Outdoor lighting: physics, vision and perception
Gespeichert in:
| 1. Verfasser: | |
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| Format: | Buch |
| Sprache: | English |
| Veröffentlicht: |
[Dordrecht]
Springer
2008
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| Schlagworte: | |
| Online-Zugang: | Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| Beschreibung: | Angekündigt u.d.T.: Schreuder, Duco: Topics in lighting |
| Beschreibung: | XVIII, 448 S. graph. Darst. |
| ISBN: | 9781402086014 |
Internformat
MARC
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| 015 | |a 08,N26,1331 |2 dnb | ||
| 016 | 7 | |a 988537877 |2 DE-101 | |
| 020 | |a 9781402086014 |c Gb. : ca. EUR 144.45 (freier Pr.), ca. sfr 235.50 (freier Pr.) |9 978-1-4020-8601-4 | ||
| 035 | |a (OCoLC)252471093 | ||
| 035 | |a (DE-599)DNB988537877 | ||
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| 084 | |a 600 |2 sdnb | ||
| 100 | 1 | |a Schreuder, Duco A. |d 1931- |e Verfasser |0 (DE-588)137406290 |4 aut | |
| 245 | 1 | 0 | |a Outdoor lighting |b physics, vision and perception |c Duco Schreuder |
| 264 | 1 | |a [Dordrecht] |b Springer |c 2008 | |
| 300 | |a XVIII, 448 S. |b graph. Darst. | ||
| 336 | |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
| 337 | |b n |2 rdamedia | ||
| 338 | |b nc |2 rdacarrier | ||
| 500 | |a Angekündigt u.d.T.: Schreuder, Duco: Topics in lighting | ||
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Außenbeleuchtung |0 (DE-588)4406434-2 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 650 | 0 | 7 | |a Lichttechnik |0 (DE-588)4035633-4 |2 gnd |9 rswk-swf |
| 689 | 0 | 0 | |a Lichttechnik |0 (DE-588)4035633-4 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | 1 | |a Außenbeleuchtung |0 (DE-588)4406434-2 |D s |
| 689 | 0 | |5 DE-604 | |
| 856 | 4 | 2 | |m Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth |q application/pdf |u http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016992725&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |3 Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| 999 | |a oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016992725 | ||
Datensatz im Suchindex
| _version_ | 1804138361757106176 |
|---|---|
| adam_text | Contents
Preface
xiii
1
Introduction:
The function of outdoor lighting
1
1.1
Why lighting the outdoors?
1
1.2
Lighting engineering
3
1.3
The function of outdoor lighting
4
1.3.1
Road lighting, street lighting and public lighting
4
1.3.2
The advancement of human well-being
4
1.3.3
The function of road lighting
4
1.3.4
The driving Uisk
6
(a) Driving task analysis
6 ·
(b) Task elements
7 ·
(с)
Manoeuvres
7
1.4
Cognitive aspects of vision
9
1.5
Tools and methods
10
1.5.1
Modeh
10
1.5.2
Quick-and-dirty statistics
11
1.5.3
Scales in psycho-physiology
11
1.6
Conclusions
13
2
Physical aspects of light production
17
2.1
The physics of light
1
7
2.1.1
Definitions of light
Π
2.1.2
Light rays
19
2.1.3
Waves and particles
20
(a) Waves
20 ·
(b) Particles
25 ·
(c) Photons
16
2.2
General aspects of light production
28
2.2.1
Principles of light generation
28
2.2.2
The efficacy of light sources
29
2.3
Incandescence
Ό
2.3.1
Thermal radiation
30
(a) The laws of black-body radiation
30 ·
(b) Grey bodies
33 ·
(c) Non-electric
incandescent lamps
34 ·
(d) Electric incandescent filament lamps
35
2.3.2
Characteristics of electric incandescent lamps
38
(a) The
Иатет
38 ·
(b)
Füament
evaporation and bulb blackening
38 ·
(c) Lamp life
and design values
39 ·
(d) Balance between the efficacy and the lamp life
39
V1 Contents
2.3.3
Halogen incandescent hmps
40
a; The role of gas pressure in the bulb
40 ·
(b) The halogen cycle
41 ·
io
Characteristics ot halogen incandescent lamps
41 ·
(d) Why use incandescent
Samps?
42
2.4
Gas-discharge lamps
42
2.4.1
Quantum aspects of light
42
a Bosons, baryons, and
fermions
42 ·
(b)
The physics of metals
43 ·
(c) Quantum
aspects ot light; gas discharges
45 ·
(d) The construction of gas-discharge lamps
46 ·
e
The influence of the vapour pressure
48 ·
(f) The main families of gas-discharge
lamps
51
2.4.2
Fluorescence
51
a Fluorescence in gas-discharge lamps
51 ·
(b) The conversion from UV radiation
into light
53 ·
«o The efficiency of the fluorescent process
55 ·
(d) Fluorescent
materials
57
2.4.3
Types of gas-discharge lamps
59
л
four families of lamps
59·
(b) Low-pressure mercury lamps
61 ·
(c) Low-
pressure sodium lamps
62 ·
(d) High-pressure gas-discharge lamps
63 ·
(e) High-
pressure mercury lamps
64 ·
(f
)
Metal-halide lamps
64 ·
(g) High-pressure
sodium lamps
65
2.5
Semiconductor light
65
2.5.1
The physics of semiconductors
65
г,
intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
65 ·
(b) Semiconductor diodes
67 ·
f c
Semiconductor light emitting diodes
69
2.5.2
Anorganic
LEDs 70
a
;
The construction of anorganic
LEDs 70 ·
(b)
The colour of anorganic
LEDs 71
•
с
»The performance of anorganic
LEDs 71 ·
(d)
Use of anorganic
LEDs 74
2.5.3
Organic
LEDs 75
2.6
Conclusions
78
3
Radiometry
and photometry
85
3.1
Radiometry 85
3.1.1
Principles of
radiometry
85
(a) The difference and the similarity between
radiometry
and photometry
85 ·
(b) Radiant power
86 ·
re) The basic formula of
radiometry
86 ·
(d)
Terminology
88
3.1.2
The solid angle
88
3.2
Basic photometric concepts 90
3.2.1
TkeSI-units
90
<
a) Seven basic units
90 ·
(b; The photometric units
91 ·
(c) Units of the ISO-
photometry
91
3.2.2
The luminous flux
92
fa) Definition
92 ·
(b) Reflectance, transmittance
92
3.2.3
The luminous intensity
93
3.2.4
The illuminance
94
fai
Definition
94 ·
(b) Horizontal, vertical and semicylindrical illuminance
95 ·
(c) The average illuminance and the non-uniformity
96 ·
(d) The inverse square
law
97 ·
(e) The distance law for large sources
98 ·
(f) The distance law for bundled
light
100 ·
(g) The cosine law
101 ·
(h) The cosine to the third law
102
Contents
vu
3.2.
