army reached the Granicus and
won by leading a charge of the companion cavalry against the enemy skilfully drawn
to the riverbed. An important event in the aftermath of Granicus was the surrender
of
Sardes
by Mithrenes. By assigning him to a position of prominence in his court
Alexander made the first step in the policy of attracting Iranian aristocrats to co-oper¬
ation
wiüi
the conqueror who was increasingly presenting himself as the legitimate
successor to Achaemenids. The liberation of Greek cities of Ionia,
Aeolia
and
Caria,
proclaimed soon afterwards, was real in these terms in which the Greeks of the late
fourth
с
B.C. understood freedom of the
polis.
It brought a profound political trans¬
formation towards vigorous democracy contributing to the triumph of this form of
government in the Greek world. Disbanding Macedoman fleet after the siege of
Miletus proved to be a strategic mistake which contributed to reducing the long bat¬
tle of Halicarnassus to an empty victory and endangered Alexander s rule in the
Aegean during Memnon s counter offensive in
333.
The prolonged campaign of
333
aimed not just at defeating Memnon s navy by
depriving it of land bases but also at conquering southern and central Asia Minor. It
was but a qualified success and fighting Persian resistance kept Macedonian gener¬
als, Antigonus in particular, busy to the end of Alexander s reign. The end of this
year brought the first pitched battle between Alexander and Darius known as the bat¬
tle of Issos. Its very location, on the western bank of the Pinaros river (modern
Payas)
in
Cilicia,
resulted from strategic blunders on both sides. The superior quality of
Macedonian cavalry and daring tactics of Alexander brought victory to his side, albeit
at a very heavy price of killed and wounded, especially among his infantry hard
pressed by Greek
hoplites on
Persian pay. During the two years between Issos and
Gaugamela Darius sought a diplomatic solution to the war making three peace offers
at increasingly more generous terms. Alexander rejected them in preference of decid¬
ing the outcome on the battlefield. His war aims, if limited at the onset of the expe¬
dition, now included taking over all Achaemenid empire. His decision not to pursue
Darius but first to clear the eastern Mediterranean of the Persians turned out a vic¬
torious strategy by securing his flank during the Gaugamela campaign, decisive to
the whole war. The campaign in Phoenicia in
332
led to the final demise of the
Persian navy composed mostly of squadrons contributed by Phoenician kings. It was
Summary
565
unnecessarily long due to the seven-month-long siege of Tyre arising so much from
cultural misunderstandings as from strategic considerations. The logistics of the long
siege led to the subjugating of neighbouring countries, including Palestine, which
might supply the Macedonian army. On this occasion Alexander paid a visit to
Jerusalem confirming privileges enjoyed by the Jews in the Persian empire. The next
stage was Egypt, taken without a fight. I agree with those who maintain that
Alexander accepted the crown of Pharaohs in a formal ceremony in Memphis. This
and other gestures, including the foundation of the Temple of the Barge in Luxor,
were designed to gain legitimacy in the eyes of the priestly elite of Egypt. The most
celebrated episode of the Egyptian sojourn of Alexander was his visit in Siwah. The
precise words delivered to the king in the oracle of Ammon will never be known but
it is certain that this experience changed him for ever and his belief in the divine father¬
hood of Zeus/Ammon is among better attested facets of Alexander s
Ufe.
Chapter V ( King of Asia ) covers the period from the leaving of Egypt in the
late spring of
331
to the conclusion of the conquest of Iran in the spring of
327.
In
331
the Macedonian probably marched parallel to the seashore all the way to the
mouth of the
Orantes
and then through the valley of the
Orantes
to Aleppo, then he
crossed the Euphrates in Thapscus, near modern Qal at Najim, and from there con¬
tinued to the Tigris and to Gaugamela (Tel Gomel, north of Jabal Maqlub).
Alexander s march through Syria and northern Mesopotamia proceeded unimpeded
even by the alarming news from
Péloponnèse
where the Macedonian hegemony was
challenged by
Agis
Ш
of Sparta. I find nothing in the sources to support moving the
date of the battle of Megalopolis which ended the war to the spring of
330.
