The oil palm:
Gespeichert in:
| Hauptverfasser: | , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
Hoboken, NJ
Wiley-Blackwell
[2007]
|
| Ausgabe: | 4. ed. |
| Schriftenreihe: | World agriculture series
|
| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis Klappentext |
| Beschreibung: | Bis 3. Aufl. u.d.T.: Hartley, Charles W. S.: The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.). - Literaturverz. S. 483 - 541 |
| Beschreibung: | XXVIII, 562 S. [8] Bl. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 0632052120 9780632052127 |
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| 100 | 1 | |a Corley, R. H. V. |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a The oil palm |c R. H. V. Corley and P. B. Tinker |
| 250 | |a 4. ed. | ||
| 264 | 1 | |a Hoboken, NJ |b Wiley-Blackwell |c [2007] | |
| 300 | |a XXVIII, 562 S. [8] Bl. |b Ill., graph. Darst. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 490 | 0 | |a World agriculture series | |
| 500 | |a Bis 3. Aufl. u.d.T.: Hartley, Charles W. S.: The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.). - Literaturverz. S. 483 - 541 | ||
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Ölpalme |0 (DE-588)4172434-3 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 689 | 0 | 0 | |a Ölpalme |0 (DE-588)4172434-3 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | |5 DE-604 | |
| 700 | 1 | |a Tinker, P. B. |e Verfasser |4 aut | |
| 856 | 4 | 2 | |m Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=017000047&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| 856 | 4 | 2 | |m Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=017000047&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Klappentext |
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Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804138441699491840 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Contents
Preface
to the fourth edition
xxi
Preface to the third edition
xxii
Preface to the second edition
xxii
Preface to the first edition
xxiii
Acknowledgements
xxiv
Abbreviations
xxvi
1.
The origin and development of the oil palm industry
1
1.1
Origin of the oil palm
1
1.1.1
Physical evidence
1
1.1.2
Historical evidence
1
1.1.3
Natural habitat
2
1.2
The oil palm in Africa
2
1.2.1
Geographical distribution
2
1.2.2
African palm groves
3
1.2.3
Early trade
3
1.2.4
Development, use and improvement of the African palm groves
4
1.3
Development of the oil palm plantation industry
6
1.3.1
The African plantation industry
6
1.3.2
The Deli palm
6
1.3.3
The Asian plantation industry
7
1.4
World-wide development of the industry,
1950-2001 7
1.4.1
General
7
1.4.2
Price structures and competitiveness
12
1.4.2.1
Changes in the past
12
1.4.2.2
Future changes
13
1.4.2.3
Competition between regions
13
1.4.2.4
Competition between products
14
1.4.3
Single-country developments IS
1.4.3.1
Indonesia
15
1.4.3.2
Malaysia
16
1.4.3.3
Other Asian countries
18
1.4.3.4
Nigeria
19
1.4.3.5
Democratic Republic of the Congo
20
1.4.3.6
The Ivory Coast
20
1.4.3.7
Other West African countries
20
1.4.3.8
Brazil
20
1.4.3.9
Colombia
21
1.4.3.10
Costa Rica
21
1.4.3.11
Ecuador
21
1.4.3.12
Other South and Central American countries
21
vi
Contents
1.5 Development
methods
21
1.5.1 Main
mechanisms of oil palm development
21
1.5.2
Plantations
22
1.5.3
Smallholders
22
1.5.4
Research
23
1.6
Trade in and use of oil palm products
24
1.6.1
Trade in oil palm products
24
1.6.2
Traditional uses of oil palm products
25
1.6.3
New uses of palm oil
25
1.6.3.1
As oleochemicals
25
1.6.3.2
As biomass and internal combustion fuels
25
1.6.4
The conflict over tropical oils
26
2.
The classification and morphology of the oil palm
27
2.1
Classification of oil palms
27
2.2
The African oil palm,
Elaeis guineensis
Jacq.
27
2.2.1
Morphology and growth
28
2.2.1.1
The seed
28
2.2.1.2
The seedling
30
2.2.1.3
Development of the stem and stem apex
31
2.2.1.4
The leaf
33
2.2.1.5
The root system
35
2.2.1.6
Oil palm chromosomes
37
2.2.2
Flowering and fruiting
37
2.2.2.1
Inflorescences
37
2.2.2.2
The female inflorescence and flower
42
2.2.2.3
The male inflorescence and flower
42
2.2.2.4
Mixed inflorescences
43
2.2.2.5
Pollination
44
2.2.2.6
The fruit
45
2.2.2.7
The fruit bunch
46
2.3
The American oil palm, Eheis
oleifera (HBK)
Cortes
48
2.3.1
Distribution
48
2.3.2
Morphology
48
2.3.3
Uses
50
2.4
The
Elaeis guineensis X Elaeis
oleifera
hybrid
50
3.