S The luminance
103
(a) General
definition
103 ·
(b)
The luminance
of light-reflecting objects
105 ·
(c)
The luminance of light emitting objects
105
3.3
Conclusions
106
4
The mathematics of luminance
109
4.1
The field concept
109
4.1.1
Field theory
109
(a) Light fluid and light vectors
109 ·
(b) Fields
110 ·
(c) Forces and potentials
110 ·
(d)Morphicfields 111
4.1.2
The light field 111
(a) The photic field 111
·
(b) Fields of light rays
112 ·
(c) The speed of light
112 ·
(d) The basic formula of photometry
114
4.2
Some aspects of hydrodynamics
118
4.2.1
The continuity principle
118
4.2.2
Bernoulli-fluids
119
4.2.3
The equation of continuity
120
4.2.4
Friction and diffraction
121
(a) The width of a light ray
121 ·
(b) Diffraction
121 ·
(c) The minimum separable
123
4.3
The luminance of real and virtual objects
124
4.3.1
The need for a proper definition of luminance
124
4.3.2
The general definition of luminance
125
(a) The direction aspects of the luminance
125 ·
(b) Light tubes
125 ·
(c)The
physics of light tubes
127 ·
(d) The definition of the geometric flux
127 ·
(e) The
throughput of light
129
4.4
The luminance of reflecting surfaces
131
4.4.1
The use of surface luminances
131
4.4.2
Definition of reflection
132
4.4.3
The luminance factor
134
(a) The reflection faaor and the luminance factor
134 ·
(b) A
description of the
luminance factor
134 ·
(c) The luminance factor of a perfect
diffuser
135 ·
(d)
The
definition of the luminance factor
135
4.4.4
The luminance factor of practical materials
137
4.5
Conclusions
138
5
Practical photometry 141
5.1
General aspects of photometry
1
4
!
5.1.1
Five stages in the history of photometry
141
5.1.2
Definition of measurement
143
(a) A general description of measurement
143 ·
(b) Measuring in nominal scales
143
•
(c) Measuring in ordinal scales
144 ·
(d) Measuring in quantitative scales
144 ·
(e) The accuracy when measuring in different scales
145
5.1.3
The relation between
radiometry
and photometry reconsidered
145
5.1.4
Calibration
146
(a) Gauging and calibration
146 ·
(b) Standards
146
5.2
Traditional subjective photometry 148
VU1 Contents
5.2.1
Brightness estimation
148
5.2.2
Visual photometry
149
a ì
The sensitivity of the eye
149 ·
(b) The photopic V-curve
151 ·
(c) The
determination of the V;-curve
154 ·
(d) Heterochromatic and isochromatic
photometry
155 ·
te}
The contrast method of photometry
156 ·
(f) Flicker effects
157 ·
g) Flicker photometry
160
5.3
Traditional objective photometry
162
5.3.1
Instrumental photometry
162
ι
a. Counting photons
162 ·
(b) Sensors; Control and decision-making systems
162 ·
c. The S/N ratio
164
5.3.2
Detectors
165
aJPhotocells
165 ·
fb) Barrier-layer photo-effect
165 ·
(c) Photocells for internal
photo-effects
167 ·
(d) Photocells for the external photo-effect
167 ·
(e) Photo-
multipliers
168
5.3.3
Measuring photometric quantities
170
a ¡
Basic considerations
170 ·
(b) Luxmeters
170 ·
(c) Luminance meters
171 ·
d
Measuring the luminous flux, and the light distribution
172 ·
(e) Accuracy
173 ·
¡f
ι
Examples of cosine and colour corrections for lux-meters
175
5.4
Modern objective photometry
177
5.4.1
CCDs
177
,a; CCDs for taking pictures
177 ·
(b) The properties of CCDs
178 ·
(c)The
performance of CCDs
179 · Cd)
CCD
data extraction and data processing
180
5.4.2
CCDs in photometry
181
5.5
Conclusions
181
6
The human observer; physical and anatomical aspects of vision
187
6.1
The ability to see
187
6.2
The nervous system
188
6.2.1
The structure of the nerve ceUs
188
(a) Neurones
188 ·
(b) Synapses
189
6.2.2
The central nervous system
191
6.3
The anatomy of the human visual system
191
6.3.1
The overall anatomy
191
6.3.2
The optical elements, the cornea
195
6.3.3
The optical elements, the eye lens
196
Ca) The anatomy of the eye lens
196 ·
(b) Accommodation
197 ·
(c) Fourier optics
198 · Cd)
The point spread function or
PSF 199 ·
Ce)
Optical aberrations; monochromatic aberrations
200 ·
(f) Optical aberrations;
heterochromatic aberrations
200
6.3.4
The optical elements, the iris
202
(a) The anatomy of the iris
202 ·
(b) The Stiles-Crawford effect
203
6.3.5
The optical elements, the retina
204
(a) The anatomy of the retina
204 ·
(b) The photoreceptors
206 ·
(c) Cones and rods
207 ·
(d) The spatial distribution of rods and cones
209 ·
(e) Retinal ganglion cells
