Verfügbarkeit: Genetic improvement of bioenergy crops

Genetic improvement of bioenergy crops:

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Bibliographische Detailangaben
Weitere Verfasser:	Vermerris, Wilfred (HerausgeberIn)
Format:	Buch
Sprache:	English
Veröffentlicht:	New York, NY [u.a.] Springer 2008
Schlagworte:	Alcohol as fuel Biomass energy Energy crops > Genetic engineering Lignocellulose > Biotechnology Pflanzenzüchtung Energiepflanzen Aufsatzsammlung
Online-Zugang:	Inhaltsverzeichnis
Beschreibung:	XXI, 449 S. Ill., graph. Darst.
ISBN:	9780387708041 0387708049

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245	1	0	\|a Genetic improvement of bioenergy crops \|c ed. by Wilfred Vermerris
264		1	\|a New York, NY [u.a.] \|b Springer \|c 2008
300			\|a XXI, 449 S. \|b Ill., graph. Darst.
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338			\|b nc \|2 rdacarrier
650		4	\|a Alcohol as fuel
650		4	\|a Biomass energy
650		4	\|a Energy crops \|x Genetic engineering
650		4	\|a Lignocellulose \|x Biotechnology
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Datensatz im Suchindex

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adam_text	Contents Preface ........................................................................................................................ v Contributors ............................................................................................................xix Parti 1. Why Bioenergy Makes Sense .............................................................................. З Wilfred Vermerris 1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................3 1.2 Energy Sources ..............................................................................................3 1.2.1 Coal .....................................................................................................5 1.2.2 Oil .......................................................................................................5 1.2.3 Natural Gas .........................................................................................6 1.2.4 Nuclear Energy ...................................................................................6 1.2.5 Hydroelectric Energy ..........................................................................7 1.2.6 Solar Energy .......................................................................................7 1.2.7 Wind Energy .......................................................................................8 1.2.8 Tidal Energy .......................................................................................8 1.2.9 Wave Energy .......................................................................................9 1.2. lOGeothermal Energy .............................................................................9 1.2.11 Bioenergy ............................................................................................9 1.3 Photosynthesis: Capturing Solar Energy in Chemical Bonds ......................12 1.3.1 C3 Photosynthesis .............................................................................12 1.3.2 C4 Photosynthesis .............................................................................14 1.3.2.1 The NADP^Malic Enzyme Variant ....................................15 1.3.2.2 The NAD^Malic Enzyme Variant .......................................16 1.3.2.3 The Phosphoewo/pyruvate Carboxykinase Variant ..............17 1.3.2.4 Biosynthesis of Biofuel Feedstocks from Photosynthate .......................................................................18 χ Contents 1.4 Alternative Energy to Meet Future Global Energy Needs ...........................19 1.4.1 Reducing Global Carbon Emissions .................................................19 1.4.2 Political and Economic Motivations for Using Alternative Energy ...............................................................................................24 1.5 Initiatives Around the World to Stimulate Bioenergy Production ...............26 1.6 Bioenergy, Oil Companies, and Car Manufacturers ....................................29 1.7 Concerns About Bioenergy .........................................................................31 1.7.1 Food Versus Fuel ..............................................................................31 1.7.2 Negative Net Energy Balance ...........................................................32 1.7.3 Soil Depletion ...................................................................................33 1.7.4 Contribution to Net CO2 Emissions ..................................................34 1.7.5 Biofuels Prolong the Power of the Oil Companies ...........................35 1.7.6 Ethanol is an Uneconomical Fuel .....................................................36 1.8 Conclusions .................................................................................................37 References ............................................................................................................39 2. A Primer on Genetics, Genomics and Plant Breeding ....................................43 Wilfred Vermerris 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................43 2.2 DNA, Genes and Genomes ..........................................................................43 2.3 Genetic Variation ........................................................................................47 2.4 Molecular Markers ......................................................................................49 2.4.1 Definition and Use ............................................................................49 2.4.2 The Polymerase Chain Reaction .......................................................49 2.4.3 RFLPs ...............................................................................................51 2.4.4 CAPS Markers ..................................................................................52 2.4.5 RAPD Markers .................................................................................52 2.4.6 SSR or Microsatellite Markers ..........................................................52 2.4.7 SSLP Markers ...................................................................................53 2.4.8 SSCP Markers ...................................................................................53 2.4.9 AFLP® Markers ................................................................................53 2.4.10 SNP Markers .....................................................................................54 2.5 Genetic Maps ...............................................................................................54 2.6 Gene Identification and Isolation ................................................................56 2.6.1 Isolation of Mutants ..........................................................................56 2.6.2 Insertional Mutagenesis ....................................................................57 2.6.3 Map-Based Cloning ..........................................................................58 2.6.4 The Candidate-Gene Approach .........................................................59 2.6.5 Gene Identification Based on Differential Gene Expression ............59 2.6.5.1 Differential Display .............................................................60 2.6.5.2 Subtractive Hybridization ....................................................60 2.6.5.3 cDNA-AFLP® ......................................................................61 2.6.5.4 Microarrays ..........................................................................61 2.6.5.5 High-Throughput cDNA Sequencing ..................................61 2.7 Plant Breeding Principles ............................................................................62 2.7.1 Identification and Combination of Genetic Variation .......................62 2.7.2 Quantitative Traits ............................................................................63 Contents xi 2.7.3 Selection ...........................................................................................64 2.7.3.1 Bulk Method ........................................................................65 2.7.3.2 Single-Seed Descent Method ...............................................65 2.7.3.3 Mass Selection .....................................................................66 2.7.3.4 Pedigree Method ..................................................................66 2.7.3.5 Backcross Method ................................................................67 2.7.4 Testing and Evaluation .....................................................................68 2.7.5 Cultivar Production ...........................................................................69 2.8 Genetic Engineering ....................................................................................69 References ............................................................................................................71 3. Production of Ethanol from Grain ...................................................................75 Nancy N. Nichols and Rodney J . Bothast 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................75 3.2 Ethanol Fermentation Processes ..................................................................75 3.2.1 Initial Handling of Grain ...................................................................78 3.2.2 Conversion of Starch to Fermentable Sugars ....................................78 3.2.3 Ethanol Fermentation ........................................................................80 3.2.4 Ethanol Recovery ..............................................................................80 3.2.5 Stillage Processing ............................................................................81 3.3 New Developments .....................................................................................81 3.3.1 Milling and Separation Technologies ...............................................81 3.3.2 New Enzymes and Yeast Strains ......................................................82 3.3.3 New Corn Hybrids ............................................................................83 3.3.4 Co-product Quality and Utilization ...................................................83 3.3.5 Conversion of Non-starch Polymers .................................................84 3.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................84 References ............................................................................................................84 4. Composition and Biosynthesis of Lignocellulosic Biomass .............................89 Wilfred Vermerris 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................89 4.2 Lignocellulosci Biomass is Composed of Plant Cell Walls .........................89 4.3 Carbohydrate Nomenclature ........................................................................91 4.3.1 The +/- -Nomenclature .....................................................................91 4.3.2 The L/D -Nomenclature .....................................................................92 4.3.3 The R, ^-Nomenclature .....................................................................92 4.4 Cellulose ......................................................................................................96 4.4.1 Cellulose Structure ............................................................................96 4.4.2 Cellulose Biosynthesis ......................................................................98 4.5 Hemicellulose ............................................................................................102 4.5.1 Xyloglucans ....................................................................................103 4.5.2 Xylans .............................................................................................104 4.5.2.1 Arabinoxylans ....................................................................104 4.5.2.2 Glucuronoarabinoxylans ....................................................105 4.5.2.3 4-O-Methyl-Glucuronoxylans ............................................106 xii Contents 4.5.3 Mixed-Linkage Beta-Glucans.........................................................106 4.5.4 Mannans ..........................................................................................106 4.5.5 Hemicellulose Biosynthesis ............................................................107 4.5.5.1 The Nucleotide Sugar Interconversion Pathway ................108 4.5.5.2 Biosynthesis of Hemicellulosic Polysaccharides ...............111 4.5.5.3 Xyloglucan Modification ...................................................115 4.6 Pectins .......................................................................................................116 4.7 Lignin and Hydroxycinnamic Acids ..........................................................117 4.7.1 Biosynthesis of Monolignols and Hydroxycinnamic Acids ............117 4.7.2 Monolignol Transport .....................................................................120 4.7.3 Monolignol Oxidation and Polymerization .....................................121 4.8 Cell Wall Proteins .....................................................................................125 4.9 Cell Wall Architecture ...............................................................................126 4.10 Cell Wall-Related Databases .....................................................................128 4.11 Conclusion .................................................................................................129 References ..........................................................................................................129 5. Selection of Promising Biomass Feedstock Lines Using High- Throughput Spectrometric and Enzymatic Assays .......................................143 Mark F. Davis, Ed Wolfrum and Tina Jeoh 5.