Antipater
defeated
Agis
Ш
in the autumn of
331,
although the arriving at a post-war settlement
lasted long into
330.
In the aftermath of the decisive victory at Gaugamela on
1
Oc¬
tober
331
Alexander let himself be proclaimed king of Asia i.e. king of the Persian
empire. His next objective was Babylon, the most important city of the Near East.
Although Persian rule in Babylon was not a tyrannical occupation, Alexander man¬
aged to gain recognition of the Babylonian elite as the rightful king of the world .
Confirming Mazaeus as the satrap of
Babiruš
marked a new stage in Alexander s pol¬
icy towards the Iranian aristocracy, this of accepting loyalists of Darius to the service
of his successful challenger to the throne of Persia. This chapter traces Alexander s
orientalizing policy in the period of
331-327.
Following the death of Darius Alexander
claimed succession to the Persian throne, accepting Achaemenid court ceremonial and
assuming, at least on some occasions, the full royal costume. This policy peaked in
327
in an attempt to fuse his Iranian and Graeco-Macedonian court in the procedure
of obedience (proskynesis). The resistance of the Westerners, symbolised by
Callisthenes refusal to participate in what he and many others considered sacrilegious,
betrays one limit to Alexander s policy of building a unified imperial elite of
Macedonians, Greeks and Iranians living by the same rules. The other was his inabil¬
ity to gain full acceptance of the Iranians while not being a Persian, Aryan, and
Achaemenid capable of fulfilling all royal and religious taboos of Iran.
566
Summary
From Babylon the Macedonian army marched to
Susa,
then further east, cross¬
ing the
Pasitigris
(Karan),
probably in or near modern Shushtar. On the way to
Fars,
the division of Alexander crashed the last line of Persian defence in the Persian Gates,
to be identified with a gorge near Yazuj. Alexander s long stay in
Fars
was marked
by his failure to reconcile with inhabitants of this native land of the Achaemenids,
still loyal to Darius. Their refusal to co-operate was met with terror which peaked in
the burning of the palaces in
Persepolis
in May of
330.
The most arduous task under¬
taken by the Macedonians was the campaign in Bactria and
Sogdiana in 329-327.
For all the ruthlessness and military might of Alexander, victory came only with a
change of policy from the previous attempts to crash the resistance by force alone
to the buying off the powerful east Iranian aristocrats at the price of the recognition
of their semi-independent position within the feudal system of Iran. Symbolically,
his marriage to Rhoxane marked the turning point of Alexander s policy in
Sogdiana.
Chapter VI ( Expedition to India ) deals with the next difficult campaign, con¬
ducted in Punjab from
327
to
325
partly to restore the borders of the Achaemenid
empire of Darius I, but largely to fulfil Alexander s dream to reach the end of the
world and propelled by his constant urge to rival mythological and historical fig¬
ures believed to have acted in India (Dionysus, Heracles, Semiramis, Cyras the
Great). In fact, irrational elements in Alexander s behaviour came to the fore dur¬
ing this campaign directing his steps on more than one occasion, e.g. when the deci¬
sion was taken to storm the rock of Aornos because the alledged earlier attempt of
Krishna-Heracles was related as unsuccessful. The geographical knowledge of the
Macedonian general staff remained limited to the point of ignoring the size of India.
The Indian campaign was, even by Alexander s standards, exceptionally bloody.
Alien to the native culture, prone to misinterpretation of the social structure and cus¬
toms of India, Alexander resorted to tenor and extermination of rebellious tribes on
a far greater scale than anywhere else. The outcome of this expedition was dubious
at best: the administrative structure imposed on the conquered territories collapsed
in Alexander s lifetime leaving
Poras
as the only winner. Alexander managed, how¬
ever, to disturb the political structures of North-West of India, inadvertently paving
the way for the birth of the empire of Chandagupta Maurya.
Chapter
VII
( Last years ) covers the last two years of Alexander, from his
leaving
Påtala
in the early autumn of
325
to entering Babylon for the last time in
the spring of
323.