210
6.4
The optical nerve tracts 21
*
6.4.1
Image forming and non-image forming effects of tight 2n
Contents
6.4.2
The visual neural pathways
212
(a) The organization of the retinal visual system
212 ·
(b) The optical nerve
213 ·
(c) Pathways for rod vision
215 ·
(d) Pathways for daylight levels
216 ·
(e) Movie
tracks
218
6.4.3
The anatomy of the brain
219
(a) The main structure of the brain
219 ·
(b) Brain anatomy and brain functions
219
•
(c) The cerebrum
220 ·
(d) The cortex
221
6.5
Conclusions
223
7
The human observer; visual performance aspects
229
7.1
The functions of the human visual system
229
7.1.1
The sensitivity of the eye
229
(a) Standard observers
229 ·
(b) Assessing the sensitivity of the eye
231 ·
(c) Two-
degree and ten-degree photometry
232
7.2
The sensitivity of the human visual system
233
7.2.1
The duplicity theorem
233
7.2.2
Photopk vision
233
(a) Three families of cones
233 ·
(b) The V^curve
234 ·
(c) Vx as a function
235 ·
(d) Tabulated values of
νλ
235
7.2.3
The scotopic spectral sensitivity curve
236
7.2.4
Mesopic vision
237
(a) The limits of mesopic vision
237 ·
(b) The transition between photopic and
scotopic vision
238 ·
(c) The high-mesopk region
239 ·
(d) The Purkinje-shift
240 ·
(e) Mesopic spectral sensitivity curves
240 ·
(f) Mesopic photometry
242 ·
(g) Mesopic metrics
242 ·
(h) Mesopic brightness impression
243
7.3
Visual performance
244
7.3.1
Human performance and visual performance
244
(a)
Ergonomie
aspects
244 ·
(b) Task aspects
245
7.3.2
Visual performance and Weber s Law
246
(a) The concept of visual performance
246 ·
(b) The law of Weber
246 ·
(c) Limits
of
Webeťs
Law
247 ·
(d) Validity of Weber s Law
249
7.4
The primary visual functions
250
7.4.1
Introducing the primary visual functions
250
7.4.2
Adaptation
251
7.4.3
Luminance discrimination
253
(a) The contrast
253 ·
(b) The minimum detectable contrast
254 ·
(c) Neural aspects
of achromatic contrast phenomena
254 ·
(d) The laws of
Ricco
and Piper
255 ·
(e) The relation between size and threshold contrast
258 ·
(f
)
Lights with periodic
brightness
259 ·
(g) The sensitivity to changes in the contrast
259 ·
(h)TheRSC-
curve
260
7.4.4
The visual acuity
262
(a) Visus
262 ·
(b)
Measurement of the visual acuity
263 ·
(c) Visual acuity in
relation to colour
265
7.5
Conclusions 266
8
The human observer; visual perception
273
8.1
Derived visual functions 273
Contents
8.1.1 Hehl
of view
273
(ai
The field of vision
273 ·
(b) The functional visual field
275 ·
(c) Binocular vision
275 ·
id) Stereopsis
276 ·
ie)
The stereoscopic range
277
8.1.2
The speed of observation; flicker-effects
278
a) The discrimination in time
278 ·
(b) Flicker effects
279 ·
(c) Discomfort by flicker
effects
280
8.1.3
Subjective brightness
281
8.1.4
Detection of movement
284
а і
Constancy
284 ·
b) Movement detection
285
8.2
Blinding glare
286
8.3
Disability glare
287
8.3.1
Sources of disability ¿are
287
(a) Glare sources, the glare angle
287 ·
(b) Stray light in the eye
288 ·
(c) The
equivalent veiling luminance
289 ·
(d) The nature of disability glare
289
8.3.2
Characteristics of disability
giare
289
l a)
The effect of the light veil
289 ·
(b) Colour effects of disability glare
290 ·
(c) Practical implications of the colour effects
291 ·
(d) The four-component model
294 ·
(e) The B-dependence
295 ·
(f) Age effects of disability glare
296 ·
(g) The
limits for the
θ
dependence
297 ·
(h) The
CIE
Standard Glare Observer
301
8.4
Discomfort glare
303
8.5
Conclusions
305
9
The human observer; colour vision
313
9.1
Colour aspects
313
9.1.1
A description of colour
313
9.1.2
The importance of colour
314
9.1.3
Experiencing colours
315
9.2
Colour vision physiology
315
9.2.1
Three cone families
315
(a; The relative spectral sensitivity
315 ·
(b) Colour defective vision
318
(c) The absolute spectral sensitivity
320
9.2.2
The neural circuity in cone vision
322
(a) Colour vision theories
322 ·
(b) The opponent-process theory
323 ·
(c) The
opponent-process theory circuitry
324 ·
(d) The construction of Vx of self-luminous
objects
327
9.3
Colour metrics and colorimetry
328
9.3.1
Terminology
328
9.3.2
Colorimetry
329
(3)
Additive and subtractive processes
329 ·
(b) The
CIE
system of colorimetry
329
• <»
The
1931
CIE
Standard Chromaticity Diagram
330 ·
(d) Standard conditions for