The climate and soils of the oil palm-growing regions
53
3.1
General
53
3.2
Climate
53
3.2.1
Temperature
53
3.2.2
Rainfall, evaporation and water balance
56
3.2.2.1
Evapotranspiration
56
3.2.2.2
The water balance and soil water
59
3.2.2.3
Water deficits
60
3.2.3
Water relations and palm yield
63
3.2.4
Radiation and its effects
64
3.3
Total climate and oil palm growth
66
3.3.1
Climatic requirements for the oil palm
66
3.3.2
Longer term weather variations
70
3.3.3
Country and region experience
70
Contents
vii
3.4
Soils
71
3.4.1
Soil classification in the equatorial tropics
71
3.4.1.1
Types of classification
71
3.4.1.2
Current general-purpose classifications
71
3.4.1.3
Soil classification in South-east Asia
72
3.4.2
Soils characteristics that are important for the oil palm
74
3.4.2.1
System of Olivin
74
3.4.2.2
System of Paramananthan
75
3.4.3
Soil characteristics that are unfavourable for the oil palm
75
3.4.3.1
Rooting depth and density
75
3.4.3.2
Poorly drained (hydromorphic) soils
76
3.4.3.3
Acid
sulfate
soils
77
3.4.3.4
Saline soils
77
3.4.3.5
Lateritic soils
77
3.4.3.6
Deep sandy soils
77
3.4.3.7
Peat soils
77
3.4.3.8
Hilly and sloping soils
79
3.4.3.9
Volcanic ash soils
79
3.4.3.10
Very weathered and leached soils
79
3.5
Soils of the oil palm regions
80
3.5.1
Soils of Asia
80
3.5.1.1
Malaysian soils
80
3.5.1.2
Indonesian soils
81
3.5.2
Soils of Africa
81
3.5.2.1
Nigerian soils
81
3.5.2.2
Other West African sous
84
3.5.2.3
Soils of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
84
3.5.3
Soils of America
86
3.6
Land classification
88
4.
Growth, flowering and yield
89
4.1
Analysis of plant growth
89
4.1.1
Background
89
4.1.1.1
History of plant growth analysis
89
4.1.1.2
Modern concepts
90
4.1.1.3
Factors limiting growth
90
4.1.2
Dry matter production
91
4.1.2.1
Early work on oil palm
91
4.1.2.2
Standing biomass
92
4.1.2.3
Root biomass
92
4.1.3
Non-destructive methods of measurement
93
4.1.3.1
Leaf area
94
4.1.3.2
Leaf dry weight
94
4.1.3.3
Trunk dry weight increment
94
4.1.3.4
Bunch dry weight
95
4.1.3.5
Conclusions
95
4.1.4
Components of dry matter production
95
4.1.4.1
Incident radiation
95
4.1.4.2
Light interception
95
4.1.4.3
Photosynthesis and the conversion coefficient
97
4.1.4.4
Partitioning of dry matter
99
viii Contents
4.2
Vegetarive
growth and partitioning of dry
matter 99
4.2.1
Vegetarive
growth
99
4.2.2
Partitioning between vegetative growth and bunch production
101
4.2.2.1
Young palms
101
4.2.2.2
Fruiting palms
102
4.2.2.3
Short-term fluctuation in bunch dry matter requirements
103
4.2.2.4
Trunk storage
103
4.2.3
Conclusions
103
4.3
Environmental and management factors
104
4.3.1
Effects of planting density
104
4.3.2
Effects of fertilisers
106
4.3.3
Water
106
4.3.4
Temperature
109
4.3.5
Palm age
109
4.3.6
Pruning and defoliation
110
4.3.7
Inflorescence removal 111
4.3.8
Generic variation 111
4.4
Flowering
113
4.4.1
Stages in inflorescence development
114
4.4.2
Fruiting activity
114
4.4.3
Inflorescence initiation US
4.4.4
Sex ratio
116
4.4.5
Inflorescence abortion
118
4.4.6
Bunch failure
121
4.4.7
Bunch weight
121
4.4.7.1
Fruit set
121
4.4.7.2
Other components of bunch weight
123
4.4.7.3
Times of determination of bunch weight components
124
4.4.8
Rates of inflorescence and bunch development
124
4.4.9
Conclusions
125
4.5
Yield
125
4.5.1
Yield of bunches
125
4.5.2
Oil content of the bunch
126
4.5.3
Effects of climate and weather on yield of bunches
126
4.5.4
Yield forecasting
127
4.5.5
Crop modelling
127
5.