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................143 5.2 Integrating Spectroscopy and Multi variate Statistical Data Analysis for High-Throughput Cell Wall Chemical Analysis ..................................143 5.3 Near Infrared (MR) Spectroscopy ............................................................145 5.3.1 Description of Instrumentation .......................................................145 5.3.2 Applications and Results .................................................................146 5.3.2.1 Qualitative Data Analysis (Classification) .........................146 5.3.2.2 Quantitative Data Analysis (Prediction) ............................147 5.4 Pyrolysis-Molecular Beam-Mass Spectrometry ........................................148 5.4.1 Description of Instrumentation .......................................................148 5.4.2 Applications and Results .................................................................150 5.4.2.1 Estimates of Lignin Composition and Structure ................150 5.4.2.2 Detection of Quantitative Trait Loci ..................................152 5.4.2.3 Chemical Compositional Changes after Pretreatment and Biological Conversion .................................................152 5.4.2.4 Screening for Unintended Effects ......................................154 5.5 Enzyme Accessibility in Biomass .............................................................154 5.5.1 Probing for Enzyme Accessibility in Biomass ................................154 5.5.2 Applications and Results .................................................................155 References ..........................................................................................................157 6. Current Technologies for Fuel Ethanol Production from Lignocellulosic Plant Biomass .........................................................................161 Yulin Lu and Nathan S. Mos ier 6.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................161 6.2 Feedstock Pretreatment Strategies .............................................................163 Contents xiii 6.2.1 Neutral/Controlled-pH Pretreatment ...............................................165 6.2.1.1 Steam Explosion................................................................165 6.2.1.2 Liquid Hot Water Pretreatment ..........................................165 6.2.1.3 Controlled-pH Pretreatment ...............................................166 6.2.2 Acid-Based Pretreatment ................................................................166 6.2.2.1 Dilute Acid Pretreatment ...................................................166 6.2.2.2 Concentrated Acid Pretreatment ........................................167 6.2.3 Alkaline-Based and Other Pretreatments ........................................167 6.2.3.1 Lime ...................................................................................167 6.2.3.2 Ammonia Fiber Expansion ................................................168 6.3 Enzymatic Hydrolysis: Liberating Monosaccharides ................................168 6.4 Ethanol Fermentation: Strain Development for Sugar Co-fermentation .........................................................................................171 6.4.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae ..............................................................171 6.4.2 Zymomonas mobilis ........................................................................173 6.4.3 Escherichia coli ..............................................................................174 6.5 Ethanol Recovery: Distillation and Dehydration .......................................175 6.6 Perspectives on Advanced Biochemical Conversion Technologies ..........176 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................177 References ..........................................................................................................177 Partii 7. Genetic Improvement of Corn for Lignocellulosic Feedstock Production ........................................................................................................185 Natalia de Leon and James G. Coors 7.1 Indtroduction .............................................................................................185 7.2 Botanical Description of Corn ...................................................................186 7.2.1 Corn Anatomy .................................................................................186 7.2.2 Corn Origin and Habiat ...................................................................187 7.2.3 Corn Reproduction and Biology .....................................................188 7.2.4 Genome Structure and Organization ...............................................190 7.3 Management and Bioprocessing ................................................................191 7.3.1 Cultivation Practices .......................................................................191 7.3.2 Biomass Yield Potential ..................................................................193 7.3.3 Biomass Processing ........................................................................195 7.4 Utilization of Corn Stover as a Source of Biomass ...................................196 7.5 Genetics .....................................................................................................198 7.5.1 Sources of Genetic Variation ..........................................................198 7.5.2 Use of Genetic Variation ................................................................199 7.6 Current Research Efforts and Future Outlook ...........................................201 References ..........................................................................................................202 8. Development and Utilization of Sorghum as a Bioenergy Crop ..................211 Ana Saballos 8.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................211 8.2 Botanical Description of Sorghum ............................................................212 xiv Contents 8.2.1 Biology of Reproduction .................................................................214 8.3 Management ..............................................................................................215 8.3.1 Agronomic Considerations .............................................................215 8.3.2 Pests and Diseases ..........................................................................217 8.3.2.1 Insect Pests .........................................................................218 8.3.2.2 Diseases .............................................................................220 8.3.3 Harvest and Processing Systems .....................................................221 8.4 Current Status and Future Prospects ..........................................................223 8.5 Genetic Improvement of Sorghum ............................................................225 8.5.1 Genetic Resources ...........................................................................225 