The only detectable rationale behind Alexander s decision to lead
the army through
Makrán
was again his determination to outdo Semiramis and Cyras
the Great. Macedonian losses during this march, although high, were exaggerated
in ancient sources. Alexander s long absence from the central provinces of his
empire led to disorder among his lieutenants, many of whom were behaving as if
he was never to return from India. Executions and demotions meted out by the king
in the late
325
and in
324
were Alexander s chosen remedy for anarchy in his realm.
Also the crisis of the Macedonian authority in Greece, revealed by the affair of
Harpalus,
betrays the crucial importance of the personality of the king and of his
Summary
567
personal involvement in the matters of state
ifit
was to function properly. Despite
the earlier setback withproskynesis and the newest embarrassment of the mysteri¬
ous desecration of the tomb of Cyras the Great, in
324-323
Alexander continued
his orientalizing policy. It culminated in the celebrated episode of mass marriages
in
Susa
of selected Macedonians and Greeks from the inner circle of power to
banian princesses, no doubt designed as a means of forging blood ties between the
highest elites of the ruling nations of Alexander s empire. Military reforms of this
period are congruous with this policy: young Iranian aristocrats were being increas¬
ingly admitted to the companion cavalry, while the Macedonian phalanx was to be
amalgamated with oriental infantry. The disaffection of Macedonian rank and file
erupted in
Opis
in the summer of
324.
Episodes like this or an earlier one on the
Hyphasis in
326
illustrate the transformation Macedonian veterans underwent dur¬
ing the long expedition to Asia. Confident of their importance, soldiers grew accus¬
tomed to having a say in political decisions. Alexander s will usually prevailed but
all dangerous consequences of this state of mind of Macedonian soldiers revealed
themselves in the period of the diadochi.
In
324
Alexander provoked a severe crisis in Greece by issuing an order to
Greek states to readmit exiles. This edict, backed by threat of force, although less
unpopular in Greece than it is often assumed, was sure to provoke war with some
leading Greek powers, like Athens and Aetolia, whose vital interests were at stake.
A variety of reasons for issuing the exiles edict can be identified: an attempt to estab¬
lish pro-Alexander parties in Greek states drawn from the returned exiles, a diver¬
sion against Antipater, and successful lobbying of Samians exiled from their island
by the Athenians. Another contentious matter dealt with in this chapter is that of
Alexander s divinity. I subscribe to the view that it was proclaimed in various parts
of the Greek world in
324-323
on initiative of the Greeks without a formal demand
issued by Alexander. In some cases at least voting divine honours for Alexander was
among measures taken to win his benevolence in the question of exiles. The last
months of Alexander s life spent in Babylon saw a flurry of diplomatic activity. There
is no reason to reject the tradition of a Roman embassy paying a visit in Babylon,
possibly to respond to Alexander s
démarche
concerning Etruscan piracy in the
Adriatic. While consolidating his empire at that time, Alexander summoned to his
court from Macedonia his retarded halfbrother Arrhidaeus, so that he might not be
used as a pawn by Antipater. Arrhidaeus was in all probability raised to the dignity
of the ceremonial king of Babylon.
The last days of Alexander and immediate aftermath of his death are dealt with
in chapter
VIII
( Death, last plans, tomb ). Alexander died in Babylon on
11
June
323
of natural causes, probably having succumbed to typhoid fever. Out of many
stories of omens predicting his death, the most reliable credits Babylonian priests
for their finding of a disquieting sign and taking all possible measures to divert bad
luck from Alexander. They warned Alexander of the consequences of entering
Babylon from a wrong side and then performed a substitute king ceremonial, time-
568
Summary
honoured in the East but misunderstood by Greek authors. The Last plans of
Alexander, as related by Diodorus, were probably a genuine document rejected by
Macedonian soldiers because it contained provisions for further wars unwanted by
the veterans. The death of Alexander meant also the demise of his political concept
of fostering involvement of Iranian aristocrats in the government of the empire.
Alexander s body was interred in Egypt, first in Memphis and then in Alexandria.
The exact location of his mausoleum
(Soma)
is unknown today, nor can we be cer¬
tain of the time it disappeared, although its existence was possibly recorded for the
last time by Ammianus
Marcellinus.