Selection and breeding
133
5.1
History of selection
133
5.1.1
Indonesia and Malaysia
134
5.1.1.1
Deli dura in Sumatra
134
5.1.1.2
Deli
¿ига
in Malaysia
136
5.1.1.3
Tenera
and pisifera in Sumatra
138
5.1.1.4
Tenera
and pisifera in Malaysia
140
5.1.2
Congo
140
5.1.3
West Africa
141
5.1.3.1
Ivory Coast and Benin
141
5.1.3.2
Nigeria
142
5.1.3.3
Cameroon
143
5.1.4
Latin America
144
5.1.5
The emergence of the dura X pisifera cross
144
5.1.6
Current breeding and seed production programmes
145
Contents
¡x
.6.1
Africa
145
.6.2
The Far East
146
.6.3
Latin America
147
5.1.7
Prospection
and conservation
148
5.1.7.1
Prospection
by African centres
148
5.1.7.2
Prospection
by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board
149
5.1.7.3
Collection of
Ela
eis
oleifera
150
5.1.7.4
Utilisation of germplasm collections
151
5.1.7.5
Conservation of breeding populations
151
5.2
Techniques used in oil palm breeding and selection
152
5.2.1
Controlled pollination
152
5.2.1.1
The need for controlled pollination
152
5.2.1.2
Methods of controlled pollination
153
5.2.2
Trial designs and crossing programmes
154
5.2.3
Yield records and generation time
154
5.2.4
Bunch analysis
155
5.2.4.1
The NIFOR method
155
5.2.4.2
Variations on the method
156
5.2.4.3
Future developments
159
5.2.5
Growth measurements
160
5.2.6
Genetic analysis in breeding trials
160
5.2.6.1
Causes of variation
160
5.2.6.2
Heritabilities
160
5.2.6.3
Breeding values
162
5.2.7
Selection at the immature stage
162
5.2.8
Molecular markers in oil palm breeding
163
5.2.8.1
Types of marker
163
5.2.8.2
Fingerprinting
165
5.2.8.3
Mapping and linkage studies
165
5.3
Variation and inheritance
167
5.3.1
Sources of variation
168
5.3.2
Bunch yield and its components
168
5.3.3
Inheritance of fruit characters
170
5.3.3.1
Variation in shell thickness
170
5.3.3.2
Oil and kernel to bunch and their components
174
5.3.3.3
Other fruit characters
176
5.3.4
Vegetative characters
177
5.3.4.1
Vegetative dry matter production
177
5.3.4.2
Palm height
177
5.3.4.3
Resistance to wind
178
5.3.4.4
Other vegetative characters
178
5.3.5
Disease resistance
178
5.3.6
Stress tolerance
179
5.3.6.1
Drought tolerance
179
5.3.6.2
Low-temperature tolerance
180
5.3.7
Oil composition
180
5.3.7.1
Oil composition and
Elaeis
oleifera
hybrids
180
5.3.7.2
Variation in oil composition in
Elaeis
guineensis
181
5.3.7.3
Composition of kernel oil
181
5.3.7.4
Carotene content
182
5.4
Methods of selection and breeding
182
Contents
5.4.1
Breeding
objectives
182
5.4.1.1
Bunch yield or bunch quality?
182
5.4.1.2
Oil or kernels?
182
5.4.2
Choice of breeding method
183
5.4.2.1
Reciprocal recurrent selection
183
5.4.2.2
Family and individual selection
185
5.4.2.3
Pisifera selection
185
5.4.2.4
Use of breeding values
186
5.2.4.5
Inbred
Unes
187
5.4.3
Inbreeding depression and heterosis
188
5.4.4
Competition and planting density
189
5.4.5
Breeding and clonal propagation
190
5.4.5.1
Tenera
örtets
190
5.4.5.2
Clonal seed
190
5.5
Selection and breeding in practice
191
5.5.1
Results of breeding work
191
5.5.1.1
Progeny testing
191
5.5.1.2
Comparison of AVROS and other origins
191
5.5.1.3
Comparison of La
Mé
and Yangambi
193
5.5.1.4
The
Deh
¿ига
194
5.5.1.5
Fertile pisiferas
194
5.5.1.6
Interspecific hybrids
194
5.5.1.7
Genotype X environment interactions
195
5.5.2
Progress achieved through breeding
196
5.5.2.1
Theoretical selection progress
196
5.5.2.2
Progress in the Deli dura population
197
5.5.2.3
Progress in the CIRAD programme
198
5.5.2.4
Conclusion
198
5.6
Oil palm improvement in the future
198
6.