8.5.1.1 Natural Variation ...............................................................225 8.5.1.2 Mutants ..............................................................................226 8.5.1.3 Transformation ...................................................................226 8.5.1.4 Sorghum Genomics ............................................................227 8.5.2 Breeding Methods ...........................................................................228 8.5.3 Traits of Interest for Improvement ..................................................230 8.5.3.1 Yield ...................................................................................231 8.5.3.2 Stress Resistance ................................................................234 8.5.3.3 Moisture Content and Juice Extraction Efficiency .............236 8.5.3.4 Conversion Efficiency of the Starch ..................................236 8.5.3.5 Cell Wall Composition .......................................................236 8.5.3.6 Sugar Concentration ...........................................................237 8.6 Conclusions ...............................................................................................238 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................238 References ..........................................................................................................239 9. Genetic Improvement of Sugarcane {Saccharum spp.) as an Energy Crop ............................................................................................249 Thomas L. Tew andRobert M. Cobill 9.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................249 9.2 Botanical Description of Sugarcane ..........................................................249 9.2.1 Taxonomy .......................................................................................249 9.2.2 Sugarcane Cultivation and Harvest .................................................251 9.2.3 Sugarcane Anatomy ........................................................................252 9.2.4 Early Breeding Efforts ....................................................................254 9.2.5 Genetic Improvement ......................................................................255 9.3 Production Statistics ..................................................................................255 9.3.1 Worldwide Production Statistics .....................................................255 9.3.2 U.S. Production Statistics ...............................................................256 9.4 Energy Potential of Sugarcane ..................................................................256 9.4.1 Yield Potential ................................................................................256 9.4.2 Actual Yields ..................................................................................257 9.5 Sugarcane as an Energy Crop ....................................................................257 9.5.1 Sugar as a Feedstock .......................................................................258 9.5.2 Sugarcane Fiber as a Feedstock ......................................................258 9.5.2.1 Composition of Sugarcane .................................................258 Contents xv 9.5.2.2 Boiler Fuel and Cogeneration ............................................259 9.5.2.3 Cellulosic Ethanol and Gasification ...................................260 9.5.3 Energy Output/Input Ratio ..............................................................261 9.6 Energy Cane Breeding Strategies ..............................................................262 9.6.1 The Sugar Model (Status Quo) .......................................................262 9.6.1.1 Breeding for Sugar Yield and Improved Sugar Content ...............................................................................262 9.6.1.2 Sugarcane Breeding in Brazil .............................................263 9.6.2 Sugar and Fiber Model ....................................................................264 9.6.2.1 Type I Energy Cane Definition ..........................................264 9.6.2.2 Genetic Base Broadening ...................................................264 9.6.2.3 Caribbean and U.S. Experience .........................................265 9.6.3 Fiber-only Model (Type II Energy Cane) ......................................266 9.6.3.1 Type II Energy Cane Definition .........................................266 9.6.3.2 Breeding Within Sacchamm Strictly for Fiber Content ...............................................................................266 9.6.3.3 Related Genera and Intergeneric Hybridization .................267 9.7 Looking to the Future ................................................................................267 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................268 References ..........................................................................................................268 10. Miscanthus: Genetic Resources and Breeding Potential to Enhance Bioenergy Production ......................................................................................273 John Clifton-Brown, Yu-Chung Chiang and Trevor R. Hodkinson 10.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................273 10.2 Botanical Description oí Miscanthus .........................................................274 10.3 Agronomic Characteristics and Bioprocessing ..........................................279 10.4 Production and Utilization .........................................................................281 10.5 Why use Miscanthusl ...............................................................................282 10.6 Genetics .....................................................................................................283 10.6.1 Using Genetic Variation for Breeding ..........................................284 10.6.2 Traits of Interest ............................................................................287 10.6.2.1 Drought Tolerance .........................................................287 10.6.2.2 Frost Tolerance and Low Temperature Growth .............288 10.6.2.3 Flowering Time .............................................................288 10.6.2.4 Composition ..................................................................288 10.6.2.5 Propagation ....................................................................289 10.6.2.6 Pests and Disease ...........................................................289 10.7 Future Outlook ..........................................................................................290 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................290 References ..........................................................................................................290 11. Improvement of Switchgrass as a Bioenergy Crop .......................................295 Joe Bouton 11.