colour vision
333 ·
ι
e¡
Colour names
335 ·
(f) Colour points
335 ·
(g) The Munsell
system
336 ·
(h) Metamerism
337
9.4
The colour characteristics of light sources
338
9.4.1
Chromatic adaptation effects
338
(a) The colour impression
338 ·
(b) Chromatic adaptation
338
9.4.2
The colour temperature
339
(a) The definition of the colour temperature
339 ·
(b) Incandescent light sources
340
Contents xi
•
(с)
The locus of the black-body
radiators
340 ·
(d)
Near-white light sources
341 ·
(e) Colour differences
342
9.4.3
The colour rendering
344
(a) The colour rendering in illuminating engineering
344 ·
(b) The colour rendition
345 ·
(c) The standard colours
345 ·
(d) The selection of the standard light source
346 ·
(e) The colour rendering of light sources
347
9.5
Conclusions
349
10
Road lighting applications
357
10.1
Geometric optics
358
10.1
Л
Definitions of light
358
(a) Four models for the description of light
358 ·
(b) Light rays
358
10.1.2
Design of optical devices
359
(a) Principles of image-forming and lighting equipment
359 ·
(b) Image-forming
equipment
360 ·
(c) Non-image forming equipment
363
10.2
Luminaire
design
364
10.2.1
Optical elements
364
(a) Lamp and road axis
364 ·
(b) Road lighting
luminaire
light distributions
364 ·
(c) Road lighting
luminaire
classification
366 ·
(d) The proposal of Narisada and
Schreuder
368
10.2.2
The optics of
rond
lighting
luminaires
370
10.2.3
Ingress protection
372
10.3
Light pollution
373
10.3.1
Description of light pollution
373
(a) Light pollution and sky glow
373 ·
(b) Victims of light pollution
374 ·
(c) Description of light pollution effects
375 ·
(d) Conspicuity of point sources
376 ·
(e) Application of flat
luminaire
covers
376
10.3.2
Limits of light pollution
378
(a) The natural background radiation
378 ·
(b) Artificial sky glow
379 ·
(c)
CIE
Limits
379 ·
(d) IAU
limits
382
10.3.3
Remedial measures
382
(a) Limiting sky glow
382 ·
(b) Switching off the lights
383 ·
(c) Gated viewing
383
•
(d) Light control
384 ·
(e) Reduction of reflection
384 ·
(f
)
Using monochromatic
light
385 ·
(g) Filtering the light
385
10.4
Reflection properties of road surfaces
385
10.4.1
Road reflection as a road lighting design characteristic
385
(a) The luminance technique in road lighting
385 ·
(b) Reflection characteristics
386 ·
(c) Documentation of reflection characteristics
388
10.4.2
The classification of road surface reflection
388
10.4.3
Standard reflection tables
390
10.4.4
Field measurements of the road reflection
390
10.5
Conclusions 393
11
Road lighting design 401
11.1
Design methods for road lighting installations
401
ll.l.l Principles of lighting design
401
xii Contents
11.1.2 Design
methods based on the road
luminance
403
(a) Systems of road lighting quality assessment
403 ·
(b) The method using E-P
diagrams
403 ·
(c) The basis of computer-assisted luminance-design methods
406 ·
(d)
LUCIE
407 ·
(e)
Shortcomings of
LUCIE
408
11.1.3
Alternative design parameters
410
(a) Illuminance
410 ·
(b) Road lighting design methods based on revealing power
411
•
(c) Visibility Level
411 ·
(d) Small Target Visibility
411 ·
(e) The Narisada visibility-
based design method for road lighting
412 ·
(f) Guidance lighting
414 ·
(g) Visual
comfort and city beatification
415 ·
(h) Fear for crime and subjective safety
417 ·
(j) Cost-benefit considerations
418
11.2
Road lighting for developing countries
418
11.2.1
Recommendations
418
(a) The visibility approach
418 ·
(b) The traffic engineering approach
419
11.2.2
Low-maintenance lighting installations
420
(a) The maintenance of outdoor lighting installations
420 ·
(b) Open
luminaire
options
421 ·
(c) Comparing open and closed
luminaires
422
11.3
Simplified design methods
425
11.3.1
Characteristics of simplified design methods
425
(a) The need for simplified design methods
425 ·
(b) Road classification
425 ·
(c)
Lighted and unlit roads
426
11.3.2
A practical method for simplified lighting design
426
(a) The design approach
426 ·
(b) The effective road width
427 ·
(c) The mounting
height
428 ·
(d) The spacing
428 ·
(e) The light level
428 ·
(f
)
The utilization factor
428 ·
(g) The tabulated lighting design
429
11.4
Conclusions
430
|
| adam_txt |
Contents
Preface
xiii
1
Introduction:
The function of outdoor lighting
1
1.1
Why lighting the outdoors?