Vegetative propagation and biotechnology
201
6.1
History of oil palm tissue culture
201
6.2
Tissue culture methods
201
6.2.1
Culture on solid media
201
6.2.1.1
Tissue sampling and callus formation
202
6.2.1.2 Embryogenesis
and embryoid proliferation
203
6.2.1.3
Shoot development and rooting
203
6.2.1.4
Hardening and transplanting
203
6.2.1.5
Conclusions
204
6.2.2
Storage of oil palm cultures
204
6.2.2.1
Cryopreservation
204
6.2.2.2
Storage with minimal growth
204
6.2.3
Physiology and biochemistry of plants in culture
204
6.3
Abnormal flowering, bunch failure and other problems
204
6.3.1
Mantled fruit
205
6.3.1.1
Frequency and severity of abnormal flowering
205
6.3.1.2
Causes of abnormal flowering
205
6.3.1.3
Conclusions
207
6.3.2
Other abnormalities
207
6.3.3
Testing
for abnormalities
207
6.4
Clone testing
207
Contents
x¡
6.4.1 Ortet
selection
208
6.4.2
Clone yields
208
6.4.3
Clone adaptability
210
6.5
The future for oil palm clonal propagation
210
6.5.1
New tissue culture methods
210
6.5.2
Recycling through culture
211
6.5.3
Commercial developments
211
6.6
Other aspects of oil palm biotechnology
212
6.6.1
Other tissue culture techniques
212
6.6.1.1
Microspore
culture
212
6.6.1.2
Protoplast culture
213
6.6.2
Transformation
213
6.6.2.1
Targets for transformation
213
6.6.2.2
Promoters
214
6.6.2.3
Transformation methods
214
6.6.3
Conclusions
215
7.
Seed germination and nurseries
217
7.1
Seed germination
217
7.1.1
The physiology of germination
217
7.1.1.1
Effect of temperature
217
7.1.1.2
Moisture content
218
7.1.1.3
Growth regulators
219
7.1.2
Germination under natural conditions
219
7.1.3
Seed handling
219
7.1.3.1
Preparation of seed
219
7.1.3.2
Storage of seed
220
7.1.4
Methods of germination
220
7.1.4.1
Dry heat method
222
7.1.4.2
Wet heat method
223
7.1.4.3
Germinators
223
7.1.4.4
Germination abnormalities and problems
223
7.1.4.5
Germination of
tenera
and pisifera seed
224
7.1.4.6
Germination of
Elaeis
oleifera
and hybrid seed
224
7.1.5
Supply of seed to plantations
224
7.2
Nurseries
226
7.2.1
The
prenursery
226
7.2.2
The main nursery
227
7.2.2.1
The polybag nursery
226
7.2.2.2
Time of planting
228
7.2.2.3
Nursery maintenance
229
7.2.2.4
Culling and nursery abnormalities
230
7.2.3
Advanced planting material
231
7.2.4
Nursery pests and diseases
231
7.2.5
Nursery costs
232
8.
Site selection and land preparation
233
8.1
Choice of site for oil palm planting
233
8.1.1
General
233
8.1.2
Climate requirements
233
8.1.3
Soil type requirements
233
8.1.3.1
Intensity of soil survey needed
234
xii
Contents
8.1.3.2
Topography
234
8.1.3.3
Rooting depth
234
8.1.3.4
Moisture availability
235
8.1.3.5
SoU fertility
235
8.1.3.6
Soil sustainability and long-term changes
236
8.1.3.7
Multiple factors
236
8.1.4
Previous vegetation and use
237
8.1.5
Land evaluation
237
8.1.5.1
Objectives of land evaluation
237
8.1.5.2
French/West African systems of land evaluation
237
8.1.5.3
Indonesian systems of land evaluation
238
8.1.5.4
Malaysian systems of land evaluation
239
8.1.6
Site yield potential
242
8.1.7
Environmental impact
242
8.2
Plantation layout
242
8.2.1
General and environmental issues
242
8.2.2
Road systems
245
8.2.3
Drainage systems
247
8.2.4
Irrigation systems
247
8.3
Field preparation
248
8.3.1
General
248
8.3.2
Burning or zero-burning
249
8.3.3
Operations in land clearing
253
8.3.3.1
General
253
8.3.3.2
Planting from forest
254
8.3.3.3
Planting from other vegetation
255
8.3.4
Replanting from oil palms
255
8.3.4.1
The decision to replant
255
8.3.4.2
General considerations
256
8.3.4.3
Underplanting
the old stand
258
8.3.4.4
Detailed field procedures
260
8.3.5
Hilly land: platforms and terraces
261
8.3.6
Preparation of peat soils
263
8.4
Uses and covers of interrows
265
8.4.1
General
265
8.4.2
Leguminous and other covers
265
8.4.3
Agricultural uses of interrows
266
8.4.3.1
Establishment intercropping
266
8.4.3.2
Permanent arable cropping
267
8.4.3.3
Other treecrops
268
8.4.3.4
Grazing regimes
268
9.