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................295 11.2 Rationale for using Switchgrass as a Bioenergy Crop ...............................296 xvi Contents 11.3 Botanical Description of Switchgrass........................................................296 11.4 Management ..............................................................................................297 11.5 Bioprocessing............................................................................................ 299 11.6 Breeding and Cultivar Development .........................................................300 11.6.1 Traits and Breeding Methodology ................................................300 11.6.2 Population Improvement ..............................................................301 11.6.3 Hybrids .........................................................................................302 11.7 Genomics and Transformation ..................................................................303 11.7.1 Genomics and Trait Mapping .......................................................304 11.7.2 Tissue Culture and Transformation ..............................................305 11.8 Future Outlook and Conclusions ...............................................................305 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................306 References ..........................................................................................................306 12. Improvement of Perennial Forage Species as Feedstock for Bioenergy ....................................................................................................309 William F. Anderson, Michael D. Casier and Brian S. Baldwin 12.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................309 12.2 Reed Canarygrass ......................................................................................310 12.2.1 Botanical Description ...................................................................310 12.2.2 Management and Bioprocessing ...................................................311 12.2.3 Genetics and Breeding ..................................................................311 12.2.4 Future Outlook for Reed Canarygrass ..........................................312 12.3 Alfalfa ........................................................................................................313 12.3.1 Botanical Description ...................................................................313 12.3.2 Management and Bioprocessing ...................................................314 12.3.3 Genetics and Breeding ..................................................................314 12.3.4 Future Outlook for Alfalfa ............................................................316 12.4 Wildrye ......................................................................................................316 12.4.1 Botanical Description ...................................................................316 12.4.2 Management and Bioprocessing ...................................................317 12.4.3 Genetics and Breeding ..................................................................317 12.4.4 Future Outlook for Wildrye ..........................................................317 12.5 BigBluestem .............................................................................................318 12.5.1 Botanical Description ...................................................................318 12.5.2 Management and Bioprocessing ...................................................319 12.5.3 Genetics and Breeding ..................................................................319 12.5.4 Future Outlook for Big Bluestem .................................................320 12.6 Bermudagrass............................................................................................321 12.6.1 Botanical Description ...................................................................321 12.6.2 Management and Bioprocessing ...................................................322 12.6.3 Genetics and Breeding ..................................................................323 12.6.4 Future Outlook for Bermudagrass................................................328 12.7 Napiergrass ................................................................................................328 12.7.1 Botanical Description ...................................................................328 12.7.2 Management and Bioprocessing ...................................................329 Contents xvii 12.7.3 Genetics and Breeding ..................................................................330 12.7.4 Future Outlook for Napiergrass ....................................................333 12.8 Eastern Gamagrass ....................................................................................333 12.8.1 Botanical Description ...................................................................333 12.8.2 Management and Bioprocessing ...................................................334 12.8.3 Genetics and Breeding ..................................................................334 12.8.4 Future Outlook for Eastern Gamagrass ........................................335 12.9 Summary ...................................................................................................336 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................337 References ..........................................................................................................337 13. Genetic Improvement of Willow (Salix spp.) as a Dedicated Bioenergy Crop ................................................................................................347 Lawrence B. Smart and Kimberly D. Cameron 13.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................347 13.2 Botanical Description of Willow (Salix) ...................................................348 13.2.1 Taxonomy of Species Developed as Bioenergy Crops .................348 13.2.2 Willow Habitat and Growth ..........................................................349 13.3 Cultivation, Harvesting, and Processing of Shrub Willow ........................349 13.3.1 Establishing Willow Bioenergy Crop Plantations ........................349 13.3.2 Willow Crop Management ...........................................................352 13.3.3 Willow Biomass Harvesting, Transport, and Storage ...................355 13.3.4 Processing and Conversion of Willow Biomass to Electricity, Heat, and Transportation Fuels ..............................357 13.4 Breeding and Selection of Improved Shrub Willow Varieties for Bioenergy .............................................................................359 13.4.1 Pollination, Hybridization, and Seedling Propagation of Willows ................................................................359 13.4.2 Genetics of Traits Important for Improved Performance of Willow as a Bioenergy Crop ...............................362 13.4.3 Current Breeding Efforts for the Development of Shrub Willow as an Energy Crop .................................................363 13.4.3.1 Breeding Programs in Sweden .......................................363 13.4.3.2 Breeding Programs in the United Kingdom ...................364 13.4.3.3 Breeding Programs in North America ...........................365 13.4.4 Analysis and Genetic Modification of the Willow Genome .........369 13.4 Future Outlook ..........................................................................................370 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................370 References ..........................................................................................................370 14. Genetic Improvement of Poplar (Populus spp.) as a Bioenergy Crop .........377 John M. Davis 14.