1
1.2
Lighting engineering
3
1.3
The function of outdoor lighting
4
1.3.1
Road lighting, street lighting and public lighting
4
1.3.2
The advancement of human well-being
4
1.3.3
The function of road lighting
4
1.3.4
The driving Uisk
6
(a) Driving task analysis
6 ·
(b) Task elements
7 ·
(с)
Manoeuvres
7
1.4
Cognitive aspects of vision
9
1.5
Tools and methods
10
1.5.1
Modeh
10
1.5.2
Quick-and-dirty statistics
11
1.5.3
Scales in psycho-physiology
11
1.6
Conclusions
13
2
Physical aspects of light production
17
2.1
The physics of light
1
7
2.1.1
Definitions of light
Π
2.1.2
Light rays
19
2.1.3
Waves and particles
20
(a) Waves
20 ·
(b) Particles
25 ·
(c) Photons
16
2.2
General aspects of light production
28
2.2.1
Principles of light generation
28
2.2.2
The efficacy of light sources
29
2.3
Incandescence
Ό
2.3.1
Thermal radiation
30
(a) The laws of black-body radiation
30 ·
(b) Grey bodies
33 ·
(c) Non-electric
incandescent lamps
34 ·
(d) Electric incandescent filament lamps
35
2.3.2
Characteristics of electric incandescent lamps
38
(a) The
Иатет
38 ·
(b)
Füament
evaporation and bulb blackening
38 ·
(c) Lamp life
and design values
39 ·
(d) Balance between the efficacy and the lamp life
39
V1 Contents
2.3.3
Halogen incandescent hmps
40
a; The role of gas pressure in the bulb
40 ·
(b) The halogen cycle
41 ·
io
Characteristics ot halogen incandescent lamps
41 ·
(d) Why use incandescent
Samps?
42
2.4
Gas-discharge lamps
42
2.4.1
Quantum aspects of light
42
a Bosons, baryons, and
fermions
42 ·
(b)
The physics of metals
43 ·
(c) Quantum
aspects ot light; gas discharges
45 ·
(d) The construction of gas-discharge lamps
46 ·
e
The influence of the vapour pressure
48 ·
(f) The main families of gas-discharge
lamps
51
2.4.2
Fluorescence
51
a Fluorescence in gas-discharge lamps
51 ·
(b) The conversion from UV radiation
into light
53 ·
«o The efficiency of the fluorescent process
55 ·
(d) Fluorescent
materials
57
2.4.3
Types of gas-discharge lamps
59
л
four families of lamps
59·
(b) Low-pressure mercury lamps
61 ·
(c) Low-
pressure sodium lamps
62 ·
(d) High-pressure gas-discharge lamps
63 ·
(e) High-
pressure mercury lamps
64 ·
(f
)
Metal-halide lamps
64 ·
(g) High-pressure
sodium lamps
65
2.5
Semiconductor light
65
2.5.1
The physics of semiconductors
65
г,
intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
65 ·
(b) Semiconductor diodes
67 ·
f c
Semiconductor light emitting diodes
69
2.5.2
Anorganic
LEDs 70
a
;
The construction of anorganic
LEDs 70 ·
(b)
The colour of anorganic
LEDs 71
•
с
»The performance of anorganic
LEDs 71 ·
(d)
Use of anorganic
LEDs 74
2.5.3
Organic
LEDs 75
2.6
Conclusions
78
3
Radiometry
and photometry
85
3.1
Radiometry 85
3.1.1
Principles of
radiometry
85
(a) The difference and the similarity between
radiometry
and photometry
85 ·
(b) Radiant power
86 ·
re) The basic formula of
radiometry
86 ·
(d)
Terminology
88
3.1.2
The solid angle
88
3.2
Basic photometric concepts 90
3.2.1
TkeSI-units
90
<
a) Seven basic units
90 ·
(b; The photometric units
91 ·
(c) Units of the ISO-
photometry
91
3.2.2
The luminous flux
92
fa) Definition
92 ·
(b) Reflectance, transmittance
92
3.2.3
The luminous intensity
93
3.2.4
The illuminance
94
fai
Definition
94 ·
(b) Horizontal, vertical and semicylindrical illuminance
95 ·
(c) The average illuminance and the non-uniformity
96 ·
(d) The inverse square
law
97 ·
(e) The distance law for large sources
98 ·
(f) The distance law for bundled
light
100 ·
(g) The cosine law
101 ·
(h) The cosine to the third law
102
Contents
vu
3.2.
S The luminance
103
(a) General
definition
103 ·
(b)
The luminance
of light-reflecting objects
105 ·
(c)
The luminance of light emitting objects
105
3.3
Conclusions
106
4
The mathematics of luminance
109
4.1
The field concept
109
4.1.1
Field theory
109
(a) Light fluid and light vectors
109 ·
(b) Fields
110 ·
(c) Forces and potentials
110 ·
(d)Morphicfields 111
4.1.2
The light field 111
(a) The photic field 111
·
(b) Fields of light rays
112 ·
(c) The speed of light
112 ·
(d) The basic formula of photometry
114
4.2
Some aspects of hydrodynamics
118
4.2.1
The continuity principle
118
4.2.2
Bernoulli-fluids
119
4.2.3
The equation of continuity
120
4.2.4
Friction and diffraction
121
(a) The width of a light ray
121 ·
(b) Diffraction
121 ·
(c) The minimum separable
123
4.3
The luminance of real and virtual objects
124
4.3.1
The need for a proper definition of luminance
124
4.3.2
The general definition of luminance
125
(a) The direction aspects of the luminance
125 ·
(b) Light tubes
125 ·
(c)The
physics of light tubes
127 ·
(d) The definition of the geometric flux
127 ·
(e) The
throughput of light
129
4.4
The luminance of reflecting surfaces
131
4.4.1
The use of surface luminances
131
4.4.2
Definition of reflection
132
4.4.3
The luminance factor
134
(a) The reflection faaor and the luminance factor
134 ·
(b) A
description of the
luminance factor
134 ·
(c) The luminance factor of a perfect
diffuser
135 ·
(d)
The
definition of the luminance factor
135
4.4.4
The luminance factor of practical materials
137
4.5
Conclusions
138
5
Practical photometry 141
5.1
General aspects of photometry
1
4
!