The establishment of oil palms in the field
271
9.1
Planting in the field
271
9.1.1
Stage of seedling development
271
9.1.2
Method of transplanting
271
9.1.3
Time of transplanting
272
9.1.4
Cultural practices at transplanting
273
9.1.5
Replacement of missing palms
274
9.2
Shortening the immature period
274
9.2.1
Advanced planting material
274
Contents
9.3
Spacing of
plants
in
the field
275
9.3.1
Effects of plant spacing on growth and yield
275
9.3.2
Agricultural and economic optima
277
9.3.3
Triangular planting
277
9.3.3.1
Optimal density for current yield
277
9.3.3.2
Optimal density for cumulative yield or profit
279
9.3.3.3
Conclusions
280
9.3.4
Planting patterns other than triangular
280
9.3.5
Progeny differences
281
9.3.6
Thinning
281
9.3.6.1
Natural thinning
282
9.3.6.2
Thinning of mature stands
282
9.3.6.3
Variable density and planned thinning
283
9.4
Practical aspects of field establishment
285
9.4.1
Lining
285
9.4.2
Costs
285
10.
Care and maintenance of oil palms
287
10.1
Care of palms and plant cover
287
10.1.1
Value and function of covers
287
10.1.2
Maintenance of young plantations
287
10.1.2.1
Management of young palms
287
10.1.2.2
Establishment and maintenance of natural cover
288
10.1.2.3
Establishment and maintenance of legume covers
290
10.1.2.4
Nitrogen fixation by cover plants
292
10.1.3
Maintenance of mature plantations
293
10.1.3.1
Maintenance of plant cover
293
10.1.3.2
Maintenance of palms
293
10.1.3.3
Circle and path maintenance
295
10.1.4
Care of plantation with cultivation and intercropping
295
10.1.5
Labour requirements for field operations
295
10.2
Field mechanisation
297
10.2.1
Mechanisation of fertiliser spreading
297
10.2.2
Weed and pest control
298
10.2.3
New planting and replanting
298
10.3
Irrigation
298
10.3.1
Methods of estimating irrigation requirements
298
10.3.1.1
Rainfall and evapotranspiration
299
10.3.1.2
Soil moisture reserves
300
10.3.2
Methods of irrigation
300
10.3.2.1
Type of equipment
300
10.3.2.2
Frequency and quantity of water
301
10.3.3
Profitability of irrigation
301
10.4
Fruit bunch harvesting
302
10.4.1
General
302
10.4.2
Harvesting of young palms
302
10.4.3
Harvesting of mature palms
303
10.4.4
Harvest round frequency and criteria of ripeness
305
10.4.4.1
The ripening process
305
10.4.4.2
Minimum ripeness standards
305
10.4.5
Transportation in-field and to the mill
306
10.4.6
Mechanisation of collection and in-field transport of fresh fruit bunches
308
xiv Contents
10.4.7
Need for a harvesting machine
311
10.5
The oil extraction ratio problem
312
10.5.1
Factors affecting the oil extraction ratio
312
10.5.2
Decline in oil extraction ratio in Peninsular Malaysia
313
10.5.3
Possible solutions
316
10.6
Palm age, replanting and national yield
318
10.6.1
Palm age problems and the need for replanting
318
10.6.2
The present situation in Malaysia
318
10.7
Site potentials in relation to plantation management
319
10.7.1
Definition of yield potentials
319
10.7.2
Site yield potential
320
10.7.3
Principles and calculation of site yield potential
320
10.7.4
Action with fields less than the site yield potential
324
10.7.5
Remote sensing of palm conditions
324
10.8
Smallholder plantations
325
10.8.1
General
325
10.8.1.1
Malaysia: FELDA
325
10.8.1.2
Indonesia
325
10.8.1.3
Papua New Guinea
326
11.
Mineral nutrition of oil palms
327
11.1
General principles of plant nutrition
327
11.1.1
Introduction
327
11.1.2
Essential elements
327
11.1.3
Plant demand
327
11.1.3.1
Growth demand
328
11.1.3.2
Deficiency demand
329
11.1.4
Nutrient content of oil palms, nutrient budgets and nutrient balance
329
11.2
Palm uptake systems
332
11.2.1
Root system of the oil palm
332
11.2.1.1
Root properties and nutrient uptake
332
11.2.1.2
Quantity and position of oil palm root
334
11.2.1.3
Root systems and nutrients
335
11.2.1.4
Root carbon demand
338
11.2.2
Mycorrhizal infection
338
11.2.3
Rhizosphere relations of the oil palm
339
11.3
Nutrient deficiency and its control: field experiments
339
11.3.1
Field experimentation: mathematical expression and treatment
339
11.3.2
Field experimentation practice
341
11.3.2.1
Practical considerations
341
11.3.2.2
Multiple nutrient trials and factorial designs
342
11.3.2.3