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................377 14.2 Botanical Description of Poplar (Populus) ................................................378 14.2.1 Taxonomy of Populus ..................................................................378 14.2.2 Propagation and Silviculture .........................................................380 xviii Contents 14.2.3 Use of Poplar for Bioenergy .........................................................383 14.3 Genetic Improvement ................................................................................385 14.3.1 Genetic Parameters for Bioenergy Traits ......................................386 14.3.2 Whole-Genome Sequence: The Parts List for Genetic Improvement ...................................................................388 14.3.3 Trait Mapping in Pedigrees and Populations ................................389 14.3.4 Transgenic Alteration of Gene Expression ...................................390 14.4 Conclusions ...............................................................................................393 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................393 References ..........................................................................................................393 15. Southern Pines: A Resource for Bioenergy ....................................................397 Gary F . Peter 15.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................397 15.2 Botanical Description of Pines: Southern Yellow Pines ............................398 15.2.1 Taxonomy of Species Developed for Plantation Forestry ............398 15.3 Management, Harvesting, Transportation and Bioprocessing of Southern Pines ......................................................................................400 15.3.1 Current Southern Pine Growing Systems for Traditional Forest Products ...........................................................400 15.3.2 Southern Pine Harvesting and Transport ......................................403 15.3.3 Silvicultural Research for Short-Rotation Bioenergy Plantings .......................................................................................403 15.3.4 Traditional Pulp and Paper Bioprocessing Methods, Existing Infrastructure, and Integrated Forest Biorefineries .........404 15.3.5 Stand-Alone Facilities for Converting Southern Pines to Energy and Fuels ..........................................................................405 15.4 Life History and Life Cycle of Southern Pines .........................................406 15.5 Genetics and Breeding of Southern Pine ...................................................407 15.5.1 Genetic Diversity ..........................................................................407 15.5.2 Pollination, Breeding, and Propagation of Southern Pines ...........408 15.5.3 Genetic Improvement of Growth, Disease Resistance, and Wood Properties in Loblolly and Slash Pine .........................411 15.5.4 Biotechnology in Southern Pines ..................................................413 15.6 Future Outlook ..........................................................................................414 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................414 References ..........................................................................................................414 List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................421 Index .......................................................................................................................423
adam_txt	Contents Preface . v Contributors .xix Parti 1. Why Bioenergy Makes Sense . З Wilfred Vermerris 1.1 Introduction .3 1.2 Energy Sources .3 1.2.1 Coal .5 1.2.2 Oil .5 1.2.3 Natural Gas .6 1.2.4 Nuclear Energy .6 1.2.5 Hydroelectric Energy .7 1.2.6 Solar Energy .7 1.2.7 Wind Energy .8 1.2.8 Tidal Energy .8 1.2.9 Wave Energy .9 1.2. lOGeothermal Energy .9 1.2.11 Bioenergy .9 1.3 Photosynthesis: Capturing Solar Energy in Chemical Bonds .12 1.3.1 C3 Photosynthesis .12 1.3.2 C4 Photosynthesis .14 1.3.2.1 The NADP^Malic Enzyme Variant .15 1.3.2.2 The NAD^Malic Enzyme Variant .16 1.3.2.3 The Phosphoewo/pyruvate Carboxykinase Variant .17 1.3.2.4 Biosynthesis of Biofuel Feedstocks from Photosynthate .18 χ Contents 1.4 Alternative Energy to Meet Future Global Energy Needs .19 1.4.1 Reducing Global Carbon Emissions .19 1.4.2 Political and Economic Motivations for Using Alternative Energy .24 1.5 Initiatives Around the World to Stimulate Bioenergy Production .26 1.6 Bioenergy, Oil Companies, and Car Manufacturers .29 1.7 Concerns About Bioenergy .31 1.7.1 Food Versus Fuel .31 1.7.2 Negative Net Energy Balance .32 1.7.3 Soil Depletion .33 1.7.4 Contribution to Net CO2 Emissions .34 1.7.5 Biofuels Prolong the Power of the Oil Companies .35 1.7.6 Ethanol is an Uneconomical Fuel .36 1.8 Conclusions .37 References .39 2. A Primer on Genetics, Genomics and Plant Breeding .43 Wilfred Vermerris 2.1 Introduction .43 2.2 DNA, Genes and Genomes .43 2.3 Genetic Variation .47 2.4 Molecular Markers .49 2.4.1 Definition and Use .49 2.4.2 The Polymerase Chain Reaction .49 2.4.3 RFLPs .51 2.4.4 CAPS Markers .52 2.4.5 RAPD Markers .52 2.4.6 SSR or Microsatellite Markers .52 2.4.7 SSLP Markers .53 2.4.8 SSCP Markers .53 2.4.9 AFLP® Markers .53 2.4.10 SNP Markers .54 2.5 Genetic Maps .54 2.6 Gene Identification and Isolation .56 2.6.1 Isolation of Mutants .56 2.6.2 Insertional Mutagenesis .57 2.6.3 Map-Based Cloning .58 2.6.4 The Candidate-Gene Approach .59 2.6.5 Gene Identification Based on Differential Gene Expression .59 2.6.5.1 Differential Display .60 2.6.5.2 Subtractive Hybridization .60 2.6.5.3 cDNA-AFLP® .61 2.6.5.4 Microarrays .61 2.6.5.5 High-Throughput cDNA Sequencing .61 2.7 Plant Breeding Principles .62 2.7.1 Identification and Combination of Genetic Variation .62 2.7.2 Quantitative Traits .63 Contents xi 2.7.3 Selection .64 2.7.3.1 Bulk Method .65 2.7.3.2 Single-Seed Descent Method .65 2.7.3.3 Mass Selection .66 2.7.3.4 Pedigree Method .66 2.7.3.5 Backcross Method .67 2.7.4 Testing and Evaluation .68 2.7.5 Cultivar Production .69 2.8 Genetic Engineering .69 References .71 3. Production of