5.1.1
Five stages in the history of photometry
141
5.1.2
Definition of measurement
143
(a) A general description of measurement
143 ·
(b) Measuring in nominal scales
143
•
(c) Measuring in ordinal scales
144 ·
(d) Measuring in quantitative scales
144 ·
(e) The accuracy when measuring in different scales
145
5.1.3
The relation between
radiometry
and photometry reconsidered
145
5.1.4
Calibration
146
(a) Gauging and calibration
146 ·
(b) Standards
146
5.2
Traditional subjective photometry 148
VU1 Contents
5.2.1
Brightness estimation
148
5.2.2
Visual photometry
149
a ì
The sensitivity of the eye
149 ·
(b) The photopic V-curve
151 ·
(c) The
determination of the V;-curve
154 ·
(d) Heterochromatic and isochromatic
photometry
155 ·
te}
The contrast method of photometry
156 ·
(f) Flicker effects
157 ·
g) Flicker photometry
160
5.3
Traditional objective photometry
162
5.3.1
Instrumental photometry
162
ι
a. Counting photons
162 ·
(b) Sensors; Control and decision-making systems
162 ·
c. The S/N ratio
164
5.3.2
Detectors
165
aJPhotocells
165 ·
fb) Barrier-layer photo-effect
165 ·
(c) Photocells for internal
photo-effects
167 ·
(d) Photocells for the external photo-effect
167 ·
(e) Photo-
multipliers
168
5.3.3
Measuring photometric quantities
170
a ¡
Basic considerations
170 ·
(b) Luxmeters
170 ·
(c) Luminance meters
171 ·
d
Measuring the luminous flux, and the light distribution
172 ·
(e) Accuracy
173 ·
¡f
ι
Examples of cosine and colour corrections for lux-meters
175
5.4
Modern objective photometry
177
5.4.1
CCDs
177
,a; CCDs for taking pictures
177 ·
(b) The properties of CCDs
178 ·
(c)The
performance of CCDs
179 · Cd)
CCD
data extraction and data processing
180
5.4.2
CCDs in photometry
181
5.5
Conclusions
181
6
The human observer; physical and anatomical aspects of vision
187
6.1
The ability to see
187
6.2
The nervous system
188
6.2.1
The structure of the nerve ceUs
188
(a) Neurones
188 ·
(b) Synapses
189
6.2.2
The central nervous system
191
6.3
The anatomy of the human visual system
191
6.3.1
The overall anatomy
191
6.3.2
The optical elements, the cornea
195
6.3.3
The optical elements, the eye lens
196
Ca) The anatomy of the eye lens
196 ·
(b) Accommodation
197 ·
(c) Fourier optics
198 · Cd)
The point spread function or
PSF 199 ·
Ce)
Optical aberrations; monochromatic aberrations
200 ·
(f) Optical aberrations;
heterochromatic aberrations
200
6.3.4
The optical elements, the iris
202
(a) The anatomy of the iris
202 ·
(b) The Stiles-Crawford effect
203
6.3.5
The optical elements, the retina
204
(a) The anatomy of the retina
204 ·
(b) The photoreceptors
206 ·
(c) Cones and rods
207 ·
(d) The spatial distribution of rods and cones
209 ·
(e) Retinal ganglion cells
210
6.4
The optical nerve tracts 21
*
6.4.1
Image forming and non-image forming effects of tight 2n
Contents
6.4.2
The visual neural pathways
212
(a) The organization of the retinal visual system
212 ·
(b) The optical nerve
213 ·
(c) Pathways for rod vision
215 ·
(d) Pathways for daylight levels
216 ·
(e) Movie
tracks
218
6.4.3
The anatomy of the brain
219
(a) The main structure of the brain
219 ·
(b) Brain anatomy and brain functions
219
•
(c) The cerebrum
220 ·
(d) The cortex
221
6.5
Conclusions
223
7
The human observer; visual performance aspects
229
7.1
The functions of the human visual system
229
7.1.1
The sensitivity of the eye
229
(a) Standard observers
229 ·
(b) Assessing the sensitivity of the eye
231 ·
(c) Two-
degree and ten-degree photometry
232
7.2
The sensitivity of the human visual system
233
7.2.1
The duplicity theorem
233
7.2.2
Photopk vision
233
(a) Three families of cones
233 ·
(b) The V^curve
234 ·
(c) Vx as a function
235 ·
(d) Tabulated values of
νλ
235
7.2.3
The scotopic spectral sensitivity curve
236
7.2.4
Mesopic vision
237
(a) The limits of mesopic vision
237 ·
(b) The transition between photopic and
scotopic vision
238 ·
(c) The high-mesopk region
239 ·
(d) The Purkinje-shift
240 ·
(e) Mesopic spectral sensitivity curves
240 ·
(f) Mesopic photometry
242 ·
(g) Mesopic metrics
242 ·
(h) Mesopic brightness impression
243
7.3
Visual performance
244
7.3.1
Human performance and visual performance
244
(a)
Ergonomie
aspects
244 ·
(b) Task aspects
245
7.3.2
Visual performance and Weber's Law
246
(a) The concept of visual performance
246 ·
(b) The law of Weber
246 ·
(c) Limits
of
Webeťs
Law
247 ·
(d) Validity of Weber's Law
249
7.4
The primary visual functions
250
7.4.1
Introducing the primary visual functions
250
7.4.2
Adaptation
251
7.4.3
Luminance discrimination
253
(a) The contrast
253 ·
(b) The minimum detectable contrast
254 ·
(c) Neural aspects
of achromatic contrast phenomena
254 ·
(d) The laws of
Ricco
and Piper
255 ·
(e) The relation between size and threshold contrast
258 ·
(f
)
Lights with periodic
brightness
259 ·
(g) The sensitivity to changes in the contrast
259 ·