Economics of applying fertiliser
342
11.3.2.4
Nutrients and bunch composition
344
11.3.3
Field experiment results
344
11.3.3.1
Early results
344
11.3.3.2
Regional results
344
11.4
Nutrient deficiency and its control: visual symptoms and leaf analysis
345
11.4.1
Visual symptoms of deficiency in oil palms
345
11.4.1.1
Visual symptoms as a guide
345
11.4.1.2
Symptoms of potassium deficiency
346
11.4.1.3
Symptoms of other deficiencies
346
11.4.1.4
Remote sensing for plantation oversight
348
Contents xv
11.4.2 Plant
composition
348
11.4.3
Leaf analysis in practice
350
11.4.4
Factors affecting critical levels
351
11.4.5
Chlorine effects in the oil palm
352
11.4.6
Cation antagonism
354
11.5
Soil composition and plant nutrition
354
11.5.1
Soil analysis and its uses
354
11.5.2
Identification of likely deficiencies
356
11.5.3
Calculation of fertiliser applications
356
11.6
Practical systems for fertiliser type and rate assessment
357
11.6.1
Nutrient balance approach
357
11.6.1.1
Nutrient balances
357
11.6.1.2
Growth demand
358
11.6.1.3
Deficiency demand
359
11.6.1.4
Fertiliser efficiency in a palm plantation
360
11.6.1.5
Nutrient uptake modelling
362
11.6.2
INFERS system
362
11.6.2.1
Structure of INFERS
362
11.6.2.2
The nutrient balance
362
11.6.2.3
Detailed applications: nutrient demands
363
11.6.2.4
Detailed application: environmental losses
365
11.6.2.5
Supply from different soil types in INFERS
366
11.6.2.6
General research to support INFERS
366
11.6.3
French systems
367
11.6.4
Foster system (PORIM fertiliser recommendation system)
368
11.6.4.1
General structure
368
11.6.4.2
Foster system A: yields without fertiliser
369
11.6.4.3
Foster system A: field experiment data, yield response and site characteristics
370
11.6.4.4
Foster system B: leaf analysis
371
11.6.4.5
Total leaf cations in leaf analysis
372
11.6.4.6
Soil analysis systems
373
11.7
Recycling and losses of nutrients
374
11.7.1
Replanting and the nutrients in the old stand
374
11.7.2
Use of palm wastes
375
11.7.2.1
Use of empty fruit bunches
375
11.7.2.2
Use of palm oil mill effluent
377
11.7.3
Consequences of removal of biomass
379
11.7.4
Loss mechanisms of nutrients
379
11.7.4.1
Water-based mechanisms
379
11.7.4.2
Atmospheric losses
380
11.7.5
Soil changes during the life of a plantation
381
11.8
Deficiencies and toxicities in special and unusual soils
382
11.8.1
Acid
sulfate
soils
382
11.8.2
Volcanic soils
382
11.8.3
Coastal alluvial soils
383
11.8.4
Peat soils
383
11.8.5
Trace element deficiencies and toxicities
383
11.9
Practical management of fertilisers
384
11.9.1
Planting density and palm age
384
11.9.2
Fertiliser materials
385
11.9.2.1
General
385
11.9.2.2
Nitrogen
386
XVI
Contents
11.9.3
11.9.4
11.9.2.3 Phosphate
11.9.2.4
Potassium
11.9.2.5 Magnesium
11.9.2.6
Compound
fertilisers
Methods and times of application
Conclusions
386
387
387
387
388
388
12.
Diseases and pests of the oil palm
12.1
Diseases and disorders
12.1.1
Diseases of germinating seeds: brown germ
Seedling leaf diseases
12.1.2.1
Cercospora leaf spot, or freckle
12.1.2.2
Other seedling leaf diseases
Seedling spear and bud rots
Seedling root diseases: blast disease
Adult palm leaf diseases and disorders
12.1.5.1
Crown disease
12.1.5.2
Leaf wither, Pestabtiopsis leaf spot or grey leaf blight
12.1.2
12.1.3
12.1.4
12.1.5
12.
12.
12.
12.
.5.3
White stripe
.5.4
Leaf mottle
(mancha
anular)
.5.5
Patch yellows
.5.6
Minor leaf diseases
12.1.6
Stem and root diseases
12.1.6.1
Dry basal rot
12.1.6.2
Fusartum wilt or vascular wilt
12.1.6.3
Ganoderma trunk rot or basal stem rot
12.1.6.4
Marchitez
sorpresiva,
sudden wither or hartrot
12.1.6.5
Upper stem rot
12.1.6.6
Red ring disease
12.1.7
Diseases of the bud or stem apex
12.1.7.1
Spear rot-little leaf disease
12.1.7.2
Fatal yellowing or lethal bud rot
(pudrición de cogollo, amarelecimento
fatal)
12.1.8
Diseases of the bunches and fruit
12.1.9
Other abnormal conditions
12.1.10
Plant quarantine
12.2
Pests
12.2.1
Integrated pest management
12.2.1.1
Pest ecology
12.2.1.2
Economic damage thresholds
12.2.1.3
Census systems
12.2.1.4
Control measures
12.2.2
Nursery pests
12.2.3
Leaf pests of immature palms
12.2.3.1
The African spear borer
12.2.4
Stem damage to young palms
12.2
A.