Ethanol from Grain .75 Nancy N. Nichols and Rodney J . Bothast 3.1 Introduction .75 3.2 Ethanol Fermentation Processes .75 3.2.1 Initial Handling of Grain .78 3.2.2 Conversion of Starch to Fermentable Sugars .78 3.2.3 Ethanol Fermentation .80 3.2.4 Ethanol Recovery .80 3.2.5 Stillage Processing .81 3.3 New Developments .81 3.3.1 Milling and Separation Technologies .81 3.3.2 New Enzymes and Yeast Strains .82 3.3.3 New Corn Hybrids .83 3.3.4 Co-product Quality and Utilization .83 3.3.5 Conversion of Non-starch Polymers .84 3.4 Conclusion .84 References .84 4. Composition and Biosynthesis of Lignocellulosic Biomass .89 Wilfred Vermerris 4.1 Introduction .89 4.2 Lignocellulosci Biomass is Composed of Plant Cell Walls .89 4.3 Carbohydrate Nomenclature .91 4.3.1 The +/- -Nomenclature .91 4.3.2 The L/D -Nomenclature .92 4.3.3 The R, ^-Nomenclature .92 4.4 Cellulose .96 4.4.1 Cellulose Structure .96 4.4.2 Cellulose Biosynthesis .98 4.5 Hemicellulose .102 4.5.1 Xyloglucans .103 4.5.2 Xylans .104 4.5.2.1 Arabinoxylans .104 4.5.2.2 Glucuronoarabinoxylans .105 4.5.2.3 4-O-Methyl-Glucuronoxylans .106 xii Contents 4.5.3 Mixed-Linkage Beta-Glucans.106 4.5.4 Mannans .106 4.5.5 Hemicellulose Biosynthesis .107 4.5.5.1 The Nucleotide Sugar Interconversion Pathway .108 4.5.5.2 Biosynthesis of Hemicellulosic Polysaccharides .111 4.5.5.3 Xyloglucan Modification .115 4.6 Pectins .116 4.7 Lignin and Hydroxycinnamic Acids .117 4.7.1 Biosynthesis of Monolignols and Hydroxycinnamic Acids .117 4.7.2 Monolignol Transport .120 4.7.3 Monolignol Oxidation and Polymerization .121 4.8 Cell Wall Proteins .125 4.9 Cell Wall Architecture .126 4.10 Cell Wall-Related Databases .128 4.11 Conclusion .129 References .129 5. Selection of Promising Biomass Feedstock Lines Using High- Throughput Spectrometric and Enzymatic Assays .143 Mark F. Davis, Ed Wolfrum and Tina Jeoh 5.1 Introduction .143 5.2 Integrating Spectroscopy and Multi variate Statistical Data Analysis for High-Throughput Cell Wall Chemical Analysis .143 5.3 Near Infrared (MR) Spectroscopy .145 5.3.1 Description of Instrumentation .145 5.3.2 Applications and Results .146 5.3.2.1 Qualitative Data Analysis (Classification) .146 5.3.2.2 Quantitative Data Analysis (Prediction) .147 5.4 Pyrolysis-Molecular Beam-Mass Spectrometry .148 5.4.1 Description of Instrumentation .148 5.4.2 Applications and Results .150 5.4.2.1 Estimates of Lignin Composition and Structure .150 5.4.2.2 Detection of Quantitative Trait Loci .152 5.4.2.3 Chemical Compositional Changes after Pretreatment and Biological Conversion .152 5.4.2.4 Screening for Unintended Effects .154 5.5 Enzyme Accessibility in Biomass .154 5.5.1 Probing for Enzyme Accessibility in Biomass .154 5.5.2 Applications and Results .155 References .157 6. Current Technologies for Fuel Ethanol Production from Lignocellulosic Plant Biomass .161 Yulin Lu and Nathan S. Mos ier 6.1 Introduction .161 6.2 Feedstock Pretreatment Strategies .163 Contents xiii 6.2.1 Neutral/Controlled-pH Pretreatment .165 6.2.1.1 Steam Explosion.165 6.2.1.2 Liquid Hot Water Pretreatment .165 6.2.1.3 Controlled-pH Pretreatment .166 6.2.2 Acid-Based Pretreatment .166 6.2.2.1 Dilute Acid Pretreatment .166 6.2.2.2 Concentrated Acid Pretreatment .167 6.2.3 Alkaline-Based and Other Pretreatments .167 6.2.3.1 Lime .167 6.2.3.2 Ammonia Fiber Expansion .168 6.3 Enzymatic Hydrolysis: Liberating Monosaccharides .168 6.4 Ethanol Fermentation: Strain Development for Sugar Co-fermentation .171 6.4.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae .171 6.4.2 Zymomonas mobilis .173 6.4.3 Escherichia coli .174 6.5 Ethanol Recovery: Distillation and Dehydration .175 6.6 Perspectives on Advanced Biochemical Conversion Technologies .176 Acknowledgements .177 References .177 Partii 7. Genetic Improvement of Corn for Lignocellulosic Feedstock Production .185 Natalia de Leon and James G. Coors 7.1 Indtroduction .185 7.2 Botanical Description of Corn .186 7.2.1 Corn Anatomy .186 7.2.2 Corn Origin and Habiat .187 7.2.3 Corn Reproduction and Biology .188 7.2.4 Genome Structure and Organization .190 7.3 Management and Bioprocessing .191 7.3.1 Cultivation Practices .191 7.3.2 Biomass Yield Potential .193 7.3.3 Biomass Processing .195 7.4 Utilization of Corn Stover as a Source of Biomass .196 7.5 Genetics .198 7.5.1 Sources of Genetic Variation .198 7.5.2 Use of Genetic Variation .199 7.6 Current Research Efforts and Future Outlook .201 References .202 8. Development and Utilization of Sorghum as a Bioenergy Crop .211 Ana Saballos 8.1 Introduction .211 8.2 Botanical Description of Sorghum .212 xiv Contents 8.2.1 Biology of Reproduction .214 8.3 Management .215 8.3.1 Agronomic Considerations .215 8.3.2 Pests and Diseases .217 8.3.2.1 Insect Pests .218 8.3.2.2 Diseases .220 8.3.3 Harvest and Processing Systems .221 8.4 Current Status and Future Prospects .223 8.5 Genetic Improvement of Sorghum .225 8.5.1 Genetic Resources .225 8.5.1.1 Natural Variation .225 8.5.1.2 Mutants .226 8.5.1.3 Transformation .226 8.5.1.4 Sorghum Genomics .227 8.5.2 Breeding Methods .228 8.5.3 Traits of Interest for Improvement .230 8.5.3.1 Yield .231 8.5.3.2 Stress Resistance .234 8.5.3.3 Moisture Content and Juice Extraction Efficiency .236 8.5.3.4 Conversion Efficiency of the Starch .236 8.5.3.5 Cell Wall Composition .236 8.5.3.6 Sugar Concentration .237 8.6 Conclusions .238 Acknowledgements .238 References .239 9. Genetic Improvement of Sugarcane {Saccharum spp.) as an Energy Crop .249 Thomas L. Tew andRobert M. Cobill 9.1 Introduction .249 9.2 Botanical Description of Sugarcane .249 9.2.1 Taxonomy .249 9.2.2 Sugarcane Cultivation and Harvest .251 9.2.3 Sugarcane Anatomy .252 9.2.4 Early Breeding Efforts .254 9.2.5 Genetic Improvement .255 9.3 Production Statistics .255 9.3.1 Worldwide Production Statistics .255 9.3.2 U.S. Production Statistics .256 9.4 Energy Potential of Sugarcane .256 9.4.1 Yield Potential .256 9.4.2 Actual Yields .257 9.5 Sugarcane as an Energy Crop .257 9.5.1 Sugar as a Feedstock .258 9.5.2 Sugarcane Fiber as a Feedstock .258 9.5.2.1 Composition of Sugarcane .258 Contents xv 9.5.2.2 Boiler Fuel and Cogeneration .259 9.5.2.3 Cellulosic Ethanol and Gasification .260 9.5.3 Energy Output/Input Ratio .261 9.6 Energy Cane Breeding Strategies .262 9.6.1 The Sugar Model (Status Quo) .262 9.6.1.1 Breeding for Sugar Yield and Improved Sugar Content .262 9.6.1.2 Sugarcane Breeding in Brazil .263 9.6.2 Sugar and Fiber Model .264 9.6.2.1 Type I Energy Cane Definition .264 9.6.2.2 Genetic Base Broadening .264 9.6.2.3 Caribbean and U.S. Experience .265 9.6.3 Fiber-only Model (Type II Energy Cane) .266 9.6.3.1 Type II Energy Cane Definition .266 9.6.3.2 Breeding Within Sacchamm Strictly for Fiber Content .266 9.6.3.3 Related Genera and Intergeneric Hybridization .267 9.7 Looking to the Future .267 Acknowledgements .268 References .268 10. Miscanthus: Genetic Resources and Breeding Potential to Enhance Bioenergy Production .273 John Clifton-Brown, Yu-Chung Chiang and Trevor R. Hodkinson 10.1 Introduction .273 10.2 Botanical Description oí Miscanthus .274 10.3 Agronomic Characteristics and Bioprocessing .279 10.4 Production and Utilization .281 10.5 Why use Miscanthusl .282 10.6 Genetics .283 10.6.1 Using Genetic Variation for Breeding .284 10.6.2 Traits of Interest .287 10.6.2.1 Drought Tolerance .287 10.6.2.2 Frost Tolerance and Low Temperature Growth .288 10.6.2.3 Flowering Time .288 10.6.2.4 Composition .288 10.6.2.5 Propagation .289 10.6.2.6 Pests and Disease .289 10.7 Future Outlook .290 Acknowledgements .290 References .290 11. Improvement of Switchgrass as a Bioenergy Crop .295 Joe Bouton 11.1 Introduction .295 11.2 Rationale for using Switchgrass as a Bioenergy Crop .296 xvi Contents 11.3 Botanical Description of Switchgrass.296 11.4 Management .297 11.5 Bioprocessing. 