(h)TheRSC-
curve
260
7.4.4
The visual acuity
262
(a) Visus
262 ·
(b)
Measurement of the visual acuity
263 ·
(c) Visual acuity in
relation to colour
265
7.5
Conclusions 266
8
The human observer; visual perception
273
8.1
Derived visual functions 273
Contents
8.1.1 Hehl
of view
273
(ai
The field of vision
273 ·
(b) The functional visual field
275 ·
(c) Binocular vision
275 ·
id) Stereopsis
276 ·
ie)
The stereoscopic range
277
8.1.2
The speed of observation; flicker-effects
278
a) The discrimination in time
278 ·
(b) Flicker effects
279 ·
(c) Discomfort by flicker
effects
280
8.1.3
Subjective brightness
281
8.1.4
Detection of movement
284
а і
Constancy
284 ·
b) Movement detection
285
8.2
Blinding glare
286
8.3
Disability glare
287
8.3.1
Sources of disability ¿are
287
(a) Glare sources, the glare angle
287 ·
(b) Stray light in the eye
288 ·
(c) The
equivalent veiling luminance
289 ·
(d) The nature of disability glare
289
8.3.2
Characteristics of disability
giare
289
l'a)
The effect of the light veil
289 ·
(b) Colour effects of disability glare
290 ·
(c) Practical implications of the colour effects
291 ·
(d) The four-component model
294 ·
(e) The B-dependence
295 ·
(f) Age effects of disability glare
296 ·
(g) The
limits for the
θ
dependence
297 ·
(h) The
CIE
Standard Glare Observer
301
8.4
Discomfort glare
303
8.5
Conclusions
305
9
The human observer; colour vision
313
9.1
Colour aspects
313
9.1.1
A description of colour
313
9.1.2
The importance of colour
314
9.1.3
Experiencing colours
315
9.2
Colour vision physiology
315
9.2.1
Three cone families
315
(a; The relative spectral sensitivity
315 ·
(b) Colour defective vision
318
(c) The absolute spectral sensitivity
320
9.2.2
The neural circuity in cone vision
322
(a) Colour vision theories
322 ·
(b) The opponent-process theory
323 ·
(c) The
opponent-process theory circuitry
324 ·
(d) The construction of Vx of self-luminous
objects
327
9.3
Colour metrics and colorimetry
328
9.3.1
Terminology
328
9.3.2
Colorimetry
329
(3)
Additive and subtractive processes
329 ·
(b) The
CIE
system of colorimetry
329
• <»
The
1931
CIE
Standard Chromaticity Diagram
330 ·
(d) Standard conditions for
colour vision
333 ·
ι
e¡
Colour names
335 ·
(f) Colour points
335 ·
(g) The Munsell
system
336 ·
(h) Metamerism
337
9.4
The colour characteristics of light sources
338
9.4.1
Chromatic adaptation effects
338
(a) The colour impression
338 ·
(b) Chromatic adaptation
338
9.4.2
The colour temperature
339
(a) The definition of the colour temperature
339 ·
(b) Incandescent light sources
340
Contents xi
•
(с)
The locus of the black-body
radiators
340 ·
(d)
Near-white light sources
341 ·
(e) Colour differences
342
9.4.3
The colour rendering
344
(a) The colour rendering in illuminating engineering
344 ·
(b) The colour rendition
345 ·
(c) The standard colours
345 ·
(d) The selection of the standard light source
346 ·
(e) The colour rendering of light sources
347
9.5
Conclusions
349
10
Road lighting applications
357
10.1
Geometric optics
358
10.1
Л
Definitions of light
358
(a) Four models for the description of light
358 ·
(b) Light rays
358
10.1.2
Design of optical devices
359
(a) Principles of image-forming and lighting equipment
359 ·
(b) Image-forming
equipment
360 ·
(c) Non-image forming equipment
363
10.2
Luminaire
design
364
10.2.1
Optical elements
364
(a) Lamp and road axis
364 ·
(b) Road lighting
luminaire
light distributions
364 ·
(c) Road lighting
luminaire
classification
366 ·
(d) The proposal of Narisada and
Schreuder
368
10.2.2
The optics of
rond
lighting
luminaires
370
10.2.3
Ingress protection
372
10.3
Light pollution
373
10.3.1
Description of light pollution
373
(a) Light pollution and sky glow
373 ·
(b) Victims of light pollution
374 ·
(c) Description of light pollution effects
375 ·
(d) Conspicuity of point sources
376 ·
(e) Application of flat
luminaire
covers
376
10.3.2
Limits of light pollution
378
(a) The natural background radiation
378 ·
(b) Artificial sky glow
379 ·
(c)
CIE
Limits
379 ·
(d) IAU
limits
382
10.3.3
Remedial measures
382
(a) Limiting sky glow
382 ·
(b) Switching off the lights
383 ·
(c) Gated viewing
383
•
(d) Light control
384 ·
(e) Reduction of reflection
384 ·
(f
)
Using monochromatic
light
385 ·
(g) Filtering the light
385
10.4
Reflection properties of road surfaces
385
10.4.1
Road reflection as a road lighting design characteristic
385
(a) The luminance technique in road lighting
385 ·
(b) Reflection characteristics
386 ·
(c) Documentation of reflection characteristics
388
10.4.2
The classification of road surface reflection
388
10.4.3
Standard reflection tables
390
10.4.4
Field measurements of the road reflection
390
10.5
Conclusions 393
11
Road lighting design 401
11.1
Design methods for road lighting installations
401
ll.l.l Principles of lighting design
401
xii Contents
11.1.2 Design