1
Oryctes species (Dynastinae): rhinoceros beetles
12.2.4.2
Strategia aloeus
(Dynastinae)
12.2.4.3
Temnoschoita species (Curculionidae)
12.2.5
Leaf pests of mature palms
12.2.5.1
Leaf-eating caterpillars
12.2.5.2
Bagworms
391
391
393
393
393
394
395
395
396
396
397
399
399
400
400
400
401
402
407
413
414
415
416
417
417
421
421
422
422
423
423
427
427
427
428
428
428
428
428
431
432
432
433
434
Contents xvii
12.2.5.3
Other caterpillars
436
12.2.5.4
Grasshoppers
436
12.2.5.5
Leaf miner, Coelaenomenodera lameensis (C.
minuta,
С.
elaeidis)
436
12.2.6
Stem pests of mature palms
437
12.2.6.1
Rhynchophorus species (Curculionidae): palm weevils
437
12.2.7
Root pests of mature palms
438
12.2.7.1
Oil palm root miner
438
12.2.8
Pests attacking fruit and bunches
439
12.2.8.1
Oil palm bunch moth
439
12.2.8.2
Eupalamtdes
су
parisstas (Castiniidae):
oil palm bunch miner
439
12.2.8.3
Demotispaneivai
439
12.3
Mammals and birds as pests
440
12.3.1
Rats
440
12.3.2
Other mammals
443
12.3.3
Birds
443
12.4
Insect vectors of diseases
443
12.5
Pests of other components of the oil palm agroecosystem
443
12.5.1
Pests attacking pollinating weevils
443
12.5.2
Pests attacking legume cover crops
444
13.
The products of the oil palm and their extraction
445
13.1
Palm oil products and their chemical structure
445
13.1.1
Palm oil composition
445
13.1.2
Fatty acid composition and structure
446
13.1.3
Triglycéride
composition and structure
448
13.1.4
Non-triglyceride constituents
448
13.1.4.1
Carotenoids
449
13.1.4.2
Other minor compounds
449
13.2
Nut composition
449
13.2.1
Kernel composition and structure
449
13.2.2
Kernel oil composition and chemical structure
449
13.3
Oil synthesis and breakdown in the fruit
449
13.3.1
Kernel oil formation
449
13.3.2
Palm oil formation
450
13.3.3
Lipase
activity
451
13.4
Extraction of palm products
451
13.4.1
The extraction process
451
13.4.2
Extraction of palm oil and kernels by traditional methods
452
13.4.3
The palm oil mill
452
13.4.3.1
Fruit reception
452
13.4.3.2
Sterilisation
453
13.4.3.3
Stripping
454
13.4.3.4
Digestion
454
13.4.3.5
Pressing
454
13.4.3.6
Clarification, drying and storage
455
13.4.3.7
Kernel handling
455
13.4.4
Small-scale mills
456
13.4.5
Mill operation
459
13.4.5.1
Siting of the mill
459
13.4.5.2
Process control
459
13.4.5.3
Economics of a palm oil mill
460
13.4.6
Quality control
460
xviii Contents
13.4.6.1
Free fatty acids
460
13.4.6.2
Oxidation and bleachability
461
13.4.6.3
Technical standards for palm oil and palm kernels
461
13.4.7
Extraction of minor components
461
13.4.8
Waste products
462
13.4.8.1
Liquid effluent
462
13.4.8.2
Solid wastes
463
13.5
Processing of oil palm products
464
13.5.1
Refining of palm oil
464
13.5.2
Processing of kernels
464
13.6
Other oil palm products
464
13.6.1
Biomass
464
13.6.2
Palm wine
465
13.6.3
Animal feed
466
14.
Marketing, economics, end use and human health
467
14.1
Palm oil marketing
467
14.1.1
International trade
467
14.1.2
Local consumption
468
14.1.3
Factors causing distortions of markets
468
14.2
Production costs
469
14.2.1
Palm oil production costs
469
14.2.2
Production costs of competing oils
469
14.3
Uses of palm oil and palm kernel oil
470
14.3.1
Importance of oil composition
470
14.3.2
Range of palm oil and kernel oil products
471
14.3.3
Processing of vegetable oils
472
14.3.3.1
Fractionation
472
14.3.3.2
Hydrogénation
472
14.3.3.3
Interesterification and transesterification
473
14.3.4
Use of palm oil for edible purposes
473
14.3.5
Palm kernel oil
474
14.3.6
Non-food uses of palm oil and kernel oil
474
14.3.6.1
Oleochemicals
474
14.3.6.2
Fuel
475
14.4
Palm oil and human health
475
14.4.1
Oils and fats in human nutrition
475
14.4.2
Effects of palm oil in the diet
476
14.4.3
Minor constituents of palm oil
476
14.5
Conclusions
476
15.