299 11.6 Breeding and Cultivar Development .300 11.6.1 Traits and Breeding Methodology .300 11.6.2 Population Improvement .301 11.6.3 Hybrids .302 11.7 Genomics and Transformation .303 11.7.1 Genomics and Trait Mapping .304 11.7.2 Tissue Culture and Transformation .305 11.8 Future Outlook and Conclusions .305 Acknowledgements .306 References .306 12. Improvement of Perennial Forage Species as Feedstock for Bioenergy .309 William F. Anderson, Michael D. Casier and Brian S. Baldwin 12.1 Introduction .309 12.2 Reed Canarygrass .310 12.2.1 Botanical Description .310 12.2.2 Management and Bioprocessing .311 12.2.3 Genetics and Breeding .311 12.2.4 Future Outlook for Reed Canarygrass .312 12.3 Alfalfa .313 12.3.1 Botanical Description .313 12.3.2 Management and Bioprocessing .314 12.3.3 Genetics and Breeding .314 12.3.4 Future Outlook for Alfalfa .316 12.4 Wildrye .316 12.4.1 Botanical Description .316 12.4.2 Management and Bioprocessing .317 12.4.3 Genetics and Breeding .317 12.4.4 Future Outlook for Wildrye .317 12.5 BigBluestem .318 12.5.1 Botanical Description .318 12.5.2 Management and Bioprocessing .319 12.5.3 Genetics and Breeding .319 12.5.4 Future Outlook for Big Bluestem .320 12.6 Bermudagrass.321 12.6.1 Botanical Description .321 12.6.2 Management and Bioprocessing .322 12.6.3 Genetics and Breeding .323 12.6.4 Future Outlook for Bermudagrass.328 12.7 Napiergrass .328 12.7.1 Botanical Description .328 12.7.2 Management and Bioprocessing .329 Contents xvii 12.7.3 Genetics and Breeding .330 12.7.4 Future Outlook for Napiergrass .333 12.8 Eastern Gamagrass .333 12.8.1 Botanical Description .333 12.8.2 Management and Bioprocessing .334 12.8.3 Genetics and Breeding .334 12.8.4 Future Outlook for Eastern Gamagrass .335 12.9 Summary .336 Acknowledgements .337 References .337 13. Genetic Improvement of Willow (Salix spp.) as a Dedicated Bioenergy Crop .347 Lawrence B. Smart and Kimberly D. Cameron 13.1 Introduction .347 13.2 Botanical Description of Willow (Salix) .348 13.2.1 Taxonomy of Species Developed as Bioenergy Crops .348 13.2.2 Willow Habitat and Growth .349 13.3 Cultivation, Harvesting, and Processing of Shrub Willow .349 13.3.1 Establishing Willow Bioenergy Crop Plantations .349 13.3.2 Willow Crop Management .352 13.3.3 Willow Biomass Harvesting, Transport, and Storage .355 13.3.4 Processing and Conversion of Willow Biomass to Electricity, Heat, and Transportation Fuels .357 13.4 Breeding and Selection of Improved Shrub Willow Varieties for Bioenergy .359 13.4.1 Pollination, Hybridization, and Seedling Propagation of Willows .359 13.4.2 Genetics of Traits Important for Improved Performance of Willow as a Bioenergy Crop .362 13.4.3 Current Breeding Efforts for the Development of Shrub Willow as an Energy Crop .363 13.4.3.1 Breeding Programs in Sweden .363 13.4.3.2 Breeding Programs in the United Kingdom .364 13.4.3.3 Breeding Programs in North America .365 13.4.4 Analysis and Genetic Modification of the Willow Genome .369 13.4 Future Outlook .370 Acknowledgements .370 References .370 14. Genetic Improvement of Poplar (Populus spp.) as a Bioenergy Crop .377 John M. Davis 14.1 Introduction .377 14.2 Botanical Description of Poplar (Populus) .378 14.2.1 Taxonomy of Populus .378 14.2.2 Propagation and Silviculture .380 xviii Contents 14.2.3 Use of Poplar for Bioenergy .383 14.3 Genetic Improvement .385 14.3.1 Genetic Parameters for Bioenergy Traits .386 14.3.2 Whole-Genome Sequence: The "Parts List" for Genetic Improvement .388 14.3.3 Trait Mapping in Pedigrees and Populations .389 14.3.4 Transgenic Alteration of Gene Expression .390 14.4 Conclusions .393 Acknowledgements .393 References .393 15. Southern Pines: A Resource for Bioenergy .397 Gary F . Peter 15.1 Introduction .397 15.2 Botanical Description of Pines: Southern Yellow Pines .398 15.2.1 Taxonomy of Species Developed for Plantation Forestry .398 15.3 Management, Harvesting, Transportation and Bioprocessing of Southern Pines .400 15.3.1 Current Southern Pine Growing Systems for Traditional Forest Products .400 15.3.2 Southern Pine Harvesting and Transport .403 15.3.3 Silvicultural Research for Short-Rotation Bioenergy Plantings .403 15.3.4 Traditional Pulp and Paper Bioprocessing Methods, Existing Infrastructure, and Integrated Forest Biorefineries .404 15.3.5 Stand-Alone Facilities for Converting Southern Pines to Energy and Fuels .405 15.4 Life History and Life Cycle of Southern Pines .406 15.5 Genetics and Breeding of Southern Pine .407 15.5.1 Genetic Diversity .407 15.5.2 Pollination, Breeding, and Propagation of Southern Pines .408 15.5.3 Genetic Improvement of Growth, Disease Resistance, and Wood Properties in Loblolly and Slash Pine .411 15.5.4 Biotechnology in Southern Pines .413 15.6 Future Outlook .414 Acknowledgements .414 References .414 List of Abbreviations .421 Index .423
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spellingShingle	Genetic improvement of bioenergy crops Alcohol as fuel Biomass energy Energy crops Genetic engineering Lignocellulose Biotechnology Pflanzenzüchtung (DE-588)4045599-3 gnd Energiepflanzen (DE-588)4473008-1 gnd
subject_GND	(DE-588)4045599-3 (DE-588)4473008-1 (DE-588)4143413-4
title	Genetic improvement of bioenergy crops
title_auth	Genetic improvement of bioenergy crops
title_exact_search	Genetic improvement of bioenergy crops
title_exact_search_txtP	Genetic improvement of bioenergy crops
title_full	Genetic improvement of bioenergy crops ed. by Wilfred Vermerris
title_fullStr	Genetic improvement of bioenergy crops ed. by Wilfred Vermerris
title_full_unstemmed	Genetic improvement of bioenergy crops ed. by Wilfred Vermerris
title_short	Genetic improvement of bioenergy crops
title_sort	genetic improvement of bioenergy crops
topic	Alcohol as fuel Biomass energy Energy crops Genetic engineering Lignocellulose Biotechnology Pflanzenzüchtung (DE-588)4045599-3 gnd Energiepflanzen (DE-588)4473008-1 gnd
topic_facet	Alcohol as fuel Biomass energy Energy crops Genetic engineering Lignocellulose Biotechnology Pflanzenzüchtung Energiepflanzen Aufsatzsammlung
url	http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=016700179&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA
work_keys_str_mv	AT vermerriswilfred geneticimprovementofbioenergycrops

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