A tempting hypothesis sees the sarcophagus
once executed for Nectanebo II and now kept in the British Museum as the origi¬
nal repository of the body of Alexander in
321.
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Nawotka, Krzysztof 1960- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)136899749 |
| author_facet | Nawotka, Krzysztof 1960- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Nawotka, Krzysztof 1960- |
| author_variant | k n kn |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV035207662 |
| contents | Bibliogr. s. [535]-560. Indeksy |
| ctrlnum | (gbd)0920682 (OCoLC)176969267 (DE-599)BVBBV035207662 |
| edition | Wyd. 2. |
| format | Book |
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| genre | (DE-588)4006804-3 Biografie gnd-content |
| genre_facet | Biografie |
| id | DE-604.BV035207662 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T21:28:36Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9788322928233 |
| language | Polish |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-017013982 |
| oclc_num | 176969267 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-12 |
| owner_facet | DE-12 |
| physical | 630 S., [24] Bl. Ill. 22 cm |
| psigel | gbd_4_0903 |
| publishDate | 2007 |
| publishDateSearch | 2007 |
| publishDateSort | 2007 |
| publisher | Wydawn. Uniw. Wrocławskiego |
| record_format | marc |
| series | Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis |
| series2 | Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis |
| spelling | Nawotka, Krzysztof 1960- Verfasser (DE-588)136899749 aut Aleksander Wielki Krzysztof Nawotka Wyd. 2. Wrocław Wydawn. Uniw. Wrocławskiego 2007 630 S., [24] Bl. Ill. 22 cm txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis 2957 Bibliogr. s. [535]-560. Indeksy Aleksander / III Wielki / (król Macedonii / 356-323 a.C.) / biografia jhpk Aleksander <III Wielki, król Macedonii , 356-323 a.C.> - biografia jhpk Alexander <the Great, 356-323 B.C> Alexander III. Makedonien, König v356-v323 (DE-588)118501828 gnd rswk-swf (DE-588)4006804-3 Biografie gnd-content Alexander der Große (338 - 323 v. Chr.) (DE-2581)TH000003608 gbd Alexander III. Makedonien, König v356-v323 (DE-588)118501828 p DE-604 Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis 2957 (DE-604)BV004668106 2957 Digitalisierung BSBMuenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=017013982&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung BSB Muenchen application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=017013982&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Abstract |
| spellingShingle | Nawotka, Krzysztof 1960- Aleksander Wielki Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis Bibliogr. s. [535]-560. Indeksy Aleksander / III Wielki / (król Macedonii / 356-323 a.C.) / biografia jhpk Aleksander <III Wielki, król Macedonii , 356-323 a.C.> - biografia jhpk Alexander <the Great, 356-323 B.C> Alexander III. Makedonien, König v356-v323 (DE-588)118501828 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)118501828 (DE-588)4006804-3 |
| title | Aleksander Wielki |
| title_auth | Aleksander Wielki |
| title_exact_search | Aleksander Wielki |
| title_full | Aleksander Wielki Krzysztof Nawotka |
| title_fullStr | Aleksander Wielki Krzysztof Nawotka |
| title_full_unstemmed | Aleksander Wielki Krzysztof Nawotka |
| title_short | Aleksander Wielki |
| title_sort | aleksander wielki |
| topic | Aleksander / III Wielki / (król Macedonii / 356-323 a.C.) / biografia jhpk Aleksander <III Wielki, król Macedonii , 356-323 a.C.> - biografia jhpk Alexander <the Great, 356-323 B.C> Alexander III. Makedonien, König v356-v323 (DE-588)118501828 gnd |
| topic_facet | Aleksander / III Wielki / (król Macedonii / 356-323 a.C.) / biografia Aleksander <III Wielki, król Macedonii , 356-323 a.C.> - biografia Alexander <the Great, 356-323 B.C> Alexander III. Makedonien, König v356-v323 Biografie |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=017013982&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=017013982&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| volume_link | (DE-604)BV004668106 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT nawotkakrzysztof aleksanderwielki |