Concluding remarks
479
15.1
Research needs
479
15.2
Genetic modification
479
15.3
The environment and sustainability
480
15.3.1
General
480
15.3.2
Loss of forest
480
15.3.3
Pollution
481
15.3.4
Sustainability
481
15.3.5
Biodiversity
481
Reference list and index of citations
483
Index
541
The Oü Palm
FOURTH
EDITION
R. H. V.
Corky
and P B.
Tinker
The oil palm is the world s most valuable oil crop. With palm oil production increasing by
more than
50%
in the last decade of the twentieth century and set to double in the next
twenty years, it has never before been so important to understand the history, use and
cultivation of this fascinating crop.
There have been many new developments since the third edition of Hardey s The Oil Palm in
1988,
particularly in the fields of clonal propagation, agronomy, breeding and molecular
genetics. This new edition has been completely rewritten, and is the first book to record and
explore these and many other developments.
The book traces the origins and progress of the industry, and describes the basic science
underlying the physiology, breeding and nutrition of the oil palm. It covers both cutting-edge
research, and wider issues such as genetic modification of the crop, the promise of clonal
propagation, and the effects of palm oil on human health. The practical problems of
maximising yield of oil and kernels are discussed in relation to the present yield gap and oil
extraction rate decline in Malaysia. The oil palm is also compared to the soya bean and other
oil crops, and the recent history of the price of oil palm products is considered in the light of
this.
The fourth edition includes:
«
Comprehensive coverage of the most up-to-date oil palm research, with explanatory
material for the non-specialist in areas such as biotechnology, nutrient uptake and palm
oil end-use
•
Practical advice for those in the industry, including details on how to improve site
selection, cultivation, production, nutrition, selection and breeding, and pest and
disease management
β
There are numerous illustrations, a large full-colour section, and a very comprehensive
and up-to-date list of references
The Oil Palm makes an essential contribution to oil palm research and will be an
indispensable reference and guide for agricultural students, researchers and all those
working, worldwide, in the oil palm industry.
About the aumors:
Dr RHV
Corley is a plant physiologist who worked for over
15
years in oil palm research in
Malaysia. He was the head of research for Unilever Plantations for a further
16
years, and is
now a consultant on tropical plantation crops.
Professor
В
Tinker was for
7
years at the West African Institute for Oil Palm Research, and
has been a consultant in Malaysia. For
12
years he was on the Programme Advisory
Committee of PORIM (now MPOB). In the UK he has been Professor of Agricultural Botany,
Deputy Director and head of soils at Rothamsted Experimental Station, and Director of
Science at the National Environment Research Council.
Cover design by Workhaus
|
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| author | Corley, R. H. V. Tinker, P. B. |
| author_facet | Corley, R. H. V. Tinker, P. B. |
| author_role | aut aut |
| author_sort | Corley, R. H. V. |
| author_variant | r h v c rhv rhvc p b t pb pbt |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV035193473 |
| classification_rvk | WN 8970 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)634128757 (DE-599)OBVAC02632162 |
| discipline | Biologie |
| edition | 4. ed. |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV035193473 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T21:28:14Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 0632052120 9780632052127 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-017000047 |
| oclc_num | 634128757 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-703 DE-Eb1 DE-20 |
| owner_facet | DE-703 DE-Eb1 DE-20 |
| physical | XXVIII, 562 S. [8] Bl. Ill., graph. Darst. |
| publishDate | 2007 |
| publishDateSearch | 2007 |
| publishDateSort | 2007 |
| publisher | Wiley-Blackwell |
| record_format | marc |
| series2 | World agriculture series |
| spelling | Corley, R. H. V. Verfasser aut The oil palm R. H. V. Corley and P. B. Tinker 4. ed. Hoboken, NJ Wiley-Blackwell [2007] XXVIII, 562 S. [8] Bl. Ill., graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier World agriculture series Bis 3. Aufl. u.d.T.: Hartley, Charles W. S.: The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.). - Literaturverz. S. 483 - 541 Ölpalme (DE-588)4172434-3 gnd rswk-swf Ölpalme (DE-588)4172434-3 s DE-604 Tinker, P. B. Verfasser aut Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=017000047&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=017000047&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Klappentext |
| spellingShingle | Corley, R. H. V. Tinker, P. B. The oil palm Ölpalme (DE-588)4172434-3 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4172434-3 |
| title | The oil palm |
| title_auth | The oil palm |
| title_exact_search | The oil palm |
| title_full | The oil palm R. H. V. Corley and P. B. Tinker |
| title_fullStr | The oil palm R. H. V. Corley and P. B. Tinker |
| title_full_unstemmed | The oil palm R. H. V. Corley and P. B. Tinker |
| title_short | The oil palm |
| title_sort | the oil palm |
| topic | Ölpalme (DE-588)4172434-3 gnd |
| topic_facet | Ölpalme |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=017000047&sequence=000003&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=017000047&sequence=000004&line_number=0002&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT corleyrhv theoilpalm AT tinkerpb theoilpalm |