methods based on the road
luminance
403
(a) Systems of road lighting quality assessment
403 ·
(b) The method using E-P
diagrams
403 ·
(c) The basis of computer-assisted luminance-design methods
406 ·
(d)
LUCIE
407 ·
(e)
Shortcomings of
LUCIE
408
11.1.3
Alternative design parameters
410
(a) Illuminance
410 ·
(b) Road lighting design methods based on revealing power
411
•
(c) Visibility Level
411 ·
(d) Small Target Visibility
411 ·
(e) The Narisada visibility-
based design method for road lighting
412 ·
(f) Guidance lighting
414 ·
(g) Visual
comfort and city beatification
415 ·
(h) Fear for crime and subjective safety
417 ·
(j) Cost-benefit considerations
418
11.2
Road lighting for developing countries
418
11.2.1
Recommendations
418
(a) The visibility approach
418 ·
(b) The traffic engineering approach
419
11.2.2
Low-maintenance lighting installations
420
(a) The maintenance of outdoor lighting installations
420 ·
(b) Open
luminaire
options
421 ·
(c) Comparing open and closed
luminaires
422
11.3
Simplified design methods
425
11.3.1
Characteristics of simplified design methods
425
(a) The need for simplified design methods
425 ·
(b) Road classification
425 ·
(c)
Lighted and unlit roads
426
11.3.2
A practical method for simplified lighting design
426
(a) The design approach
426 ·
(b) The effective road width
427 ·
(c) The mounting
height
428 ·
(d) The spacing
428 ·
(e) The light level
428 ·
(f
)
The utilization factor
428 ·
(g) The tabulated lighting design
429
11.4
Conclusions
430 |
| any_adam_object | 1 |
| any_adam_object_boolean | 1 |
| author | Schreuder, Duco A. 1931- |
| author_GND | (DE-588)137406290 |
| author_facet | Schreuder, Duco A. 1931- |
| author_role | aut |
| author_sort | Schreuder, Duco A. 1931- |
| author_variant | d a s da das |
| building | Verbundindex |
| bvnumber | BV035186037 |
| classification_rvk | UH 6900 |
| ctrlnum | (OCoLC)252471093 (DE-599)DNB988537877 |
| dewey-full | 621.3229 |
| dewey-hundreds | 600 - Technology (Applied sciences) |
| dewey-ones | 621 - Applied physics |
| dewey-raw | 621.3229 |
| dewey-search | 621.3229 |
| dewey-sort | 3621.3229 |
| dewey-tens | 620 - Engineering and allied operations |
| discipline | Physik Technik allgemein Elektrotechnik / Elektronik / Nachrichtentechnik |
| discipline_str_mv | Physik Technik allgemein Elektrotechnik / Elektronik / Nachrichtentechnik |
| format | Book |
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| id | DE-604.BV035186037 |
| illustrated | Illustrated |
| index_date | 2024-07-02T22:59:42Z |
| indexdate | 2024-07-09T21:26:58Z |
| institution | BVB |
| isbn | 9781402086014 |
| language | English |
| oai_aleph_id | oai:aleph.bib-bvb.de:BVB01-016992725 |
| oclc_num | 252471093 |
| open_access_boolean | |
| owner | DE-703 DE-11 |
| owner_facet | DE-703 DE-11 |
| physical | XVIII, 448 S. graph. Darst. |
| publishDate | 2008 |
| publishDateSearch | 2008 |
| publishDateSort | 2008 |
| publisher | Springer |
| record_format | marc |
| spelling | Schreuder, Duco A. 1931- Verfasser (DE-588)137406290 aut Outdoor lighting physics, vision and perception Duco Schreuder [Dordrecht] Springer 2008 XVIII, 448 S. graph. Darst. txt rdacontent n rdamedia nc rdacarrier Angekündigt u.d.T.: Schreuder, Duco: Topics in lighting Außenbeleuchtung (DE-588)4406434-2 gnd rswk-swf Lichttechnik (DE-588)4035633-4 gnd rswk-swf Lichttechnik (DE-588)4035633-4 s Außenbeleuchtung (DE-588)4406434-2 s DE-604 Digitalisierung UB Bayreuth application/pdf http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016992725&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA Inhaltsverzeichnis |
| spellingShingle | Schreuder, Duco A. 1931- Outdoor lighting physics, vision and perception Außenbeleuchtung (DE-588)4406434-2 gnd Lichttechnik (DE-588)4035633-4 gnd |
| subject_GND | (DE-588)4406434-2 (DE-588)4035633-4 |
| title | Outdoor lighting physics, vision and perception |
| title_auth | Outdoor lighting physics, vision and perception |
| title_exact_search | Outdoor lighting physics, vision and perception |
| title_exact_search_txtP | Outdoor lighting physics, vision and perception |
| title_full | Outdoor lighting physics, vision and perception Duco Schreuder |
| title_fullStr | Outdoor lighting physics, vision and perception Duco Schreuder |
| title_full_unstemmed | Outdoor lighting physics, vision and perception Duco Schreuder |
| title_short | Outdoor lighting |
| title_sort | outdoor lighting physics vision and perception |
| title_sub | physics, vision and perception |
| topic | Außenbeleuchtung (DE-588)4406434-2 gnd Lichttechnik (DE-588)4035633-4 gnd |
| topic_facet | Außenbeleuchtung Lichttechnik |
| url | http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016992725&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT schreuderducoa outdoorlightingphysicsvisionandperception |